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RKAF\FPF LHK
]KJFDEFFXFD JKXNHK PXF@A HFCFJ AKOLH[]FD
PKOFRL - OFRL
Hlsusud udtua Jkjkduol sfcfo sftu tugf
tugfss hfcfj
Jftf Auclfo PXR[AX[R HFXF
Hnskd ]kdgfjpu 9 Y[CEFOJL LDHRF, P.Pl., J.@s.
Hlsusud Ncko 9
AFXF ]KDGFDXFR
]krtfjf-tfjf, puil hfd syuaur pkducls pfdiftafd akofhlrft Xuofd \fdg Jfof Ksf,
bkraft olajft hfd fdugrfo-Dyf pkducls jfjpu jkdykcksflafd fdfclsls Rkafyfsf Lhk
Lhk ldl
hkdgfd skbfla-bfladyf. Xfa cupf pucf, pkducls jkdgu`fpafd tkrljfafslo akpfhf bfpfa
Yucefojl Ldhrf, P.Pl., J.@s skcfau hnskd pkdgfjpu jftfauclfo Ptruatur Hftf yfdg suhfo
jkjbkrlafd lcju hfd bljbldgfddyf akpfhf pkducls.
Xuiufd hfrl pkduclsfd Rkafyfsf Lhk ldl lfcfo udtua jkjkduol sfcfo sftu tugfs
jftfauclfo Ptruatur Hftf.
Hftf. ]kducls jkdyfhfrl bfowf hlhfcfj pkduclsfd Rkafyfsf Lhk
Lhk ldl
jfslo tkrhfpft bfdyfa akaurfdgfd hfd aksfcfofd, jfaf hfrl ltu pkducls bkrofrfp fgfr hnskd
pkdgfjpu jfupud pkjbf`f hfpft jkjfacujldyf.
jkjfacujldyf. Ftfs pkroftlfddyf pkducls u`fpafd
tkrljfafslo.
]kducls,
2
HFEXFR LPL
AFXF
AFXF ]KDGFDXF
]KDGFDXFR
R ......................................................................
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HFEXFR
HFEXFR LPL ...........................................
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BFB L ]KDHFO[
]KDHFO[C[FD
C[FD.......................................................................
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.......................... 8
F. Cftf
Cftfrr Bkcfafd
Bkcfafdg
g...........................................................................
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B. Ruj
Rujusfd
usfd Jfsfc
Jfsfcfo
fo................................................................
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BFB LL CFDHFPF
CFDHFPFD
D XKNRLXLP
XKNRLXLP .....................................................................................
..................................................................................... ;
F. ]kdg
]kdgkrtl
krtlfd
fd Ptf`a ..................................................................................
.................................................................................................
............... ;
B. Hka
Hkacfrfsl
cfrfsl Xujpuafd
Xujpuafd...........................................................
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................................ 5
@. Npk
Npkrfsl
rfsl Hfsfr
Hfsfr pfhf Ptf`
Ptf`a.......................
a.........................................................
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........................... 7
H. Dntfsl Frltjftla
Frltjftla .......
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K. Akck
Akckblofd
blofd hfd Akaurfdgfd
Akaurfdgfd Ptf`a.......
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BFB LU ]KD[X[]...............
]KD[X[]..................................................
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HFEXFR
HFEXFR ][PXFA
][PXFAF
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0
BFB L
]KDHFO[C[FD
F. CFXFR BKCFAFDG
Ptruatur hftf fhfcfo afrfatkrlstla yfdg tkraflt hkdgfd sleft hfd `frf pkdyljpfdfd
skafclgus pkdggudffd ftfu pkdgfasksfd hftf. Afrfatkrlstla tkrskbut jkdglaft hfd skafclgus
sk`frf tljbfc bfcla hlpkdgfruol ncko fcgnrltjf yfdg jkdgfasks hftf tkrskbut, skoldggf
hlskbutafd Fcgnrltjf hfd Ptruatur Hftf jkrupfafd sftu aksftufd. Pfcfo sftu tkadla hfsfr
tkdtfdg struatur hftf fhfcfo stf`a yfdg ckblo cfdiut fafd hlbfofs hfcfj jfafcfo ldl.
B. R[J[PFD
R[J[PFD JFPFCFO
Hfrl cftfr bkcfafdg jfsfcfo hl ftfs, jfaf jud`uc tugfs pkducls udtua jkdikcfsafd ckblo ifuo
tkdtfdg pkdgfdtfr tkadncngl ldenrjfsl.
8
BFB LL
AFILFD XKNRL
Pk`frf skhkrofdf, tujpuafd blsf hlfrtlafd skbfgfl suftu aujpucfd hftf yfdg skncfo-ncfo fhf
hftf yfdg hlcktfaafd hlftfs hftf yfdg cfld. Pftu ofc yfdg pkrcu altf ldgft fhfcfo bfowf altf
blsf jkdfjbfo (jkdylslpafd) hftf, hfd jkdgfjblc (jkdgofpus) hftf ckwft uiudg yfdg
sfjf, yfdg hlskbut skbfgfl uiudg ftfs tujpuafd (tnp ne stf`a).
@ndtno 69
Altf jkjpudyfl huf bufo antfa yfdg altf tujpua, skoldggf antfa altf cktfaafd hlftfs antfa
yfdg cfld. Ilaf akjuhlfd tujpuafd huf bufo ltu altf tfjbfo hkdgfd antfa aktlgf, akkjpft
hfd sktkrusdyf, jfaf fafd altf pkrncko skbufo tujpuafd antfa, yfdg tkrhlrl hfrl D antfa.
Hfrl gfjbfr hl bfwfo ldl altf blsf jkdgftfafd bfowf antfa B fhf hlftfs antfa F hfd fhf hl
bfwfo antfa
ant fa @. tujpuafd
t ujpuafd ofdyf blsf jkdfjbfo ftfu jkdgfjblc skbufo antfa ckwft suftu
uiudg, yfltu uiudg bfglfd ftfs. Hfpft hlcloft pucf bfowf tujpuafd jkrupfafd aujpucfd
hftf yfdg sleftdyf hldfjls, frtldyf altf blsf jkdfjbfo hfd jkdgfjblc hftf hfrldyf
Xujpuafd yfdg tkrhlrl hfrl 5 antfa Hfrl gfjbfr hlftfs, uiudg jfdfafo yfdg altf fdggfp
skbfgfl uiudg ftfstujpuafd tkrskbut > [dtua jkdifwfbdyf altf ofrus jkdkdtuafd uiudg
jfdf yfdg altf gudfafd udtua jkdgfjblc ftfu jkdylslpafd hftf yfdg bfru, hfrl gfjbfr
tujpuafd hlftfs. Altf jkdgfdgfp ftfu jkjlclo bfowf antfa E fhfcfo bfglfd ftfs hfrl
tujpuafd tkrskbut. Ilaf fhf antfa cfld yfdg fafd hlslslpafd, jfaf lf fafd hlcktfaafd hlftfs
antfa E, hfd ilaf fhf antfa yfdg fafd hlfjblc, jfaf antfa E cfo yfdg fafd hlfjblc pkrtfjf
afcl..
;
Hkdgfd jkjpkroftlafd lcustrfsl-lcustrfsl yfdg hlskbutafd jfaf altf blsf jkcloft bfowf
tujpuafd jkrupfafd suftu skdfrfl (clst) yfdg jkjpudyfl wftfa –jfsua tkrfaolr akcufr
pkrtfjf‚ ftfu (cfst elrst
elrs t nut - CLEN).
Hfcfj pkjngrfjfd, anckasl hftf yfdg bkrstruatur stf`a, hfpft hltkjpftafd hfcfj frrfy sftu
hljkdsl ftfu hfcfj cldkfr sldgcy cldakh clst. [dtua stf`a yfdg jkdggudfafd frrfy sftu
hljkdsl, altf jkdgkdfc Pldgck Ptf`a hfd Hnubck Ptf`a.
Fhfcfo stf`a yfdg tkrhlrl hfrl sftu `ncck`tlnd. Blcf stf`a tkrskbut jkdggudfafd frrfy sftu
hljkdsl.
Pftu frrfy hlgudfafd udtua huf stf`a hljfdf hfsfr stf`a 6 bkrfhf pfhf slsl ldhkas yfdg
tkrak`lc hfd hfsfr Ptf`a 2 bkrfhf pfhf slsl ldhkas yfdg tkrbksfr.
B. HKACFRFPL
HKACFRFPL X[J][AFD
kdh1
Ufr X 9 Xujpu
X ujpuafd1
afd1
Kckjkd Xujpuafd X tkrsljpfd hfcfj Cfrla X.lsl fhfcfo bkrtlpk ldtkgkr, bfdyfa kckjkd
tujpuafd jfasljuj fhfcfo skbksfr –Jfastup‚ ?= kckjkd
Ilaf X.Ftfs : ; bkrfrtl tujpuafd fhf ; kckjkd yfltu X.lslQ6Z .. X.lslQ;Z, ilaf X.Ftfs hlaurfdgl
6 skoldggf jkdifhl 8, bkrfrtl X.lslQ8Z fhfcfo kckjkd tkrftfs, skbfcladyf ilaf tujpuafd
hltfjbfo 6 bufo kckjkd jfaf X.Ftfs hltfjbfo 6 skoldggf jkdifhl 5, jfaf X.lslQ5Z fhfcfo
kckjkd tkrftfs.
5
6. @rkftkstf`a(P)
2. Jfakducc(P)
0. Kjpty
\fltu tujpuafd ansndg >, udtua jkdguil fpfafo tujpuafd ansndg ftfu tlhfa.
8. ]uso(x,P)
\fltu jkjfsuafd kckjkd bfru x aktujpuafd P. ]rnsks ][PO, tujpuafd ofrus hlpkrlasf
fpfafo iujcfo kckjkd suhfo jkd`fpfl jfasljuj ftfu tlhfa, ilaf suhfo jfaf nvkrecnw.
Npkrfsl ][PO jkrupfafd npkrfsl udtua jkdylslp ftfu jkdfjbfo kckjkd yg tkrcktfa pfhf
pnslsl pfcldg ftfs hfrl skbufo tujpuafd.
tujpuafd.
;. ]np(P)
\fltu jkdgkcufrafd kckjkd pnslsl tkrftfs pfhf tujpuafd P. ]rnsks ]N], tujpuafd ofrus
hlpkrlasf fpfafo tujpuafd suhfo ansndg/tlhfa fhf cfgl kckjkd yfdg okdhfa hlakcufrafd,
ilaf tlhfa jfaf udhkrecnw. Npkrfsl ]N] jkrupfafd npkrfsl
n pkrfsl udtua jkdgofpus
jkdgofpus kckjkd yfdg
tkrcktfa pfhf pnslsl pfcldg ftfs hfrl
hfr l skbufo tujpuafd
Pfcfo sftu jfdefft tujpuafd fhfcfo udtua jkducls Dntfsl Frltjftla, yfltu 9 Dntfsl Ldelx,
]rkelx hfd Dntfsl ]nstelx.
6. Dntfsl Ldelx
Olrfral Npkrftnr 9
6. Xfdhf aurudg 9 ( … )
)
7
0. ]krafclfd, ]kjbfglfd 9 * , /
8. ]kdiujcfofd, ]kdgurfdgfd 9 + , -
@ndtno 9 (F ‐
(F ‐ B)
B) * (@ + H)
2. Dntfsl ]rkelx
@ndtno 9 Ldelx í F + B
]rkelx í + FB (Npkrftnr Npkrfdh Npkrfdh)
0. Dntfsl ]nstelx
@ndtno 9 Ldelx í F + B
]NPXelx í FB ‐
FB ‐ (Npkrfdh
(Npkrfdh Npkrfdh Npkrftnr)
6. F+B
]kdgkriffd 6 9 F + B ]rkelxdyf 9 + FB
2. (F + B)
B) ‐
‐ (@
(@ * H)
?
6. F+B
f. ]kdgkriffd
]kdgkriffd 6 9 F + B ]rkelxdyf 9 FB+
FB+
2. (F + B)
B) ‐
‐ (@
(@ * H)
<
BFB LLL
RKAF\FPF LHK
Ptf`a fhfcfo jkrupfafd skbufo aujpucfd bkdhf hljfdf ofdyf bkdhf yfdg bfru
hljfsuaafd yfdg hfpft hlfasks ftfu hlcloft. Ptf`a iugf jkrupfafd pkrldtfo pkdgujpucfd
hftf sk`frf cldlkr
cldlkr yfdg hlskbut –cfst ld, elrst nut‚ (CLEN).
(CLEN).
Jlsfcdyf9
• Pktujpua anrfd, hljfdf anrfd yfdg pfcldg tkrfaolr hltfjbfoafd hfd hltfruo hl ftfs
tujpuafd yfdg hfpft hlcloft.
• Xujpuafd antfa rnana, anld, buau hfd cfld-cfld.
cfld -cfld.
Hfcfj lcju anjputkr, stf`a ftfu tujpuafd jkrupfafd skbufo anckasl nbika yfdg
jkdggudfafd prldslp CLEN (Cfst Ld Elrst Nut), yfltu hftf yfdg tkrfaor afcl hljfsuaafd
fafd pkrtfjf afcl akcufr hfrl stf`a tkrskbut. Ptf`a hfpft hlljpckjkdtfslafd skbfgfl
rkprkskdtfsl bkraflt ftfu andtlgu
andtlgu (hkdgfd tfbkc elx). @lrl Ptf`a 9
Kckjkd XN] (pud`fa) hlaktfoul
pkdlslpfd hfd
hfd pkdgofpusfd kckjkd skcfcu hlc
hlcfauafd
fauafd hl XN]
CLEN
]kjfdefftfd Ptf`a 9
]kroltu
]kroltudgfd
dgfd kasprksl frltjftlaf (pnselx)
fcgnrltjf bf`atrfaldg (rudut bfcla)
fcgnrltjf rkaursle
6=
@ndtno Fpclafsl 9
Ptf`a fhfcfo sfcfo sftu struatur hftf yfdg jkjlclal slstkj akrif Cfst Ld Elrst Nut
(CLEN), yfdg tkrfaolr jfsua pkrtfjf akcufr.hfpft hl gfjbfrafd skpkrtl9 sknrfdg fdfa
yfdg skhfdg jkd`u`l plrldg, plrldg yfdg hl `u`l pkrtfjf pfstl fafd hlcktfafd hl bfwfo
hfd fafd tkrus bkrcfdiut sfjpfl tujpuafd plrldg yfdg tkrfolr hl `u`l. hfd aktlaf skjuf
66
@NDXNO ]RNGRFJ 6 9
pubcl` `cfss
`cfss XnwkrNeOfdnl {
stftl` ldt iujcfoCfdgafo : =1 // hkacfrfsl iujcfo cfdgafo
stftl` ldt ldputfd:=1 // bfdyfadyf ldputfd yfdg hljfsuafd uskr
// hkacfrfsl Ptf`a udtua tnwkr Fwfr, pkrfdtfrf, hfd faolr
62
N[X][X 9
@NDXNO ]RNGRFJ 2 9
ljpnrt ifvf.ln.Buee
ifvf.ln.BueekrkhRkfhkr1
krkhRkfhkr1
ljpnrt ifvf.ln.LNKx
ifvf.ln.LNKx`kptlnd1
`kptlnd1
ljpnrt ifvf.ln.Ldpu
ifvf.ln.LdputPtrkfjRkfhkr1
tPtrkfjRkfhkr1
ljpnrt ifvf.utlc.
ifvf.utlc.Ptf`a1
Ptf`a1
pubcl` `cfss
`cfss Ptf`aHkjn {
pubcl` stftl`
stftl` vnlh jfl
jfld(PtrldgQZ
d(PtrldgQZ fr
frgs)
gs) tornws LLNKx`kptlnd
NKx`kptlnd {
// @rkftk f dkw, kjpty stf`a
Ptf`a clen : dkw Ptf`a()1
Pystkj.nut.prldtcd (":::::::::::::::::::::::::::")1
Pystkj.nut.prldtcd
Pystkj.nut.prldtcd ("::Pkcfjft Hftfdg hl ]rngrfj Ptf`a Pkhkrofdf :")1
Pystkj.nut.prldtcd (":::::::::::::::::::::::::::")1
Pystkj.nut.prldtcd (": Bkrfpf Hftf yfdg Ldgld Hljfsuaafd Akhfcfj
Ptf`a::")1
BueekrkhRkfhkr jfsua : dkw BueekrkhRkfhkr (dkw LdputPtrkfjRkfhkr
(Pystkj.ld))1
Ptrldg tkst : jfsua.rkfhCldk ()1
ldt x : Ldtkgkr.pfrskLd
Ldtkgkr.pfrskLdt(tkst)1
t(tkst)1
60
}
}
N[X][X 9
68
BFB LU
]KD[X[]
8.6 Aksljpucfd
Aksljpucfd hfrl pkjbuftfd stf`a fhfcfo bfowf
bfowf Ptf`a fhfcfo
fhfcfo suftu anckasl
anckasl
ftfu aujpucfd ltkj hftf yfdg tkrngfdlsfsl hfcfj bkdtua urutfd cldkfr, yfdg npkrfsl
pkjfsuafd hfd pkdgofpusfd hftfdyf hlcfauafd pfhf sfcfo sftu slsldyf. ]fhf stf`a,
ifrfdg skafcl hlcfauafd trfvkrsfc, afrkdf akudlafd Ptf`a iustru pfhf npkrfsl yfdg
ofdyf jkdyfdgaut kckjkd XN]. Dfjud hlbutuoafd trfvkrsfc jlsfcdyf udtua
jkd`ktfa lsl Ptf`a. ]fhf stf`a, kckjkd yfdg hlprnsks ofdyfcfo kckjkd pfhf XN].
Jfaf ofjplr tlhfa pkrdfo hlcfauafd skfr`o.
8.2 Pfrfd
]kdggudffd stf`a pfhf struatur hftf sfdgft bkrjfdefft udtua pfrf pkjrngrfj
udtua jkcfauafd suftu pkjfafld hfcfj ldenrjftlaf jlsfcdyf udtua jkrkskdpktfsl
6;
HFEXFR ][PXFAF
Rnbkrt C. Arusk, 6<<6, Hftf Ptru`turk fdh ]rngrfj Hkslgd, Dkw Hkcol9 ]rkdt
]rkdtl`k
l`k Ofcc,
Pk`ndh Khltlnd.
Pliuafdl, Jno. Ptruatur Hftf (Fcgnrltjf hfd Ptruatur Hftf 2) hkdgfd @, @++, Khlsl kjpft,
Ifafrtf9 Jltrf Wf`fdf Jkhlf, 2=6=
65