Back From Utopia: How Donbas Fighters Reinvent Themselves in a Post-Novorossiya Russia Marlene Laruelle Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 November 2019 ABSTRACT How to cope with the end of utopia? How to move from making history on a day-to-day basis to capitalizing on a legend? That is the dilemma Russian veterans of the Donbas insurgency have faced since the exalting atmosphere of Novorossiya faded away. In this article, I trace the transformations of the Novorossiya utopia from the point at which Russian volunteer fighters began to return to Russia and found themselves compelled to reinvent themselves in a new context. I first look at the difficult reconversion from war to politics of Donbas heroes such as Igor Strelkov and Aleksandr Borodai and how their efforts to launch new structures based on their war legitimacy have succeeded or failed. I then turn to investigate the birth of new heroes, such as the writer Zakhar Prilepin, who wave the metaphorical flag of Donbas at a time when exaltation of the war has declined. After that, I explore how Novorossiya has become a literature genre that occupies the shelves of Russian bookstores, spanning from Novorossievedenie—the “science of Novorossiya”—to the rich subgenre of war memoirs and veteran diaries. References Aref’ev, Egor. 2016. “Zakhar Prilepin: Kogda sidim v tanke, my vse—russkie! I buriat, i chechenets.” Komsomol’skaia pravda, November 22. https://www.kp.ru/daily/26609/3627142/.Google Scholar Artiomov, Viktor and Lubchenkov, Iurii. 2015. Rozhdenie Novorossii: Ot Ekateriny II do Aleksandra I. Moscow: Veche.Google Scholar Bagadei, Dmitri I. 2015. Kolonizatsiia Novorossiiskogo kraia, i pervye shagi ee po puti kul’tury. Moscow: Kuchkovo Pole.Google Scholar Berezin, Fedor. 2010. Ukrainskii front 2010. Moscow: Yauza.Google Scholar Bobrov, Gleb, and Berezin, Fedor. 2015. Ia dralsia v Novorossii! Sbornik. Moscow: Iuzapress.Google Scholar Boiko, Aleksandr. 2015. “Den’ Dobrovol’tsa Donbassa budut ezhegodno otmechat’ 6 maia.” Konsomol’skaia pravda, October 10. https://www.kp.ru/daily/26444.7/3314688/.Google Scholar Chebotaev, Vladimir. 2014. Novorossiia ne sdaetsia! Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar Deci, L. Edward, and Ryan, Richard M.. 2000. “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior.” Psychological Inquiry 11 (4): 227– 268.CrossRef | Google Scholar Della Porta, Donatella, and LaFree, Gary. 2011. “Processes of Radicalization and DeRadicalization.” International Journal of Conflict and Violence 6 (1): 4–10.Google Scholar Driscoll, Jesse. 2015. Warlords and Coalition Politics in Post-Soviet States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef | Google Scholar Dubovoi, Gennadii. 2017. Rytsari Novorossii: Khroniki korrespondenta legendarnogo Motoroly. Moscow: Knizhnyi mir.Google Scholar Dvizhenie Novorossiia Igoria Strelkova. 2016. “Ob itogakh vtorogo zasedaniia K25/01.” Dvizhenie Novorossiia Igoria Strelkova, February 11. http://novorossia.pro/25yanvarya/1617-ob-itogah-vtorogo-zasedaniya-k25-01.html.Google Scholar EurAsia Daily. 2015. “‘Epokha mertvorozhdennykh’: primet li Rossiia fatal’nye zhertvy russkikh Malorossii?” EurAsia Daily, September 9. https://eadaily.com/ru/news/2015/09/09/epoha-mertvorozhdennyh-primet-li-rossiya-fatalnyezhertvy-russkih-malorossii.Google Scholar Federal’noe Agentstvo Novostei. 2017. “V den’ otkrytiia Muzeia voinskoi doblesti Donbassa vyiasnilos’, kak zakryli Muzei Novorossii (FAN-TV).” Federal’noe Agentstvo Novostei, June 17. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3JLM0GPGBxY.Google Scholar Fitzsimmons, Scott. 2013. Mercenaries in Asymmetric Conflicts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar Galinov, Daniil. 2014. Boi pod Iampolem. Moscow: unknown publisher.Google Scholar Ganor, Boaz. 2002. “Defining Terrorism: Is One Man’s Terrorist Another Man’s Freedom Fighter?” Police Practice and Research: An International Journal 3 (4): 287– 304.CrossRef | Google Scholar Gubarev, Pavel. 2016. Fakel Novorossii. St. Petersburg: Piter.Google Scholar Ikorpus. 2014. “Za chto srazhaet opolchenie.” Ikorpus, July 28. http://icorpus.ru/za-chtosrazhaetsya-opolchenie/ (no longer available).Google Scholar InformNapalm. 2017. “Why Surkov Needs Private Army: Union of Donbas Volunteers (UDV) as Reserve of National Guard of Russia.” InformNapalm, April 30. https://informnapalm.org/en/surkov-needs-private-army-union-donbas-volunteers-reserverussian-guard/.Google Scholar The Insider. 2014. “Kto takoi Igor Girkin.” The Insider, July 16. http://www.theinsider.ua/politics/53c52f27b372c.Google Scholar Ishhenko, Rostislav. 2016. Galitsiia protiv Novorossii: Budushchee russkogo mira. Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar istrelkov.ru. 2017. “Igor’ Strelkov: Russkii Marsh.” istrelkov.ru, November 3. http://istrelkov.ru/interview/367-igor-strelkov-russkiy-marsh.html.Google Scholar Ivashov, Leonid. 2014. Radikal’naia doktrina Novorossii. Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar Korrespondent. 2017. “Poleznyi khaip. Kak v mire reagiruiut na Malorossiiu.” Korrespondent, July 19. https://korrespondent.net/ukraine/politics/3870063-ot-vashynhtona-do-moskvyreaktsyia-na-malorossyui.Google Scholar Krahmann, Elke. 2012. “From ‘Mercenaries’ to ‘Private Security Contractors’: The (Re)Construction of Armed Security Providers in International Legal Discourses.”Millennium— Journal of International Studies 40 (2): 343–363.CrossRef | Google Scholar Kulmala, Meri, and Tarasenko, Anna. 2016. “Interest Representation and Social Policy Making: Russian Veterans’ Organisations as Brokers between the State and Society.” Europe-Asia Studies 68 (1): 138–163.CrossRef | Google Scholar Laruelle, Marlene. 2015. “The Three Colors of Novorossiya, or the Russian Nationalist Mythmaking of the Ukrainian Crisis.” Post-Soviet Affairs 32 (1): 55–74.CrossRef | Google Scholar Leroy, Emmanuel. 2018. “Le Donbass, laboratoire du solidarisme?” Eurolibertes, April 23. http://eurolibertes.com/societe/donbass-laboratoire-solidarisme/.Google Scholar Levada Center. 2014. “Navalnyi izvestnee, Strelkov populiarnee,” Levada Center, November 7. https://www.levada.ru/2014/11/07/navalnyj-izvestnee-strelkov-populyarnee/.Google Scholar Levada Center. 2015a. “Sobytiia na vostoke Ukrainy: vnimanie i uchastie Rossii.” Levada Center, July 28. https://www.levada.ru/2015/07/28/sobytiya-na-vostoke-ukrainy-vnimanie-iuchastie-rossii/.Google Scholar Levada Center. 2015b. “Vospriatie I. Strelkova i vozmozhnogo uchastiia rukovoditelei Donbassa v rossiiskoi politike,” Levada Center, June 1. https://www.levada.ru/2015/06/01/vospriyatie-istrelkova-i-vozmozhnogo-uchastiya-rukovoditelej-donbassa-v-rossijskoj-politike/.Google Scholar Levy, Alexandre. 2018. “Les démons de Zakhar Prilepine.” Le Temps, March 16. https://www.letemps.ch/culture/demons-zakhar-prilepine.Google Scholar Lykov, Nikolai. 2014. Okhota na Bandery. Kak borolis’ s “Maidanom” v SSSR. Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar Manwaring, Max G. 2010. Gangs, Pseudo-Militaries, and Other Modern Mercenaries: New Dynamics in Uncomfortable Wars. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar McCauley, Clark, and Moskalenko, Sophia. 2008. “Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways Toward Terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 20 (3): 415– 433.CrossRef | Google Scholar McCauley, Clark, and , Sophia Moskalenko. 2011. Friction: How Radicalization Happens to Them and Us. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar McFate, Sean. 2015. The Modern Mercenary: Private Armies and What They Mean for World Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar Miller, Christopher. 2017. “Ni doblesti, ni podvigov, ni slavy. Kak zhivut v Rossii ‘veterany Donbassa.’” Nastoiashchee vremia, August 18. https://www.currenttime.tv/a/28684467.html.Google Scholar MK RU. 2017a. “Donetskii gambit Andreia Babitskogo: pochemu eks-zhurnalist radio ‘Svoboda’ podderzhal DNR.” MK RU, April 11. http://www.mk.ru/politics/2017/04/11/doneckiy-gambit-andreya-babickogo-pochemuekszhurnalist-radio-svoboda-podderzhal-dnr.html.Google Scholar MK RU. 2017b. “Zakhar Prilepin: ‘Pochemu tol’ko u menia ‘zverinyi natsionalizm’?’” MK RU, June 12. http://www.mk.ru/culture/2017/06/12/zakhar-prilepin-kak-vy-mogli.html.Google Scholar Mongait, Anna. 2015. “Belkovskii o tom, zachem Kayrov zakryl instagram, po chemy soskughilsia Ianukovich.” Dozhd’, June 23. https://tvrain.ru/teleshow/belkovskij_na_dozhde/belkovskij_o_tom_zachem_kadyrov_zakryl _instagram_p-389809/.Google Scholar Naval’nyi LIVE. 2017. “Debaty Live. Naval’nyi vs. Strelkov.” Naval’nyi LIVE, July 20. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cjbQdbJUibc.Google Scholar Novorossiia. 2018. “Soiuz Dobrovol’tsev Donbassa provel v Kaluge forum dobrovol’tsev.” Novorossiia, March 23. https://novorosinform.org/712658.Google Scholar Izvestiia, Novye. 2018. “FSB? GRU? DOSAAF?…Gde budut gotovit’ boitsov ChVK.” Novye Izvestiia, March 23. https://newizv.ru/news/politics/23-03-2018/fsb-gru-dosaaf-gde-budutgotovit-boytsov-chvk.Google Scholar NTV. 2018. “‘Voina i mir Zakhara Prilepina’. Fil’m Vladimira Chernysheva iz tsikla ‘NTVvidenie.’” NTV, June 8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T6tewt98Sb0.Google Scholar NTV. n.d. “Zakhar Prilepin. Uroki Russkogo.” NTV. http://www.ntv.ru/peredacha/Uroki_russkogo/issues/65587/?page=1.Google Scholar Padgett, John F., and McLean, Paul D.. 2006. “Organizational Invention and Elite Transformation: The Birth of Partnership Systems in Renaissance Florence,” American Journal of Sociology 111 (5): 1463–1568.CrossRef | Google Scholar Padgett, John F., and Powell, Walter W.. 2012. The Emergence of Organizations and Markets. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar Pantucci, Raffaello. 2011. “A Typology of Lone Wolves: Preliminary Analysis of Lone Islamist Terrorists.” London: The International Center for the Study of Radicalization and Political Violence.Google Scholar Pegov, Semen. 2015. Ia i ryzhii separ. Reportazh pod ‘Gradom’. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf.Google Scholar Petersohn, Ulrich. 2014. “Reframing the Anti-Mercenary Norm: Private Military and Security Companies and Mercenarism.” International Journal 69 (4): 475–493.CrossRef | Google Scholar Plekhanov, Sergei N., ed. 2014. Novorossiia. Vosstavshaia iz pepla. Moscow: Knizhnyi mir.Google Scholar Polikarpov, Mikhail. 2014. Igor Strelkov—uzhas banderovskoi khunty. Oborona Donbassa. Moscow: Knizhnyi mir.Google Scholar PolitNavigator. 2014. “Prokhanov: Borodai—syn druga Gumileva, intellektual i polevoi komandir.” PolitNavigator, May 19. http://www.politnavigator.net/prokhanov-borodajj-syndruga-gumileva-intellektual-i-polevojj-komandir.html.Google Scholar Prilepin, Zakhar. 2016. Ceux du Donbass. Chroniques d’une guerre en cours. Paris: Editions des Syrtes.Google Scholar Prilepin, Zakhar. 2017. Vzvod. Ofitsery i opolchentsy russkoi literatury. Moscow: Redatsiia Eleny Shubinoi.Google Scholar Rácz, András. 2017. “The Elephant in the Room: Russian Foreign Fighters in Ukraine.” In Not only Syria? The Phenomenon of Foreign Fighters in a Comparative Perspective, edited by K. Rekawek, 60–73. Amsterdam: ISO Press.Google Scholar RBK Daily. 2014. “Aleksandr Borodai: ‘Prosto ia, Leont’ev i Strelkov davno znakomy.” RBK Daily, May 26. http://rbcdaily.ru/politics/562949991564808.Google Scholar Russkaia sluzhba novostei. 2014. “Aleksandr Prokhanov pro Igoria Strelkova i Aleksandra Borodaia.” Russkaia sluzhba novostei, May 20. http://politland.ru/polit-shou/aleksandrprokhanov-pro-igorya-strelko.html.Google Scholar Russkii natsional’nyi front. 2014. “Sostoialas’ konferentsiia po formirovaniiu Russkogo natsional’nogo fronta.” Russkii natsional’nyi front, December 21. http://runfront.ru/posts/istoriya-sozdaniya/o-sostoyavshejsya-21-12-2014-g-konferencii-poformirovaniyu-russkogo-nacionalnogo-fronta_15052017.Google Scholar Russkoe Imperskoe Dvizhenie. 2017. “Manifest Russkogo imperskogo dvizheniia.” Russkoe Imperskoe Dvizhenie, October 4. http://rusimperia.tv/news/id31360.html.Google Scholar Sageman, Marc. 2004. Understanding Terrorist Networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar Savitskii, Georgii. 2014. Gnev Novorossii. Moscow: Yauza.Google Scholar Savitskii, Georgii. 2016. Vertoletchiki Novorossii: Daesh’ Kiev! Moscow: Yauza.Google Scholar Semenov, E. V., ed. 2017. Na perednem krae. Bitva za Novorossiiu v memuarakh ee zashchitnikov. Moscow: Traditsiia.Google Scholar Semenov-Tian-Shanskii, Piotr, Stavrovskii, Iakov, and Morachevskii, Vitalii. 2014. Malorossiia, Novorossiia, Krym: Pol’naia istoriia iuzhnogo russkogo kraia. Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar Shirokorad, Aleksandr. 2015. Bitva za Novorossiiu. Moscow: Veche.Google Scholar Shubin, Aleksandr V. 2015. Istoriia Novorossii. Moscow: Olma Media Grupp.Google Scholar Sieca-Kozlowski, Elisabeth. 2010. “Russian Military Patriotic Education: A Control Tool Against the Arbitrariness of Veterans.” Nationalities Papers 38 (1): 73–85.CrossRef | Google Scholar Smirnov, Aleksandr. 2015. Proekt Novorossiia: Istoriia russkoi okrainy. Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar Soiuz Dobrovol’tsev Donbassa. 2018. “Prazdnovanie Dnia Dobrovol’tsa v Rossii. 6 maia 2018 goda.” Soiuz Dobrovol’tsev Donbassa, May 10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWluKafxFJk.Google Scholar Luganska, Soiuz Pisatelei. 2015. Vremia Donbassa. Literatura narodnykh respublik. Lugansk: Soiuz Pisatelei Luganska. http://img.luginfo.com/a/d/Vremya_Donbassa.pdf.Google Scholar Spaaij, Ramón. 2012. Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns, Motivations and Prevention. Dortrecht: Springer.CrossRef | Google Scholar Steshin, Dmitrii. 2018. “Pisatel’ i komissar batal’ona DNR Zakhar Prilepin: Ia vernulsia s Donbassa, a ne ‘sbezhal’. I voinskii bilet ne sdal.” Konsomol’skaia Pravda, July 10. https://www.kp.ru/daily/26852/3895372/.Google Scholar Stoker, Donald J. 2008. Military Advising and Assistance: From Mercenaries to Privatization, 1815–2007. London: Routledge.Google Scholar Surnin, Aleksandr. 2015. Materialy dlia noveishei istorii Novorossii. Moscow: Quadrivium.Google Scholar Surygin, Vladislav. 2015. Kak voiuiut na Donbasse. Moscow: Algoritm.Google Scholar Union, TK. 2017. “Muzei voinskoi doblesti Donbassa snova otkryt v Pitere. 20.06.2017, ‘Panorama.’” TK Union, June 20. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Am4a92ELlPE.Google Scholar Tsyganok, Anatolii. 2017. Donbass: Neokonchennaia voina. Grazhdanskaia voina na Ukraine (2014–2016): Russkii vzgliad. Moscow: AIRO-XXI.Google Scholar TV Center. 2018. “Zakhar Prilepin. Pravo znat’!” TV Center, June 2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BvvubT5K9NI.Google Scholar Weimann, Gabriel. 2014. “Virtual Pack of Wolves: How the Internet Made ‘Lone Wolf’ Terrorism a Misnomer.” Medium, February 25. https://medium.com/p/17b12f8c455a.Google Scholar Access Full Article Online