Advances in Manufacturing Engineering and Materials

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Sergej Hloch
Dagmar Klichová
Grzegorz M. Krolczyk
Somnath Chattopadhyaya
Lucie Ruppenthalová Editors
Advances in
Manufacturing
Engineering and Materials
Proceedings of the International
Conference on Manufacturing
(ICMEM 2018), 18–22 June, 2018,
Nový Smokovec, Slovakia
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) publishes the latest develop-
ments in Mechanical Engineering—quickly, informally and with high quality.
Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core
of LNME. Also considered for publication are monographs, contributed volumes
and lecture notes of exceptionally high quality and interest. Volumes published in
LNME embrace all aspects, subfields and new challenges of mechanical
engineering. Topics in the series include:
• Engineering Design
• Machinery and Machine Elements
• Mechanical Structures and Stress Analysis
• Automotive Engineering
• Engine Technology
• Aerospace Technology and Astronautics
• Nanotechnology and Microengineering
• Control, Robotics, Mechatronics
• MEMS
• Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
• Dynamical Systems, Control
• Fluid Mechanics
• Engineering Thermodynamics, Heat and Mass Transfer
• Manufacturing
• Precision Engineering, Instrumentation, Measurement
• Materials Engineering
• Tribology and Surface Technology
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11236

Sergej Hloch Dagmar Klichová
•
Grzegorz M. Krolczyk Somnath Chattopadhyaya

•
Lucie Ruppenthalová
Editors
Advances in Manufacturing
Proceedings of the International Conference
on Manufacturing Engineering and Materials
(ICMEM 2018), 18–22 June, 2018, Nový
Smokovec, Slovakia
123
Editors
Sergej Hloch Somnath Chattopadhyaya
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies Indian School of Mines (ISM)
Technical University of Košice with a seat in Indian Institute of Technology
Prešov Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
Prešov, Slovakia
Lucie Ruppenthalová
Dagmar Klichová Institute of Geonics of the CAS
Institute of Geonics of the CAS Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Grzegorz M. Krolczyk
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Opole University of Technology
Opole, Poland
ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-99352-2 ISBN 978-3-319-99353-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018952477
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
It is very delightful for us to write the introduction to this volume of Lecture Notes of
Mechanical Engineering with subtitle “Advances in Manufacturing Engineering and
Materials”. This volume comprises the papers presented during the International
Conference on Manufacturing Engineering and Materials, held from 18 to 22 June
2018, in Nový Smokovec and organised by the Faculty of Manufacturing
Technologies TUKE in Prešov, under the auspices of the Dean of the Faculty
Dr. h. c. Prof. Ing. Jozef Zajac, PhD., in collaboration with the Institute of Geonics
of the CAS in Ostrava-Poruba, under the auspices of its Director Ing. Josef Foldyna,
CSc., Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad,
India, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at Opole University of Technology,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod under auspices of dean
Prof. Dr. Sc. Ivan Samardzić the TEAM International Society, under the auspices
of the President Prof. dr. sc. Dražan Kozak with the further cooperation of
Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University and Istanbul Medipol
University.
The conference captures various aspects of progress in the (un)conventional
manufacturing technologies contributing to the increase of competitiveness of
industry with regard to the sustainable development, preservation of the environ-
ment and natural resources. The main spirit of the conference is Your Science=Our
Future. The conference aims at creating synergies of “practice and research”
increasing the potential and commercial viability of research and development in
the field of advanced technologies and materials in industries. The conference was
attended by delegates from 18 countries around the world (Austria, Croatia, Czech
Republic, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, India, Italy, Iran, Korea, Poland,
Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey). For the motivation of the
researchers, a competition for the best scientific research work in two areas, i.e.
water jet technology and conventional technologies, endowed with €300, €200 and
€100, has been organised during the conference. The competition was financially
supported by two companies from Germany: ANT—Applied New Technologies
and Company Klenk in Balzheim (toolmaker). In addition to the accepted papers,
the following prominent researches from renowned research institutions have been
v
vi Preface
invited to give keynote lectures in their respective fields of competence: vice-rector

Prof. Dr.Sc. Dražan Kozak from J. J. Strossmayer University in Osijek, Prof. Dr.
Frank Pude from Steinbeis Consulting Centre High-Pressure Waterjet Technology,
Prof. Dr. Jan Olaf and Prof. Dr. Manfred Schlatter both from Baden-Wuerttemberg
Cooperative State University Loerrach, Germany, Mr. Martin Marek from
EuroVienna, Dr. Witold Habrat from Rzeszow University of Technology, Poland,
Prof. Somnath Chattopadhyaya from Indian Institute of Technology Dhanbad, Prof.
Alessandro Ruggiero from University of Salerno, Prof. Hakan Tozan from Medipol
University and vice-rector Prof. Petr Valášek from University of Life Sciences.
A special thanks also go to Dr. Dagmar Klichová and Dr. Lucie Ruppenthalová
from the Institute of Geonics of the CAS, v.v.i, Ostrava-Poruba, for their help in
formatting of the papers. We are also very grateful to Miss Leontina Di Cecco and
Miss Divya Meiyazhagan from Springer (Lecture Notes in Mechanical
Engineering) for their endless patience during processing of this book.
The winners of the best paper are:
Water Jet Technology supported by ANT Company
Gold Award: Madhulika Srivastava from Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology Dhanbad, India
Silver Award: Dr. Jiří Klich and Dr. Petr Hlaváček both from the Institute of
Geonics of the CAS, v.v.i, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Bronze Award: Dr. Dominika Lehocká from Faculty of Manufacturing
Technologies TUKE with a seat in Prešov and Dr. Michal Zeleňák from the
Institute of Geonics of the CAS, v.v.i, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Conventional Machining supported by KLENK Company:
Gold Award: Fabian Lissek from Institute of Production Engineering and

Materials Testing, Ulm University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Silver Award: Dr. Radoslaw Maruda, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Zielona Gora
Bronze Award: Dr. Witold Habrat, Rzeszow University of Technology, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics
Moreover, it is also a pleasure to acknowledge the support of Illimité, Lemur,

Technická Diagnostika, Prešov and media support Strojarstvo/Strojirenstvi, the
portal Veda na dosah and Vedecký kaleidoskop. The organizers hope that this
conference is a great opportunity for useful exchange of scientific opinions among
participants with a greater impact on the international platform of the related fields.
The book contains the collection of the rigorously peer-reviewed papers pre-
sented at the ICMEM 2018 reflecting the ideas of the researchers from all over the
world. It includes various aspects of the advancements in the field of manufacturing
processes and materials that can be practically used by the industries for better
growth.
Preface vii
Smooth running of the ICMEM 2018 can be hardly imagined without the
proactive work of Management of Atrium Hotel especially. A big thanks go to
director of the hotel and event manager Mgr. Miška Žembová, the stuff of the hotel.
Big thanks go to Mgr. Ľubica Ferencová, MSc. Daniela Hatalová and MSc. Alena
Mihaľovová from Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies, for their administration
backup and to Dr. Svetlana Radchenko for arranging of Faculty brochures for
participants.
Moreover, I would like to thank, namely to two persons, MSc. Beáta Puobišová
(Scientific Toy) and MSc. Michal Figura (Magical Physics). Many of us understood
how important is science popularisation not only for children. Everybody knows
that currently words such as Mathematics and Physics have become the worst
words ever. If you remember words from keynote address of Prof. Dražan Kozak,
there is direct correlation between economic growth and education within STEM
(science, technology, engineering and mathematics). I think MSc. Beáta Puobišová
and MSc. Michal Figura remind us how curiosity in the students can be awakened
and how important it is. This part was finacially supported by Technická diag-
nostika, s.r.o in Prešov. Thanks also belong to Ing. Eugen Knotek, PhD., from
Vysoke Tatry town for his opening speech.
Sergej Hloch
Contents
Invited Papers
Study Programs in STEM Field in Eastern European
Countries vs. Brain Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Dražan Kozak
Manufacturing in Times of Digital Business and Industry 4.0 -
The Industrial Internet of Things Not Only Changes the World
of Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Jan M. Olaf and Eckhart Hanser
A New Method for Gear Chamfering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Manfred Schlatter and Niklas Müller
Water Jet Technology Session

New Approach of Recycling of Abrasives for Water Jet Cutting . . . . . . 29
Miroslav Duspara, Tomislav Palatinuš, Dejan Marić, Ivan Samardžić,
Željko Ivandić, and Antun Stoić
The Use of Areal Parameters for the Analysis of the Surface
Machined Using the Abrasive Waterjet Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Dagmar Klichová, Jiří Klich, and Tomáš Zlámal
Research on Water Jet Cutting of Polymer Composites Based
on Epoxy/Waste Fibres from Coconut Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Müller Miroslav, Valášek Petr, Novotný Jan, Ruggiero Alessandro,
D’Amato Roberto, and Habrová Karolína
Recent Developments in Pulsating Water Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Josef Foldyna
Investigation on Pulsating Liquid Jet with Physiological Saline
on Aluminium Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Akash Nag, Sergej Hloch, Amit Rai Dixit, and Dominik Cuha
ix
x Contents
Parametric Study During Abrasive Water Jet Turning of Hybrid

Metal Matrix Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Ashish Kumar Srivastava, Akash Nag, Amit Rai Dixit, Sandeep Tiwari,
and Vishal Shankar Srivastava
Effect of Frequency Change During Pulsed Waterjet Interaction
with Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Madhulika Srivastava, Sergej Hloch, Miroslav Muller,
Monika Hromasová, Jaromír Cais, Somnath Chattopadhyaya,
Amit Rai Dixit, and Jiří Klich
Microstructure, Properties and Damage Mechanisms by Water
Jet Cutting of TiB2-Ti Cermets Prepared by SPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Viktor Puchý, Martin Fides, Róbert Džunda, Richard Sedlák,
Jaroslav Kováčik, Sergej Hloch, Petr Hlaváček, and Pavol Hvizdoš
Investigation on Feed Rate Influence on Surface Quality in Abrasive
Water Jet Cutting of Composite Materials, Monitoring Acoustic
Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Ioan Alexandru Popan, Vlad Bocanet, Nicolae Balc, and Alina Ioan Popan
Comparison of Non-destructive Sensing Methods on Surface
Created by Waterjet Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Jiří Klich, Dagmar Klichová, and Kamil Souček
Investigation of Limestone Cutting Efficiency by the Abrasive
Water Suspension Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Andrzej Perec
Erosion Test with High-speed Water Jet Applied on Surface
of Concrete Treated with Solution of Modified Lithium Silicates . . . . . . 135
Petr Hlaváček, Libor Sitek, Rudolf Hela, and Lenka Bodnárová
Analysis of Micro Continuous Water Jet Based on Numerical
Modelling and Flow Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Michal Zelenak, Zdenek Riha, Kamil Soucek, and Frank Pude
An Acoustic Emission Study of Rock Disintegration
by Pulsating Water-Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Rupam Tripathi, Sergej Hloch, Somnath Chattopadhyaya, Pavel Adamcik,
and Alok Kumar Das
Evaluation of Possibility of AISI 304 Stainless Steel Mechanical
Surface Treatment with Ultrasonically Enhanced Pulsating Water Jet . . . 163
Dominika Lehocká, Vladimír Simkulet, Jiří Klich, Zdeněk Štorkan,
Lucie Krejčí, Ján Kepič, and Jaroslav Birčák
Non–traditional Machining of Inconel 600 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fuat Kartal and Sergej Hloch
Contents xi
(Un)conventional Technology Session

Mapping Requirements and Roadmap Definition for Introducing I 4.0
in SME Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Vladimir Modrak, Zuzana Soltysova, and Robert Poklemba
Dimensional Characterization of Prosthesis Bearings
for Tribological Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Roberto D’Amato, Roque Calvo, Massimiliano Merola, Petr Valášek,
and Miroslav Müller
Accelerated Method of Cutting Tool Quality Estimation
During Milling Process of Inconel 718 Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Witold Habrat, Krzystof Krupa, and Nikolaos E. Karkalos
An Investigation on Tool Flank Wear Using Alumina/MoS2
Hybrid Nanofluid in Turning Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Anuj Kumar Sharma, Rabesh Kumar Singh, Amit Rai Dixit,
Arun Kumar Tiwari, and Mahip Singh
Additive Printing of Gold Nanoparticles on Paper Substrate
Through Office Ink-Jet Printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Mohammed Shariq, Amit Rai Dixit, Rupert Kargl,
Somnath Chattopadhyaya, Meduri Venkata Sridutt,
Pasagada Venkata Keerti Vardhan, and Rebeka Rudolf
Preliminary Study on Staggered Herringbone Micromixer
Design Suitable for Micro EDM Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Izidor Sabotin, Gianluca Tristo, Andrej Lebar, Marko Jerman,
Miha Prijatelj, Pavel Drešar, and Joško Valentinčič
Experimental Analysis of the Cutting Force Components
in Laser-Assisted Turning of Ti6Al4V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Witold Habrat, Krzysztof Krupa, Piotr Laskowski, and Jan Sieniawski
Critical Failure Analysis of Lower Grinding Ring of Ball
and Race Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Gagan Kumar Guptaa and Somnath Chattopadhyayab
The Influence of the Application of EP Additive in the Minimum
Quantity Cooling Lubrication Method on the Tool Wear
and Surface Roughness in the Process of Turning 316L Steel . . . . . . . . 254
Radoslaw W. Maruda, Stanislaw Legutko, Jolanta B. Krolczyk,
Szymon Wojciechowski, and Wlodzimierz Kot
Time-Dependent Feed Force Modelling to Apply Feed Rate Strategies
in the Drilling of Unsupported CFRP-Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fabian Lissek, Sergej Hloch, and Michael Kaufeld
xii Contents
Recognition of Assembly Parts by Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . 281

Kamil Židek, Alexander Hosovsky, Jan Piteľ, and Slavomír Bednár
The Use of Technology Local Heating by Laser for Turning
of Difficult to Machine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Jakub Mesicek, Jana Petru, Tomas Zlamal, Marek Pagac, Jiri Sedivy,
Ondrej Vortel, and Lukas Drabek
Contributions to the Development of an Ontology in Logistics
of Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Nicolae Stelian Ungureanu, Adrian Petrovan, and Miorita Ungureanu
Advanced Output Characteristics of Welding Power Source
for Pulsed GMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Krzysztof Makles, Jerzy Winczek, and Marek Gucwa
Investigation of the Effect of Johnson-Cook Constitutive Model
Parameters on Results of the FEM Turning Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Piotr Löschner and Krzysztof Jarosz
Comparative Analysis of Surface Finishing for Different
Cutting Strategies of Parts Made from POM C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Nicolae Panc, Glad Contiu, and Vlad Bocanet
Investigation of the Effect of Process Parameters on Surface
Roughness in EDM Machining of ORVAR® Supreme Die Steel . . . . . . 333
Krzysztof Jarosz, Piotr Nieslony, and Piotr Löschner
The Influence of EP/AW Addition in the MQL Method on the
Parameters of Surface Geometrical Structure in the Process
of Turning 316L Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Radoslaw W. Maruda, Szymon Wojciechowski, Grzegorz M. Krolczyk,
Danil Yu Pimenov, and Stanislaw Legutko
Change of the Substrate Surface After Removal Multiple
Plasma Spraying Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Jozef Kužma, Michal Krescanko, and Sergej Hloch
Tool Wear Measurement in Single Point Incremental Forming . . . . . . . 362
Manish Oraon and Vinay Sharma
Materials
Increasing Compressor Wheel Fatigue Life Through Residual
Stress Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Simon M. Barrans, Andrew Thompson, and John Allport
Contents xiii
Preliminary Study of Residual Stress Measurement Using Eddy

Currents Phasor Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Frantisek Botko, Jozef Zajac, Andrej Czan, Svetlana Radchenko,
Vladimir Simkulet, Pavol Radic, and Jaroslav Bircak
Forces and Process Dynamics in Profiling of AlCu4MgSi
Aluminium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Eugene Feldshtein and Piotr Nieslony
A Polyurethane/Carbon Black Composite Absorber for Low
Frequency Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Mustafa Yagimli, Hakan Tozan, H. Ergin Esen, and Emin Arca
The Effect of Additional Shielding Gas on Properties and Erosion
Resistance of High Chromium Hardfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Marek Gucwa, Milos Mičian, Krzysztof Makles, and Jerzy Winczek
Analysis of the Legal Risk in the Scientific Experiment
of the Machining of Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Dorota Habrat, Dorota Stadnicka, and Witold Habrat
Prediction of Tensile Failure Load for Maraging Steel Weldment
by Acoustic Emission Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Gowri Shankar Wuriti, Tessy Thomas, and Somnath Chattopadhyaya
Measurements of the Friction Coefficient: Discussion on the Results
in the Framework of the Time Series Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Alessandro Ruggiero, Roberto D’Amato, Roque Calvo, Petr Valašek,
and Nicolae Ungureanu
Experimental Description of the Aging of the Coconut Shell
Powder/Epoxy Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Karolína Habrová, Petr Valášek, Miroslav Müller, Robert DÁmato,
and Alessandro Ruggiero
Fluid Film Pressure Description in Finite Turbulent Lubricated
Journal Bearings by Using the Warner’s Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Alessandro Ruggiero, Roberto D’Amato, and Nicolae Ungureanu
Influence of Processing Parameters on Residual Stress
in Injection Molded Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Przemyslaw Poszwa, Pawel Muszynski, Pawel Brzek,
and Krzysztof Mrozek
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) as a Potential Damper in Structural
Vibration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Sekhar Chandra Dutta and Rohan Majumder
xiv Contents
Study of Cutting Tool Durability at a Short-Term Discontinuous

Turning Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Peter Pastucha, Vidosav Majstorovic, Marián Kučera, Pavel Beno,
and Srecko Krile
Behavior of the Beam with a Lightweight Porous Structure
in Its Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Jozef Tkáč and Martin Pollák
Advanced Preparation of the NC Programs with Usage
of Strategy Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Tomáš Dodok, Nadežda Čuboňová, and Ivan Kuric
Modeling and Validation of Spindle Shaft Followed by Goal
Driven Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Kahane Roshan, Somnath Chattopadhyaya, Shrikant Bhise,
and Dattatraya Parle
Modeling and Simulation of Technological Factors
in Bakery Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Adrian Dan Pop, Gabriel Rus, and Raul Florentin Drența
Numerical Study of Rapid Cooling of Injection Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Pawel Muszynski, Przemyslaw Poszwa, and Pawel Brzek
Influence of Fill Imbalance on Pressure Drop in Injection Molding . . . . 548
Przemyslaw Poszwa, Pawel Brzek, Pawel Muszynski, and Marek Szostak
Assessment of the Production Reducer for Clamping
the Drilling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Peter Michalik, Vieroslav Molnár, Martin Ambrozy, Michal Petruš,
and Peter Tirpak
Evaluation of Damage of Almandine Garnet Grains
by N2 Adsorption Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Lucie Ruppenthalova, Petr Martinec, and Lucie Gurková
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Invited Papers
Study Programs in STEM Field in Eastern
European Countries vs. Brain Drain
Dražan Kozak(&)
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,

Trg Sv. Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
drazan.kozak@unios.hr
Abstract. Smart countries encourage students to enroll study programs in so-

called STEM field in order to assure direct positive influence on their own
economies. However, if students complete their study in Eastern European
countries, how can those countries prevent their STEM graduates to find job in
other well-developed countries, as their knowledge is relevant globally? In cases
of brain drain, are the STEM studies financially supported by governments an
investment or a cost? Should these governments still increase the enrollment
quota for STEM field study programs by counting on income contribution from
those graduates from abroad?
Keywords: STEM study programs Graduates Eastern Europe

Brain drain
1 Introduction
1.1 Why Is STEM Important?
STEM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics and refers to any
subject that refers to these four disciplines. Sometimes, this abbreviation is extended by
A, standing for Arts and design, to form STEAM, which refers to the following
characteristics: creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication. Nowa-
days, governments and universities around the world prioritize enrollment of students
to STEM studies, in order to address this shortfall. In some cases, it is also easier for
STEM graduates to immigrate to another country and to look for a job in that field [1].
Over the last decade, this situation has become usual in the Eastern European countries,
as they are less developed than Western Europe countries. Special attention has been
paid to encourage more female students to choose a STEM degree. This is why
decision makers introduced policies aimed at increasing the proportion of women
choosing to study in these areas. Out of 12% of women in bachelor programs who get a
STEM degree each year, only 3% of them find job in the STEM field [1].
There is constant increase in numbers of STEM graduates in the EU countries.
Nowadays, their share is about 23%, with the largest records in Austria, Sweden,
Germany and Finland. Similar situation is in the United States and Japan (22%).
According to the PISA tests (Program for International Student Assessment), almost
every fifth scholar in the EU still has no adequate knowledge from these basic fields

S. Hloch et al. (Eds.): ICMEM 2018, LNME, pp. 3–10, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_1
4 D. Kozak
(18%), while this is less present in Korea (7%) or in Japan (8%). In the period from
2003 to 2013, total growth of employees who graduated in some STEM subject
increased for even 12% in the EU (1.8 million of people), while the total growth of
employees was bigger for only 4%. However, there is the issue of relatively small
number of jobs (only 7% of total amount). The percentage of unemployed STEM
graduates is less than 5%. There is continuous lack of engineers on the labor market, so
80% of companies indicate that hiring the right engineers will be either highly or very
crucial for the future success of their business [2] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Ability to hire the right engineering staff by geography [2].
Expected growth of job positions in STEM issues as projected by the U.S.

Department of Labor in 2012–2022 is given in the Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. STEM job growth as projected by the U.S. Department of Labor.

Study Programs in STEM Field in Eastern European Countries vs. Brain Drain 5
It is evident that there is a great demand at the labor market for graduates in STEM
field. Therefore, it makes sense to increase the number of students who enroll the
STEM study programs. However, if tuition fees are covered by government, as it is the
case in Croatia, and if the graduates have no obligations towards the home country after
graduation, this approach becomes questionable. If so, unconditional studying for free
enables the graduates to search for a job position in another more developed country
without any obligation to the government. By losing the best engineers, mathemati-
cians, physicists and other qualified graduates, these already less developed countries
become poorer and this causes further economic inequality between countries. This is
even more emphasized if a country is not ensuring sufficient funds for the research and
development (R&D), and if there is not enough researchers.
2 The Role and Responsibility of the Government

and the Academic Community
2.1 Investment to R&D

Global spending on R&D has reached a record high of almost US$ 1.7 trillion. About
10 countries account for 80% of spending. As part of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), countries have pledged to increase substantially public and private R&D
spending, as well as the number of researchers by 2030. The available data from the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is monitoring progress globally towards this key
SDG target. To evaluate a country’s commitment to R&D, look at spending as a
percentage of GDP in Fig. 3 [4]. In Croatia, there are only 1.437 researchers per one
million inhabitants. It invests 0.8% of its GDP to R&D, which positions the country
significantly below the average of EU countries. On the other hand, in the neighboring
Slovenia, there are 4.149 researchers per one million inhabitants, and the country
invests even 3 times more funds to R&D than Croatia.
Fig. 3. Researchers per million inhabitants vs. R&D expenditure as % of GDP [4].
6 D. Kozak
In 2016, the gross domestic product (GDP) of the European Union (EU) amounted
to € 14.800 billion (bn) at current prices. Over half of it was generated by three EU
member states: Germany, the United Kingdom and France [5]. With a GDP worth €
3.100 bn in 2016, Germany was the leading EU economy, accounting for over a fifth
(21.1%) of EU GDP. It was followed by the United Kingdom (16.0%), France (15.0%),
Italy (11.3%), Spain (7.5%) and the Netherlands (4.7%).
At the opposite end of the scale, eleven EU member states had a GDP of less than
1% of the EU total. These countries were Malta, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Slovenia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Slovakia and Hungary (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Share in EU GDP total, 2016 (%) [5].
As presented in the Fig. 4, Croatia and Slovenia have practically similar portion in
GDP of EU28, but Slovenia has only about half of the population of Croatia. With
almost 3 times higher relative number of researchers and investment to R&D than
Croatia, Slovenian government sets the goals to promote high-tech industry and to
become a modern society. It sounds attractive also for the graduates from other
countries to find a job in Slovenia. There is a clear dependence of the present GDP
growth and R&D investment in the previous period, as presented in the Fig. 5. One can
expect direct correlation of the economic recovery and investment to R&D.
Fig. 5. Impact of R&D on economic recovery.
2.2 Correlation Between Scientific Potential and GDP on the Example

of Croatia
It would be useful to find out a function between the research potential of a region and
its economic growth. The idea is to correlate the number of defended doctoral dis-
sertations by Croatian counties in the period 2000–2012 (6.888 in total) and their
influence on GDP in 2015. The most of PhD holders (4.014) live and work in the
Zagreb area [6] (Fig. 6). In the stated period, the overall contribution of new PhD
graduates to the labor active population in the Zagreb area was approx. 0.64%, whereas
in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County and Istrian County, being the two relatively well
developed Croatian regions, this percentage was approx. 0.26%. Surface area of circles
in the Fig. 6 is proportional to the number of PhD graduates. On the other hand,
Croatian counties with the biggest universities (Zagreb, Rijeka, Osijek and Split) have
higher value of GDP per capita, as presented in the Fig. 7. Four smaller public uni-
versities located in Zadar, Pula, Dubrovnik and Varaždin also affect GDP per capita to
be higher than in some less developed regions in Croatia. It is a magic circle, in which
the total GDP depends on the investments into R&D, on the number of researchers
(defended doctoral dissertations) and graduates in STEM field. All these parameters
have an impact on the economy.
One of the reasons for Croatian uncompetitive economy is that only 40% of stu-
dents study and graduate in the STEM field. As of the Fig. 8, the number of students in
some scientific field is presented by percentages [8]. It is obvious that almost half of
student population in Croatia study social sciences (economics) (47%). This is twice as
8 D. Kozak
Fig. 6. Doctors of science (PhDs) by county of permanent residency that graduated in 2000–
2012 at Croatian universities [6].
Fig. 7. Gross domestic product per capita in Croatian counties in 2015 [7].
many students than in the technical sciences (20%), and six times more than the
percentage of students in biomedicine and health (8%). The percentages of students in
natural and biotechnical sciences are similar (4% and 5%, respectively), but the total
number of students in these two scientific areas does not exceed 10%.
Fig. 8. Percentage of students in different scientific areas in Croatia in the academic year
2015/2016 [8].
A share of only 40% of students/graduates in STEM field cannot make Croatian

industry competitive enough, even more so if knowing that the best graduates find
employment in developed Western European countries. This is not sustainable in the
long term, and Croatian government has to find ways to make job positions more
attractive both from the aspects of economic benefits and carrier development oppor-
tunities. Otherwise, the country will lose young perspective experts forever. There is no
clear records and statistics of how many graduates already left the country. In addition,
not much is done to open the labor market and to attract the work force from countries
than are less developed than Croatia. There are also no actions undertaken to assure the
return of economic emigrants.
3 Conclusions
The paper presents some correlations between the investments into R&D and the
number of researchers/doctors of science/graduates, especially in STEM field, and their
influence on the GDP growth. These correlations have been elaborated on the example
of Croatia as an Eastern European country. There is a constant increase in number of
young STEM graduates who seek employment abroad, still the Croatian government is
not offering solution to such occurrences. This presents the threat to the economic
stability of the country, as its competitiveness decreases. As the industry lacks the work
force, it needs to attract workers from countries that are less developed than Croatia.
There is a crucial question of tuition-free studying in Croatia and of increasing of quota
in STEM field, thus increasing the number of STEM graduates without any obligation
to the government after their studies. Another issue is referring to what kind of
10 D. Kozak
measures should be undertaken by the Croatian government to make the job positions
more attractive not just for domestic graduates, but also for foreigners.
References
1. https://www.topuniversities.com/courses/engineering/what-stem. Accessed 24 May 2018
2. Close the Engineering Skills Gap, © Tech-Clarity, Inc. (2017)
3. Blog of The State University of New York. https://blog.suny.edu/2014/04/new-york-
schoolkids-urged-to-focus-on-high-growth-career-tracks/. Accessed 23 May 2018
4. http://uis.unesco.org/apps/visualisations/research-and-development-spending. Accessed 23
May 2018
5. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents. Accessed 23 May 2018
6. Croatian Bureau of Statistics. www.dzs.hr. Accessed 21 May 2018
7. Croatian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.dzs.hr/Hrv_Eng/publication/2018/12-01-03_01_
2018.htm. Accessed 18 May 2018
8. https://www.azvo.hr/images/stories/publikacije/Analysis_of_the_five-year_cycle_of_re-accre
ditation_of_HEIs.pdf. Accessed 26 May 2018
Manufacturing in Times of Digital Business
and Industry 4.0 - The Industrial Internet
of Things Not Only Changes the World
of Manufacturing
Jan M. Olaf(&) and Eckhart Hanser
University Center IT Management and Computer Science, Baden-Wuerttemberg

Cooperative State University (DHBW), Lörrach, Germany
olaf@dhbw-loerrach.de
Abstract. Digital business and Industry 4.0 have already significantly changed
the world of manufacturing. Data related to the machines as well as process data
from the manufacturing lines serve to install powerful applications and services
within the entire manufacturing ecosystem. The article provides an overview on
several methods used in the manufacturing with respect to process efficiency and
reliability as well as quality management. Methods used today often have been
designed many years ago but due to increasing computer power and IT capa-
bilities at reasonable costs they evolve as success factor in digital business.
Keywords: Industry 4.0 Industrial internet of things

Manufacturing ecosystem Integration platform IT requirements
Data reliability Predictive maintenance
1 Introduction
Since its first appearance less than ten years ago the digital transformation has evolved
into a driver regarding both, business and private life. It has become a major buzzword
and a hype which itself was driven by technology and technical improvements in
computerization, increasing processor capabilities and network capacities at decreasing
prices at the same time. Thus, methods even well-known from the past have experi-
enced a revival on the base of these new technical capabilities. They are coming along
with new methods being developed in the context of digital business.
The German term “Industry 4.0” invented some seven years ago characterizes the
fourth industrial revolution [1, 2] and in the meantime it is recognized worldwide as
a synonym of industrial internet of things (IIoT).
Industry 4.0 in a literal sense focuses the industry’s digital transformation, however,
it is widely used outside industry as well. Regarding manufacturing the industrial
internet of things covers the overall manufacturing ecosystem (Fig. 1) including
external partners like suppliers, service providers and customers as well as processes
such as procurement, logistics and intralogistics, industrial engineering, quality man-
agement and assets services and maintenance etc.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_2
12 J. M. Olaf and E. Hanser
Fig. 1. Manufacturing ecosystem.
Even the product itself becomes part of the manufacturing ecosystem since its
intelligence – either intrinsic by integrated processors or extrinsic e.g. by intelligent
workpiece carriers – enables the product to communicate with the production line thus
upscaling the product to a “smart product”.
2 IoT Impact on Manufacturing Ecosystem
2.1 Production Logistics

In the area of intralogistics and materials handling it is obvious that smart assistants and
robots help increasing efficiency and improving process quality. Robot carriers help
moving raw parts from stock to the production line and finished parts vice versa. These
driverless robots are equipped with networked sensors and operate autonomously
without any track-guiding [3]. It is even possible to move the complete shelve from
stock to the production line, in order to keep local stock in the production as low as
possible [4].
If the raw material is available at the line mounting and feeding the machine is
assisted using augmented reality methods by either projecting the “how-to information”
directly to the working space or using augmented reality devices for projection of
indicators, signs, or entire holograms. Thus, by intelligent assistants even unskilled
workers will be enabled to perform mounting and loading [5, 6]. By motion capturing
the operator can be controlled and guided. Sometimes, this even will be cheaper than
installing a fully automated robot solution.
Manufacturing in Times of Digital Business and Industry 4.0 13
2.2 Manufacturing
When investigating IoT solutions in manufacturing the first ideas that come to mind are
those of increasing process efficiency, agility and flexibility. “Lot-size 1 by methods of
mass production” is the embodiment for industry 4.0 [7]. It leads to agility and flex-
ibility in production to be prepared to react promptly to customer’s demands. However,
it induces a highly intelligent and automated manufacturing processes with minimized
manual work and tooling times. Nowadays this can be compared to the crowning of the
smart factory initiatives as described in detail by Soder [8]. Obviously, it cannot be
substitute to it but the prosecution and it will only deliver best output if it is applied to
lean production processes. First of all muda has to be eliminated from the process
before intelligent automation and IoT methods and tools are introduced. Usually, cyber
physical production systems (CPPS) serve to integrate both, physical processes in
combination with computational intelligence and networking capabilities (CPS) on the
one hand side and manufacturing science and technology on the other. Together with
comprehensive process and system data these CPPS set up the digital twin of the
system, production line, or plant. Digital twins serve to simulate processes, systems’
operation, or e.g. the cooperation of humans and machines.
However, setting up of industry 4.0 environments in existing plants may raise
unexpected problems, e.g. when the existing machines are not suitable for integration
and can only be upgraded in the operation context, i.e. the overall control and operating
system including its programming framework has to be upgraded [9]. Larger amounts
of effort and money must be invested in these cases.
2.3 Distributed Manufacturing

Not only since discussing the fourth industrial revolution, distributed manufacturing is
a current method in industry. However, within the context of industry 4.0 it reveals its
full potential. E.g. 3D printing offers the opportunity to optimize the use of production
capacities around the globe within an internet-based network of 3D printers. In addi-
tion, not only the manufacturer’s printers can be used but printers at the customer’s or a
partner’s facility as well. This principle is similar to the early grid computing ideas in
IT [10], when distributed (private) computing capacities are used by foreigners during
times of non-usage (e.g. at night). It can be enhanced by an online video monitoring
system for customers to monitor the production [11]. The monitoring installation can
even include some intelligence like masking the printing space or shape/progress
control in order to only show released content [12]. This approach becomes most
powerful, since the company not only develops, produces and sells 3D printers but in
addition provides 3D printing services at multiple company locations. Thus, company’s
and customer’s printers can be made available to multiply the production (printing)
capacity [13].
2.4 Quality Management and Predictive Maintenance

Regarding quality management in a smart factory a variety of applications and
parameters can be used for quality control and documentation. Acoustic emissions
(structure-borne sound) [14] can be detected during assembly, machining or bonding

processes, e.g. when connectors are snapping in or when friction welding is used. In the
latter case even measuring the machining forces can be used as criteria. By optical
shape and deformation monitoring the turning and milling processes can be monitored
and documented. Measuring micro forces and temperature in glass grinding processes
will deliver parameters for the process stability.
In addition, these and further physical signals are the base for predictive mainte-
nance within a plant. Since by means of smart sensor equipment machine states are
monitored and analyzed upcoming failures can be predicted and fixed before outages
occur. In this respect, especially acoustic emission is well known since the seventies of
last century (e.g. [14]). Its application to monitor tool wear and fraction during turning
and drilling under shop floor conditions was investigated by C. Scheer at ETH Zürich
in 2000 [15]. Furthermore, commercial tools already exist for monitoring and analyzing
vibrations of motors in order to predict abrasion or failure of bearings [16]. In the
famous German movie “Das Boot” (1981) the engineer used an ear trumpet for
monitoring the machine sound. He used his long-lasting experience to interpret what he
has heard. Today’s integrated IoT solutions in some cases are even based on the same
principles, however using modern analyzers as shown in the requirements section of
this article. Especially for monitoring motor states further parameters can be investi-
gated, e.g. power consumption and temperature of the motor coil etc. (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Direct and indirect production (process) data and parameters.
Within a smart factory there are many more examples for smart applications
helping to increase plant availability and uptime. When moving parts or goods within
the production line conveyor belts are most widely used with clamps for fixing the parts
safely. A reliable clamp operation therefore is obligatory for process safety as well as
safety at work. The lock and release times of these clamps can be used to predict clamp
failure due to contamination [17]. This example shows, that a single IoT application not
necessarily needs to be very complex, however, the overall complexity is increased by

each and every application.
3 Product Related Aspects
As mentioned earlier the product itself will become part of the digital transformation
and its manufacturing ecosystem. It is expected that in future the product will control
the production process autonomously [18]. In addition the product will carry a lot of
digital information regarding manufacturing process and history, quality and certifi-
cation, material and properties, etc. If the product does not have any internal data
storage the information is stored outside the product body, e.g. in the cloud with a
unique identifier (e.g. IP address, QR code, RFID) as a reference.
Many decades before the IIoT has been postulated to be the fourth industrial
revolution, material properties as well as material models have been investigated in
order to simulate manufacturing processes. Kraft et al. simulated the die pressing and
sintering of ceramics to optimize the die by means of finite element (FE) analysis [19].
The author of this article himself used combined experiments and FE simulations to
determine material properties [20, 21]. As in-process methods combined with IoT
sensor signals the FEM analysis will increase the model’s accuracy significantly.
However, even todays commercial computers are not powerful enough, to deliver
results within acceptable response times.
4 Requirements
The industrial internet of things not only changes the world of manufacturing. Tech-
nical prospects on the one hand side and technical contraints on the other are defining
the requirements of the manufacturing ecosystem. Since smart devices and cyber
physical (production) systems are available from multiple suppliers, it becomes obvi-
ous, that a common integration space is required for setting up the communication
within the system. And it needs data: meta data from the machines in the production
line, oftenly already generated when the machine itself is developed and produced
(machine lifecycle data), and data from the production process (field data). This for sure
includes a common semantics of information and data collected from the field. Fur-
thermore the data acquisition has to be absolutely robust and reliable in the industrial
environment. However, solely collecting data must not be the goal of the overall effort.
The data have to be analyzed by appropriate means in order to enable further actions in
the system. This sometimes requires local processing power, e.g. by edge computing,
and decentralized data storage capacities, e.g. in the cloud. When analyzing field data
for process monitoring and predictive maintenance thresholds need to be defined.
These can either be calculated analytically or by model assumtions an iterative solu-
tions or by recording reference values from the field. The latter represents the “expert’s
experience” and is mostly used in the field.
In addition to integrating and interfacing systems and machines the ecosystems is
extended to business partners like suppliers and customers. Therefore several more
interfaces have to be set up, further increasing the complexity of the manufacturing
ecosystem. Inevitably this leads to the demand for a platform approach with interfaces
to business partners, machines and systems, and software and applications (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Manufacturing ecosystem with data integration platform approach.
Of course, availability and all aspects of cyber security are of utmost importance for
a reliable manufacturing framework in industry 4.0. The progress in this area is
encouraging, however, the security issue will never be solved a full 100%.
5 Conclusion and Future Scope
The business transformation driven by the internet of things and services already has
a deep impact on the manufacturing processes. Manufacturing like many other
industrial disciplines is continuously growing together with information technology
with many chances and opportunities but with restrictions and consequences as well.
If data collected from both, the machinery and the field level is significant and
reliable it enables analyses and measures to improve process quality and efficiency in
production. Nevertheless, the chances arising have not been completely implemented
up to now. Even in spite of the awesome progress in computer technology some areas
still lack technical capabilities. Here artificial intelligence and quantum computing will
provide future enhancement.
References
1. acatech: Umsetzungsempfehlungen für das Zukunftsprojekt Industrie 4.0 – Abschlussbericht
des Arbeitskreises Industrie 4.0, Frankfurt (2013)
2. BITKOM: Industrie 4.0 – Volkswirtschaftliches Potenzial für Deutschland, Berlin (2014)
3. Homrich, R.: Driverless transport service for assembly. In: T-Systems, Best Practice, January
2018, pp. 23–25. Köln (2018)
4. SEW Schaufensterfabrik Homepage. https://www.sew-eurodrive.de/unternehmen/ihr_erfolg/
zukunftsthemen/industrie-40/basics/schaufensterfabrik/schaufensterfabrik.html. Accessed 30
Apr 2018
5. Schlüsselfertige Lernfabrik für Industrie 4.0. In: SPS-MAGAZIN, October 2017, TeDo
Verlag GmbH, Marburg (2017)
6. Across-AR Homepage. http://across-ar.de/home/augemented-reality-service/. Accessed 30
Apr 2018
7. Bauernhansl, T., ten Hompel, M., Vogel-Heuser, B.: Industrie 4.0 in Produktion,
Automatisierung und Logistik. Springer Verlag, Wiesbaden (2014)
8. Soder, J., Vogel-Heuser, B., Bauernhansl, T., ten Hompel, M.: Handbuch Industrie 4.0 Band
1 Produktion, pp. 3–26. Springer Verlag, Wiesbaden (2017)
9. Käuflin, P., Reeb, P.: Programmierung ABB Industrieroboter, Semesterarbeit, DHBW
Lörrach (2017)
10. Foster, I., Kesselman, C.: The Grid 2: Blueprint for a New Computing Infrastructure.
Morgan Kaufmann/Elsevier (2003)
11. Pude, F., Roser, A.: Online-Monitoring für verteilt arbeitende 3D-Drucker, Projektbeschrei-
bung (2016)
12. Eberl, S., Huse, T., Meier, M., Dienert, J., Wellinger, T., Olaf, J.: Verteilte Fertigung 1-3;
Semesterarbeiten, DHBW Lörrach (2017–2018)
13. Roser, A.: Fabb-It UG – 3D Druckservice, personal note, Lörrach (2017)
14. Iwata, K., Moriwaki, T.: An application of acoustic emission measurement to in-process
sensing of tool wear. Ann. CIRP 25, 21–26 (1977)
15. Scheer, C.: Überwachung des Zerspanprozesses mit geometrisch bestimmter Schneide durch
Schallemissionsmessung, Diss. Nr. 13462, ETH Zürich (2000)
16. IFM: From vibration monitoring to Industry 4.0, company/product information, Essen
(2017)
17. Langenecker, S.: Entwicklung eines Systems zur Erfassung von Daten einer S7 Steuerung
und anschließender Einbindung dieser Daten in eine Cloud Applikation, Master thesis,
DHBW CAS, Mosbach (2018)
18. Breyer-Mayländer, T.: Management 4.0 – Den digitalen Wandel erfolgreich meistern. Carl
Hanser Verlag, München (2017)
19. Kraft, T., Riedel, H., Stingl, P., Wittig, F.: Finite element simulation of die pressing and
sintering. Adv. Eng. Mat. 1(2), 107–109 (1999)
20. Olaf, J.M., Sester, M., Hönig, A., L’Huillier, P.: Finite element analysis of indentation
experiments using viscoelastic material models. Comput. Mater. Sci. 3, 218–222 (1994)
21. Olaf, J.M., Sommer, E.: Finite element analysis of indentation experiments in surface coated
materials. Exp. Mech. 33(3), 201–204 (1993)
A New Method for Gear Chamfering
Manfred Schlatter(&) and Niklas Müller
Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg, 79539 Lörrach, Germany

schlatter@dhbw-loerrach.de
Abstract. In order to chamfer the teeth of a gear wheel there are three
important methods in the market: “Chamfer Cut”, roll chamfering and “Grato-
mat”. All of them have advantages but are not suitable in all situations. For such
difficult chamfering operations and especially for smaller series a new method
for accurate chamfers was created. The process is based on the geometry of the
gear tooth and is simulated by mathematical calculations and therefore a special
milling tool has to be manufactured for each individual gear wheel. With this
tool is it possible to chamfer the teeth with very high quality in a short time and
under economical conditions.
Keywords: Gear Gear wheels Chamfering Automation Simulation
1 Initial Situation and Formation of Burr
The typical symbol of mechanical engineering for hundreds of years is a gear which is
used for moving machines or vehicles or in general that technical devices work. Gears
are manufactured by casting, forging, fine blanking or by cutting technologies like
hobbing, shaping or broaching. The cutting technologies are mostly used with precision
gears where heavy forces are to be transmitted or in cases where the gearboxes have to
be very silent.
Unfortunately these cutting technologies produce more or less big burrs (see Fig. 1)
or at least sharp edges which can induce that the gear are unusable. When such gears
are forward manufactured by hardening or have to be assembled in a gearbox, they can
produce the following problems:
• Handling can hurt the workers
• Damaging while transporting the gears
• Too much carbonizing at the edges can induce chipping
• The faces of the gears were used as contact surface or as clamping area for fol-
lowing processes like smooth finishing of the hardened gear
• The lifetime of following tools like grinding wheels or honing tools will be
shortened
• Problems while assembling the gear, especially when the assembling is automated
• Higher noise with damaged flanks of the teeth
• Residues of the burr can damage a gearbox because of abrasion.
For this reason all gears which have been made with cutting tools will be deburred
but with most of the deburring operations a sharp edge is left and for a lot of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_3
A New Method for Gear Chamfering 19
Fig. 1. Gear made with hobbing and with big burrs at the exit side of the cutting tool (on the
left) and the cross section of a flash from this gear wheel (on the right).
applications this is not a satisfying quality. Sometimes the removal of a big burr with
brushes or with similar technologies seems to be easy but there will be a residue of the
burr on his base and this can lead to problems while the gear wheel is in use.
2 Known Processes for Deburring and Gear Chamfering
If the required edge quality is not very high, then one of the more simply methods of
deburring is adequate. Besides of undirected methods like electrochemical machining
or thermal energy machining it exist the methods of deburring or filing wheels (see
Fig. 2). They are able to remove a burr or a flash but they leave more or less sharp
edges of the teeth.
Fig. 2. Deburring wheels on the left and filing wheels on the right [1, 2].
For the good quality of the edges chamfering is the best known technology which
can produce a defined chamfer of about 45°. Chamfering makes sure that all residues of
20 M. Schlatter and N. Müller
a burr are removed and e.g. the assembling of the wheels in a gearbox can be done
without damaging the flanks of the counter wheel.
There are at least three technologies on the market which are able to chamfer gear
wheels. One of them is “Fette Chamfer Cut” (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Technology “Chamfer Cut” [2].
This technology is fast and produces a good chamfer quality but the tools are very
expensive and they cannot work at all possible positions of the burrs of a gear wheel
but only when the flanks of the wheel are easy to reach (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Typical position of chamfering tools (circles marked with “d” and “h”) [3].
A second technology for gear chamfering is called roll chamfering. With this
forming technology a chamfer can be produced but the material is not removed but
rather pushed from the edge right into the tooth as a kind of strain hardening as result
(see Fig. 5). In the following process of real hardening the edge could break out.
Fig. 5. Roll chamfering [4].
At least a technology called “Gratomat” is also known. This device works with a
milling tool and this follows the outline of the edges of the teeth (see Fig. 6). The
quality of the chamfers depend very highly on the worker and his adjustment of the
device or on the wear of the milling tool.
Fig. 6. Milling tool of the device called “Gratomat” [1].

3 The New Method for Gear Chamfering
In gear chamfering a method is missing which works fast, produces an accurate

chamfer and could work also on difficult geometric situations. This could be done with
a milling tool which has a cutting edge very similar to the edge of the tooth of the gear
wheel. The tool works like a real milling tool and not like a hobbing tool and is
arranged rectangular to the axle of the gear wheel. There are two things important with
this method. First is to calculate the very accurate shape of the milling tool for each
individual gear wheel (see Fig. 7) and second the rotational speed as well as the
positions of the gear wheel and the tool has to be synchronized.
Fig. 7. Calculation and simulation of the shape of the teeth of the gear wheel (left) and the space
between the teeth with the shape of the chamfer behind the original surfaces (right).
After that the processing can start and the gear wheel is chamfered in a few
seconds. This can be done with very easy to process gear wheels like in Fig. 1 (on the
left), Fig. 7 and below in Fig. 8 on the left as well as very small bevel pinions in Fig. 8
on the right.
Fig. 8. Situation of the chamfering process on two different gear wheels with the steps of the
processing below in red rectangular areas.
The following figures (Fig. 9) show the situation of processing the two gear wheels
from Fig. 8 with the chamfering tool and the synchronization sensors.
Fig. 9. Processing situation of the two gear wheels shown in a CNC lathe. The chamfering tool
is mounted in the tool holder above the gear wheels and the inductive sensor for the
synchronization is mounted below the gear wheels.
Figure 10 shows the planet wheel bevor and after chamfering and the size of the
chamfer could be adjusted for the different requirements of the later usage.
Fig. 10. The planet gear wheel bevor and after chamfering with the new method.
This processing was done within less than 25 s on a machine which is not opti-
mized for this process because the special machine for this type of chamfering is under
construction.
Also the very small bevel pinions can be chamfered sufficiently (Fig. 11) and the
process produces only a very small secondary burr which wears off during the hard-
ening in a later step.
Fig. 11. The bevel pinion bevor and after chamfering with the new method. On the right
a enlargement of the face of the bevel pinion can be seen (outer diameter on the top 8 mm).
The advantages of the new chamfering method are not only the short time and the
god chamfer quality but also a lower price for the tools made of toll-steel or of tungsten
carbide and the possibility for including the process in a gear wheel manufacturing
machine or as a stand-alone unit (see Fig. 12) which is very easy to automate.
Fig. 12. View of the special chamfering machine in 3D.
The machine is planned for an area consumption of 2 m2 with a fast and a strong
power unit and gear wheels with a diameter up to 350 mm or transmission shafts with a
length up to 350 mm can be processed. The gear wheel holders as well as the tool
holders are usual in the market. The machine could be also equipped with an automated
gear wheel feed and with an automated tool change device.
This method can be used very economically for smaller series of gear wheels up to
1,5 million pieces (see Fig. 13) and for gear wheels in difficult to process situations (see
Fig. 14).
Fig. 13. Relation of costs of the new method “Radial Chamfering” in comparison with “Press
Deburring” and “Chamfer Cut”.
Fig. 14. Difficult to chamfering gear wheels, especially in the space between the single wheel
parts; on the left with an outer diameter of 28 mm and on the right of 23 mm.
4 Conclusions
In the field of mass production of technical parts like gear wheels a new method can be
found in order to finish them with high quality in a very short time and with low costs
by simulating the process and calculate the shape of the tool. The machine to work with
is under construction and will be on the market in 2019.
Acknowledgments. This research project was supported by the German Ministry of Economics
and Technology with the program ZIM (Zentrales Innovationsprogramm Mittelstand = central
innovation program for medium-sized business).
References
1. NN: EMAG-News 24. Leaflet of the EMAG GmbH & Co. KG, Austraße 24, D-73084 Salach,
August 2015. www.emag.com
2. NN: Leaflet of the Rausch GmbH & Co. KG, Alleestraße 46, D-42781 Haan. www.gratomat-
rausch.de
3. Homepage of the Online-magazine, 10 May 2010. http://www.Zerspanungstechnik.de.
Accessed 22 Feb 2018
4. NN: Leaflet of the Fette GmbH, Grabauer Str. 24, D-21493 Schwarzenbek. www.fette.com
5. http://www.emag.com/de/technologien/drueckentgraten.html. Accessed 26 Feb 2018
Water Jet Technology Session
New Approach of Recycling of Abrasives
for Water Jet Cutting
Miroslav Duspara1(&), Tomislav Palatinuš2, Dejan Marić1,

Ivan Samardžić1, Željko Ivandić1, and Antun Stoić1
1
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg I.B. Mazuranic 2,
35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia
miroslav.duspara@gmail.com
2
STM Stein-Moser GmbH, Eben im Pongau, Austria
Abstract. The recycling or reuse of material in production becomes as a saving

task for sustainable and environmental competitive production. Sustainability
means not only achieving cost efficient process but also eco efficient. The design
of the abrasive recycling system is desirable because of the growing growth and
development of the abrasive water jet cutting industry. The use of recycled
abrasives greatly reduces production costs, and hence the price of products
resulting from such processing and increases competitiveness. There is a large
space for wide application of cutting technology with abrasive water jet, and
thus the application of abrasive recycling. On the environmental side it is very
important to have a controlled disposal of the abrasive used.
Keywords: Recycling Abrasive Water jet Barton garnet MESH 80
1 Introduction
Competitive AWJ cutting means low costs per hour or cutting length. In Europe, the
average AWJ cutting cost per hour is relatively high and is in the range from 150 to 200
(€/h), what makes difficulties on achieving competitiveness of the AWJ process.
Challenge for this technology is to reduce the costs remaining the fast speed and
acceptable cut quality. Abrasive used in process is weared in red and yellow zone
(Fig. 1) while in green zone it just flows through. It means that only 30–50% of
abrasive is really used (in one cycle) [1]. It also depends on thickness of cutted
material, thinner cutted material causes lower amount of abrasives wear. In this paper is
described recycling of Barton Garnet because Barton Garnet is mostly used abrasives
for AWJ cutting.
The components of cutting costs in AWJ process include machine tool cost,
abrasive cost, nozzle wear cost, wages including overhead cost and so on. In the AWJ
cutting cost, the abrasive cost (including disposal cost) is usually the largest component
(Fig. 2). This cost share can reach from 20% up to 70% of the total cutting cost,
depending on parameters such as the abrasive mass flow rate, the number of cutting
heads, the abrasive price, the AWJ system’s cost and so on. Since there is a need for
recycling abrasive due to cutting costs in WJ machining, influences of Barton garnet
and recycled abrasive on surface roughness were investigated and compared.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_4
30 M. Duspara et al.
Fig. 1. Wear of abrasive in AWJ flow [3].
Fig. 2. Components of AWJ costs [5].
However, the abrasives after cutting can be reused, which can reduce the abrasive
cost and the disposal cost [2].
Conditions of recycling of GMA garnet, the most popular abrasives for blast
cleaning and waterjet cutting, has not been understood satisfactory. It is evident that the
recycling of abrasives can be a good way to reduce the total cutting costs. To find an
effective way for the abrasive recycling, the optimum particle size of recycled and
recharged abrasives for the maximum cutting performance as well as for the minimum
cutting cost should be determined. In addition, the economics of cutting with recycled
and recharged abrasives must be investigated [4].
In practice recycled abrasives can be used for AWJ cutting individually as a new
abrasive or used as addition to new abrasives. The process of addition of the new to the
recycled abrasives is called abrasive recharging. The recharging ensures continuous
addition new abrasives to maintain the maximum cutting performance constantly [2].
New Approach of Recycling of Abrasives for Water Jet Cutting 31
The reduction of abrasive cost as a main cost component in AWJ cutting (Fig. 2)
can be achieved with increasing water pressure (Hashish refers that 33% decreasing of
abrasive costs is possible when water pressure is increased from 4000 to 6000 bar).
Other solution is abrasive recycling. Recycled abrasive can be used for two main
applications: reconditioned - recycled for subsequent use for cutting/blast cleaning or
simple use as a row material for concrete. Therefore, AWJ abrasive recycling has been
the objectives of many studies.
The loss of cutting ability of abrasive particles (because of disintegration of
abrasives by breaking or fragmentation) in the AWJ cutting process occurs in two
stages:
1. during the mixing process (due to interactions between abrasives and the compo-
nents of equipment for focusing and mixing with water and between particles with
each other);
2. during the cutting process (because of the interactions between particles with the
work material and particles and each other). Therefore, understanding of the frag-
mentation of abrasive particles is highly relevant to a study on abrasive recycling.
The fragmentation of abrasive particles have been investigated in many studies,
however, the optimum abrasive size for recycled abrasives and for recharged
abrasives has not been refered.
Ohlsen [6] reported that particles smaller than 60 µm lead to a very small depth of
cut, poor cutting quality and can cause abrasive clogging in the mixing head. More-
over, the author found that the cutting performance and the cutting quality of the
recycled abrasives is acceptable while particle size distribution lies in the range from
125 to 180 µm. This range of the particle size can lead to the maximum depth of cut
and a lower surface roughness.
Kantha and Krishnaiah Chetty [7] found that the reusability of a local garnet from
Southern India (or the recycling capability which is determined by the percentage of
abrasives that can be reused) with the particles larger than 90 µm is 81, 49, 26 and 15%
after the first, second, third and fourth recycling, respectively. The authors [7] inves-
tigated effect of recycled abrasives of three cycles on the depth of cut, on the surface
roughness and on the kerf width. It was observed that the maximum depth of cut of the
first and second recycled abrasives is approximately 82 and 79% of the new abrasives.
Also, cutting with the first and the second recycled abrasives can reduce both the
surface roughness and the kerf cone.
The influence of the recharging on the depth of cut, on the surface roughness, and
on the kerf width for cutting with aluminum was investigated by Kantha and Krish-
naiah Chetty [8]. The authors found that an increase of the added new abrasives up to
40% led to a significant increase of the depth of cut and a slight increase thereafter.
2 Abrasive Waste Standards
Less than 5% of waterjet users might be at risk of putting hazardous waste down their
drain, it is worthwhile to verify that you are in the 95% group. Waste after AWJ cutting
(sludge) – Fig. 3 is composed of by-products collected at wastewater treatment process.
It contains both compounds of agricultural value and to a lesser extent, calcium,

sulphur and magnesium), and pollutants which usually consist of heavy metals, organic
pollutants and pathogens. The characteristics of sludge depend on the original pollution
load of the treated water, and also on the technical characteristics of the waste water
and sludge treatments carried out.
Fig. 3. (a) Sludge after AWJ cutting, (b) Microscope view of sludge 200X.
Once treated, sludge can be recycled or disposed of using three main routes:
recycling to agriculture (landspreading), incineration or landfilling. Other, less devel-
oped outlets exist, such as silviculture, land reclamation, and other developing com-
bustion technologies including wet oxidation, pyrolysis and gasification. Each
recycling or disposal route has specific inputs, outputs and impacts.
3 Recycling System
The idea of the recycling machine itself came from the final work and was based on the
principle that the used abrasive grain broke, burnt and with that knowledge they are
lighter than grains that were not used in the cutting process. The idea was to twist the
sludge while still in the water in the pot. The centrifugal force will lift all the used
abrasive, since the used abrasive is lighter it will be in the upper rotation zone. They
will spill out and exit from the pot, while remaining unused abrasive will remain on the
bottom (the procedure can be repeated several times) until all impurities are cleaned.
Shown on the Fig. 4.
The impurities are removed by overflowing. The container is tilted at a slight angle,
and the filling with water is poured over the edge. In order to accelerate the process,
a pour is used, which simultaneously involves a greater amount of water and impu-
rities, while the usable abrasive remains deposited at the bottom. The procedure is
repeated until relatively pure water is obtained. After separation used from unused
abrasives particles, the wet abrasives must be dried (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Separation of used from unused abrasive grain.
Fig. 5. Drying of recycled abrasives.
After drying the recycled abrasive, a microscopic analysis was performed to see the
effect of this abrasive recycling process. Figure 6a shows a new unused abrasive, while
Fig. 6b is recycled abrasive. The abrasive particles after recycling are smaller in size,
some between MESH 80 and MESH 120. If a comparison of Figs. 3b and 6b is made,
there is no tiny white particle (recycled abrasive) after recycling and we can conclude
that the recycling process is successful. In preliminary testing system was shows
60–70% of success. That means that from 100 kg of sludge was got some between
60–70 kg new abrasives.
Recycling system was continue developed in company STM Stein-Moser GmbH in
Austria, company which produce machine for water jet cutting and accesories for
machine (water filtration, abrasive recycling machine…..) and made patent application,
on this way recycling of abrasive.
Fig. 6. (a) New abrasive Barton garnet MESH 80, (b) Recycled abrasive.
4 Conclusion
In Croatia there are about 20 cutting machines with abrasive water jets. The data of the
Konid process on the average monthly consumption of 1.5 tons of abrasive was used,
with 120 h of machine operation per month and the price of an abrasive of 350 € per
ton. Therefore, the smallest amount of used abrasive in RH is about 360 t, from which
this procedure can be obtained about 270 t of reusable abrasive.
In the Republic of Croatia there is no facility specialized for the recycling of such
types of waste therefore uncontrolled disposal of the abrasive used, and consequently
the remains of the cut material is a serious environmental problem. From the economic
side, the abrasive represents about 51% of the total cost of cutting, while electricity
consumes about 46% of the cost, and the water is 2–3%. Using recycled abrasives,
electricity would account for about 77% of the cost, while the cost of the abrasive
would equalize with the cost of water of about 11%. A total of 44% savings are made
using of recycled abrasives.
References
1. The fabricator; Reusing Waterjet Cutting Abrasive. https://www.thefabricator.com/article/
waterjetcutting/reusing-waterjet-cutting-abrasive. Accessed 08 May 2018
2. Stoić, A., Palatinuš, T., Duspara, M., Stoić, M., Marić, M.: Application of recycled abrasives
for AWJ cutting. In: CIM Conference, pp. 213–219. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
NavalArchitecture, Šibenik (2015)
3. Final thesis Tomislav Palatinuš, Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod (2014)
4. Hloch, S., Valiček, J., Stoić, A., Kozak, D., Samardžić, I., Novak Marcinčin, J., Modrak, V.:
Rezanje mlazom vode, Strojarski fakultet u Slavonskom Brodu Sveučilišta J.J. Strossmayera
u Osijeku (2011)
5. Stoić, A., Palatinuš, T., Kosec, B., Duspara, M., Stoić, M.: The effects of life cycle
management of abrasives on sustainable WJ cutting. In: Proceedings of 6th International
Scientific and Expert Conference Technique, Education, Agriculture & Management, TEAM
2014, Kecskemet (2014)
6. Ohlsen, J.: Recycling von Feststoffen beim Wasserabrasivestrahlverfahren, VDI Fortschritt-
Berichte, Reihe 15, Nr. 175 (1997)
7. Kantha, B.M., Krishnaiah Chetty, O.V.: A study on recycling of abrasives in abrasive water
jet machining. Wear 254, 763–773 (2003)
8. Kantha, B.M., Krishnaiah Chetty, O.V.: Studies on recharging of abrasives in abrasive water
jet machining. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 19, 697–703 (2002)
The Use of Areal Parameters for the Analysis
of the Surface Machined Using the Abrasive
Waterjet Technology
Dagmar Klichová1,2(&), Jiří Klich1,2, and Tomáš Zlámal3

1
Institute of Geonics of the CAS, v.v.i., Studentska 1768,
70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
dagmar.klichova@ugn.cas.cz
2
Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilisation of Raw Materials
for Energy Use, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
3
VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. Listopadu 15, 708033 Ostrava,
Czech Republic
Abstract. The paper deals with areal evaluation of the surface texture of
AISI 304 material created by the abrasive waterjet. The sample examined was
measured using an optical profilometer and an optical microscope. The surface
topography is most frequently evaluated according to the surface profile
parameters defined in ISO 4287. However, for a more complex analysis of
a studied surface, it is more advantageous to use an areal (three-dimensional)
method which applies the knowledge acquired from the profile (two-
dimensional) method extended by new research findings. The areal parameters
of the surface texture are described in the standard ISO 25178-2.
Keywords: Surface topography Abrasive waterjet Areal parameters
1 Introduction
Development of production technologies, new measurement methods and equipment

opens new areas in the analysis of the surface texture properties. Surface functionality
is influenced by production methods. The abrasive waterjet (AWJ) technology is one of
the unconventional machining methods that use abrasive and water as a cutting med-
ium, so the overheating in the cutting process is eliminated [1]. The AWJ technology
has a wide range of applications. It can cut substantially all industrial materials from
plastic, metal to composite materials [2]. Characteristic surface specific to this tech-
nology is created during AWJ machining [3].
Dimensional and geometric accuracy is required for all functional surfaces. The
condition and quality of the surface layer of a machined material have an impact on the
fatigue strength, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, noise or reliability [4]. Inap-
propriate selection of the surface quality leads to unnecessary production cost increase
or even failure [5].
3D surface analysis represents significant qualitative progress in the evaluation of
the surface texture. The standard surface quality evaluation using profile parameters

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_5
The Use of Areal Parameters 37
gives us insufficient information about the character of the entire surface. In contrast,
the spatial evaluation of the surface texture gives us a number of new parameters that
more accurately quantify the studied surface and characterize the surface’s functional
properties. For this reason, comparisons were made of the profile and surface param-
eters in order to obtain a new view on the subject.
The paper describes the profile method of surface quality evaluation of the cutting
wall of the studied sample. In addition, the article focuses on areal analysis that
represents significant qualitative progress in the surface texture evaluation. Results of
values of profile and areal parameters obtained from the surface of the experimentally
created sample from AISI 304 material are presented.
2 Standardised Parameters
The following section will focus on standardized profile and areal parameters. In the
engineering practice, profile parameters of the profile roughness (so-called 2D
parameters) are used for the evaluation of the surface quality. Selected representatives
of the height parameters Ra, Rq, Rp, Rv and Rz are further defined in the standard ISO
4287 [6]. The development of measurement techniques has brought new possibilities in
the evaluation of surfaces, i.e. 3D parameters. Definitions of individual areal param-
eters are presented in the standard ISO 25178-2 [7]. The so-called S-parameters are the
height parameters Sa, Sq, Sp, Sv and Sz which are determined according to the specified
area.
2.1 Amplitude Parameters of Profile

Ra – Arithmetical Mean Deviation of the Assessed Profile is the arithmetical mean
of the absolute values of Z(x) in a sampling length lr. It is one of the commonly-
used roughness parameters in the engineering practice. However, the qualitative
value of the parameter Ra is low as it is not sensitive to the extreme heights of
profile peaks and depths of profile valleys [6].
Rq – Root Mean Square Deviation of the Assessed profile (RMS) is the root mean
squared of Z(x) in a sampling length lr. Parameter Rq is more sensitive to
unwanted peaks and valleys of the assessed surface. Therefore, it reaches higher
values that the parameter Ra [6].
Rz – Maximum Height of Profile expresses the sum of the maximum value of
profile peak height Zp on the profile curve, and the maximum value of profile
valley depth Zv in a sampling length lr [6].
Rp – Maximum Profile Peak Height is the maximum value of profile peak height
Zp on the profile curve in a sampling length lr [6].
Rv – Maximum Profile Valley Depth is the maximum value of profile valley depth
Zv on the profile curve in a sampling length lr [6].
38 D. Klichová et al.
2.2 Amplitude Parameters of Area

Sa – Arithmetical Mean Height of the Scale Limited Surface is arithmetic mean
of the absolute of the ordinate values within a definition area (A) [7].
Sq – Root Mean Square Height of the Scale-Limited Surface is root mean square
value of the ordinate values within a definition area (A) [7].
Sp – Maximum Peak Height of the Scale Limited Surface is largest peak height
value within a definition area [7].
Sv – Maximum Pit Height of the Scale Limited Surface is minus the smallest pit
height value within a definition area [7].
Sz – Maximum Height of the Scale-Limited Surface is sum of the maximum peak
height value and the maximum pit height value within a definition area [7].
3 Experimental Setting
The quality and topography of the cutting surface were assessed on a test sample from
the AISI 304 material measuring 50 mm 20 mm 5 mm.
Equipment for abrasive waterjet cutting available at the Institute of Geonics of the
CAS, v.v.i. was used as the testing assembly. It consisted of the PTV 75–60 high
pressure pump (2 multiplicators, max. operating pressure of 415 MPa, max. flow rate
of 7.8 l min−1, power of 67 kW) and the X-Y cutting table PTV WJ2020-1Z-D (op-
erating area of 2000 2000 mm, cutting speed continuously adjustable in the range of
0–20 m min−1) The commercially available Australian garnet with MESH 80 was used
as an abrasive material [8]. The water pressure was set at 400 MPa and the standard
cutting head for the abrasive waterjet generation (PTV 301022-X) with a diamond
water nozzle of the diameter of 0.33 mm was used. The diameter of the focusing tube
was 1.02 mm, length of the focusing tube 76 mm, stand-off distance of the focusing
tube orifice from the surface of the cut sample 4 mm. The traverse speed was set at
30 mm min−1.
Topography of the surface created by the abrasive waterjet technology was pre-
cisely studied by means of an optical profilometer MicroProf FRT and an optical
microscope Alicona InfiniteFocus. The obtained data were further analysed with the
SPIP software according to the standards ISO 4287 [6] and ISO 25178-2 [7].
4 Methodology of Measurement
Measurement of the cutting surface topography of the sample experimentally prepared

from the AISI 304 material was realised by means of two optical profilometers with
different ways of measurement (MicroProf FRT and Alicona InfiniteFocus).
After preparation of the sample by the AWJ technology, the cutting surface was
measured using the optical profilometer MicroProf FRT in 20 lines starting at the
distance of 0.5 mm from the edge of the jet penetration into the material and ending at
the distance of 0.5 mm from the edge of the jet exit from the cut material (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Schematic arrangement of lines measured by MicroProf FRT optical profilometer,

obtained surface profile and evaluated amplitude parameters of profile.
From the measured lines of the length of 15 mm, roughness profiles were obtained
after filtering irregularities and waviness of the surface. Subsequently, height roughness
parameters were calculated at the cut-off distance of 2.5 mm according to the standard
ISO 4287 [6]. The selected height parameters of the surface texture Ra, Rq, Rp, Rv and
Rz are given in Table 1. The acquired profile roughness parameters quantify the surface
texture of the cutting sample wall.
The evaluation of surface quality using 2D parameters is a commonly used engi-
neering practice. However, 3D surface analysis is currently also available. Areal
measurement of the surface structure provides a more objective presentation of a
surface to be controlled, since the individual spatial parameters of the texture are
determined from a higher quantity of measured data.
Spatial measurement of the surface texture of the sample cutting wall was per-
formed by the Alicona optical profilometer. Three measuring areas (1 - upper section of
the cut, 2 - center of the cut, 3 - lower section of the cut) were selected, see Fig. 2.
Height parameters of the surface texture Sa, Sq, Sp, Sv and Sz, which are presented in
Table 2, were determined from measured areas of 3 mm 3 mm according to the
standard ISO 25178-2 [7].
Table 1. 2D parameters of surface structure.

Line Ra [µm] Rq [µm] Rz [µm] Rp [µm] Rv [µm]
1 5.952 7.591 47.266 22.558 24.708
2 2.717 3.475 21.677 9.506 12.171
3 2.930 3.903 26.992 11.059 15.933
4 2.884 3.809 27.423 12.480 14.944
5 3.268 4.278 29.139 11.651 17.488
6 3.365 4.626 31.662 14.699 16.963
7 3.496 4.418 27.298 13.025 14.272
8 3.433 4.480 29.629 12.541 17.088
9 3.512 4.516 28.590 11.781 16.808
10 3.429 4.354 27.434 13.661 13.773
11 3.478 4.456 27.343 12.002 15.341
12 3.416 4.335 27.081 13.340 13.742
13 3.217 4.133 27.349 13.328 14.021
14 3.443 4.403 27.559 13.184 14.375
15 3.411 4.372 28.386 14.906 13.480
16 3.688 4.678 28.577 13.237 15.340
17 3.277 4.255 28.845 15.498 13.347
18 3.524 4.553 29.966 14.489 15.477
19 3.606 4.583 28.914 14.401 14.513
20 3.297 4.230 29.260 11.673 17.587
5 Results and Discussion
It is well-known (e.g. Hashish 1984) that the kinetic energy of the jet decreases with the
increasing depth h of the cut, thereby increasing the surface roughnesses, i.e. increasing
their height amplitudes, while reducing their spatial frequencies. This is due to the
change in the material removal mechanism, from the predominant tensile and shear
stress to the compressive stress.
Values of the selected height parameters of a roughness profile are listed in Table 1
Deformation stress (strain) is high at the beginning of the separation cut. However, as
the jet is penetrating into the material, the cutting tool (water and abrasive material)
exceeds the elastic limit of the material, resulting in a loss of energy that causes worse
surface quality at the top edge of the cut. In the next part of the cut, the hydro-
mechanical ratios of the separation cut are stabilized and material removal becomes
uniform, creating smooth surface of the cutting wall.
The experimental sample was prepared to achieve the highest possible surface
quality. Therefore the kinetic energy of the jet is stable in the remaining part of the cut,
which corresponds to the roughness parameters measured in the individual lines along
the entire depth of the cut.
The machined surface is a set of irregularities creating the surface texture. Surface
structure components are separated by filtering. When quantifying the surface
Fig. 2. Schematic arrangement of areas measured by Alicona InfiniteFocus microscope and

evaluated amplitude parameters of area.
Table 2. 3D parameters of surface structure.

Measured area Sa [µm] Sq [µm] Sz [µm] Sp [µm] Sv [µm]
1 3.188 4.145 51.841 26.569 25.273
2 3.420 4.340 56.882 29.865 27.017
3 3.509 4.489 48.065 23.488 24.577
topography using the standardised parameters, filter settings for the desired profile have
to be correctly selected. Rules and procedures for the surface structure evaluation are
defined in the standard ISO 4288 [9]. The filter (cut-off) kc = 2.5 mm is used when
evaluating sample surfaces with the average arithmetic deviation of the profile of
2 lm ˃ Ra ˂ 10 lm.
When assessing the surface quality, wider variety of standardised R-parameters
have to be considered. If one parameter is used, we get only a partial view of the
surface quality. This can lead to incorrect conclusions about the overall workpiece
quality. Appropriate selection of monitored parameters should comply with require-
ments for the control of operational aspects of the surface. The most commonly used
roughness parameter Ra has a relatively low reporting ability. The parameter Rq is
more sensitive to possible variations of irregularities on the measured profile. However,
it is still an average profile deviation. Another monitored parameter is the highest
profile peak Rz which provides information about the maximum height of the profile.
The parameters Rp gives information about the highest peak of the profile and Rv about
the deepest valley of the profile, evaluating whether the surface structure has higher
peaks or lower valleys. Individual R-parameters give only limited information on the
structure of the analysed surface. Only the multiparametric assessment provides a more
comprehensive view of surface behaviour.
To get a more reliable analysis of the studied surface, it is more appropriate to use
an areal (3D) method which applies the knowledge acquired from the profile (2D)
method extended by new research findings. The surface parameters were measured in
the upper, middle and lower part of the cutting wall of the experimentally created
sample. The areal parameters were calculated applying Gaussian filter of 2.5 mm in
accordance with the standard ISO 25178-3 [10]. Selected height parameters of the
surface texture Sa, Sq, Sp, Sv and Sz which represent the statistical characteristics of the
height z (x, y) of the studied area are presented in Table 2.
The calculated values of Sa and Sq parameters are the same as the values of Ra and
Rq parameters. However, these parameters cannot be considered as equal. The 3D
parameters are calculated using areal filters, while profile filters are used to calculate the
2D parameters. Selected profile and areal parameters can be compared with each other.
It can be assumed that the areal parameter values will be higher than the values of the
profile parameters. This is due to the fact that it cannot be assured by the profile
analysis of the surface that the measured line captured the deepest and highest points of
the studied surface topography. In contrast, when evaluating the area, the areal texture
parameters are determined from a significantly larger number of measured data that
provide a more objective presentation of the controlled area.
The height parameters Sa and Sq represent the arithmetical and square mean
magnitude of height coordinates of the studied surface texture, similar to the Ra and Rq
parameters. Both parameters are insensitive in differentiating peaks and valleys. Their
different values do not give a definitive idea of the character and properties of the
evaluated surface. The parameter Sq can be considered as statistically more significant,
highlighting extreme values of peaks and valleys (dents).
Parameters Sp and Sv specify the absolute highest and lowest points found on the
texture of the examined surface. The maximum height of the evaluated area Sz is the
distance between the highest peak and the deepest valley. When comparing the values
of these parameters (Table 2) with the values of the profile roughness Rp, Rv and Rz
(Table 1), it is obvious that the areal parameters reach approximately double the values
of the profile parameters. This is due to the fact that the areal analysis, unlike the profile
analysis, is able to measure the highest peak and the deepest valley of the surface
texture.
6 Conclusion
The areal analysis of the surface represents a significant qualitative advance in the
evaluation of the studied surface texture. The standard spatial assessment of the surface
texture according to the standard ISO 25178-2 [7] provides a number of new param-
eters which quantify the studied area more precisely and characterise the functional
properties of the surface. The presented measurement results point to a lower reliability
of the roughness parameters calculated from the profile of the surface structure. The
areal parameters are obtained from a significantly higher number of measured data with
much greater reliability, so the determined value of the parameter is more plausible.
ISO 25178-2 describes a wide range of surface parameters that define surface
quality and functional properties. It is necessary to perform further analyzes of the
investigated surfaces using surface parameters to obtain a coherent view on the surface
texture created by the abrasive water jet.
Acknowledgments. This article was written within the scope of a project of the Institute of
Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilisation of Raw Materials for Energy Use – Sustainability
Program, (Reg. No. LO1406). The presented work was also supported by a project for the long-
term conceptual development of research organisations RVO: 68145535 and Czech Ministry of
Industry and Trade project No. FV10446. The authors are very thankful for the support.
References
1. Peng, G., Yang, C., Oguma, Y., et al.: Numerical analysis of cavitation cloud shedding in a
submerged water jet. J. Hydrodyn. 28(6), 986–993 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-
6058(16)60700-X
2. Peng, G., Ishizuka, M., Hayama, S.: An improved CIP-CUP method for submerged water jet
flow simulation. JSME Int. J. Ser. B-Fluids Therm. Eng. 44(4), 497–504 (2001). https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1001-6058(16)60700-X
3. Klich, J., Klichová, D., Foldyna, V., Hlaváček, P., Foldyna, J.: Influence of variously modified
surface of aluminium alloy on the effect of pulsating water jet. Stroj. Vestn. -J. Mech. Eng. 63
(10), 577–582 (2017). https://doi.org/10.5545/sv-jme.2017.4356
4. Lehocká, D., Klichová, D., Foldyna, J., Hloch, S., Hvizdoš, P., Fides, M., Botko, F.:
Comparison of the influence of acoustically enhanced pulsating water jet on selected surface
integrity characteristics of CW004A copper and CW614N brass. Measurement 110, 230–
238 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.07.005
5. Lehocká, D., Klich, J., Foldyna, J., Hloch, S., Hvizdoš, P., Fides, M., Botko, F., Cárach, J.:
Surface integrity evaluation of brass CW614N after impact of acoustically excited pulsating
water jet. Procedia Eng. 149, 236–244 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.662
6. ISO 4287: Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) - Surface texture: Profile method -
Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters (1997)
7. ISO 25178-2: Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Surface texture: Areal - Part 2:
Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters (2012)
8. Martinec, P., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Ščučka, J., Vašek, J.: Abrasives for AWJ cutting. INCO
– COPERNICUS No. IC 15-CT98-0821. Institute of Geonics, Ostrava, (2002)
9. ISO 4288: Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) - Surface texture: Profile method -
Rules and procedures for the assessment of surface texture (1996)
10. ISO 25178-3: Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Surface texture: Areal - Part 3:
Specification operators (2012)
Research on Water Jet Cutting of Polymer
Composites Based on Epoxy/Waste Fibres
from Coconut Processing
Müller Miroslav1(&), Valášek Petr1, Novotný Jan2,

Ruggiero Alessandro3, D’Amato Roberto4, and Habrová Karolína1
1
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Material Science and Manufacturing
Technology, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
muller@tf.czu.cz
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, J E Purkyně University
in Ústí nad Labem, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
3
Department of Industrial Engineering, Universita di Salerno, Salerno, Italy
4
Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica y Construcción,
Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Abstract. This paper deals with a machining of polymer fibre composite

materials reinforced with a waste from coconut processing by means of an
unconventional technology, i.e. an abrasive water jet (AWJ) and a water jet
(WJ). Short and long fibres from the waste/a by-product from the coconut
processing were used as the reinforcement within the research. The composite
material was made by a vacuum infusion method. These composite materials are
difficult to cut by another cutting method. They are used as a design upper/view
element which is applied on a basic material, e.g. chipboards. These materials
have to be cut precisely according to requirements of a shape and dimensions of
a final product, e.g. for furniture industry. The paper deals with a study of an
influence of the abrasive water jet and the water jet at their impact on a surface
of the machined polymer fibre composite material. SEM analysis proved that a
considerable destruction of the material occurred at the water jet outlet, i.e. on a
bottom side of the cut, under unsuitable cutting conditions and at an absence of
the abrasive grains which is an undesirable factor for following applications of
these materials.
Keywords: AWJ Biological reinforcement Cutting speed Kerf width

Quality of cut SEM WJ
1 Introduction
A machining of diverse materials is basic production process. A number of researchers

deals with technological factors of the machining of e.g. claimed alloy [1], steels [2],
biological reinforcement based composite materials [3] or prospective aluminium
alloys [4]. Many research studies deal with mechanical properties of composite
materials based on a biological or a synthetic filler. A substitution of synthetic
fillers/reinforcements by natural ones is important in the material research. Composite

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_6
46 M. Miroslav et al.
materials with natural reinforcing fibres are desirable and their use has been ascending
at the present. Coconut fibres are one of prospective natural materials. The coir is the
most often gained mechanically in a line processing the coconuts when the fibres are
removed from the coconuts (pectin packaging) by means of a set of counter-rotating
rollers [3]. A relatively huge amount of for the food industry waste in a form of fibres
can be reached from one coconut [3]. Ca. 100 g of fibres on average are stated [3].
Brown fibres which are the most often arising commodity are separated from matured
coconuts [3]. These fibres are more used than the white fibres, they are thicker and are
of wide applications. White fibres are extracted from immature coconuts [3].
Nowadays, there is a trend to use the biological filler which provides comparable
and often better mechanical properties for the composite materials that the synthetic
fillers. However, it is necessary to focus also on other operations in the engineering, i.e.
e.g. dividing of the material and subsequent machining [4]. It is also necessary to
search for a suitable way of a production of single parts with different shapes. Different
variants of cutting by means of the water jet technology belong among prospective
methods of the composite materials dividing [4]. It does not come to a rise of a heat due
to this technology which would degrade the polymer composite material.
The water jet cutting technology is based on a principle of pressing water through
the water nozzle under high pressure and thereby accelerating to high speed water jet.
In the mixing chamber, passing water jet creates an under-pressure and thus carries air
along with it. Due to this negative pressure, the abrasive medium is drawn into the two-
phase flow and creates a three-phase flow. The multi-phase jet is concentrated in the
subsequent focus tube [5]. An increase of the cutting effect is possible by adding
abrasive particles [6] or by means of a pulsating water jet [7].
However, a negative aspect is a fact that a failure of an interaction between a matrix
and the reinforcement can occur at the cutting of composite materials at acting of the
high-speed liquid with the abrasive on a surface of a workpiece [8]. A cutting speed is
another significant limit which does not usually have a significant influence on the
material lopping [9]. The unsuitable cutting speed influences a delamination of single
layers which ultimately decreases application possibilities of these composite materials.
The aim of the study is the research on the influence of the abrasive water jet
(AWJ) and the water jet (WJ) on a kerf width in an inlet and the outlet at various
cutting speeds. The research was performed with composite materials naturally rein-
forced with the waste from coconuts processing.
2 Methodology
Cuts of a length 60 mm (Fig. 1A) of the composite material based on short and long
waste fibres from coconuts processing by means of the water jet (WJ) technology and
the abrasive water jet (AWJ) technology at which the mass flow of the abrasive grains
(garnet MESH 80, mechanical dosing device Bimba Flat-1) was 90.62 ± 1.19 g/min
were tested within the research.
The composite material was cut by CNC cutting machine AWJ CT 0806 (with
a high pressure pump AccuStream model A-6030, a screw compressor Keaser Air-
center SM9 and a pressure container of abrasive grains AW-ADS 160) at different
Research on Water Jet Cutting of Polymer Composites 47
Fig. 1. Machining of composites based on short and long waste fibres from coconut processing
by water jet (WJ) technology and abrasive water jet (AWJ) technology: A: CNC AWJ CT 0806,
B: cut in tested composite sample with short non-oriented fibres - inlet of water jet, C: cut in
tested composite sample with long oriented fibres – inlet of water jet.
cutting speeds 50, 100, 250, 500, 750 and 1000 mm/min (the cutting speed represents a
velocity of the cutting head movement above the material). The working pressure was
380 MPa. A distance of the nozzle above the cut material was 3 mm. The diameter of
the nozzle was 0.8 mm. An angle of the nozzle tilt to the composite material was 90°.
The testing cut was made in the composite board of dimensions 100 130 mm
(Fig. 1A). A two-component epoxy resin with a low viscosity suitable for a laminating
technology including the vacuum infusion was used as the matrix. The resin was
hardened with cycloaliphatic polyamine, the main component isophorone di-amine.
The fibres of Cocos nucifera which are by-products at the coconuts processing were
used for the research (the fibres are from coconut processing line in Philippines). 6%
water solution of NaOH was used for a chemical treatment of the fibres. The acting
time was 6 h at a laboratory temperature 24 ± 2 °C. Then all fibres were washed by
a distilled water (including fibres without the chemical treatment) and dried at a
temperature 105 °C for the time 24 h. The fibres were pressed by a compressive force
5 kN into a shape of the board and subsequently saturated with the resin by means of
the vacuum infusion. One board was made from non-oriented short fibres of a length
5.0 ± 0.4 mm (Fig. 1B) and the second board from long fibres oriented in one
direction (Fig. 1C). The reinforcing fibres were prepared by cutting with a knife from
the firm Moraknife.
A width of a kerf inlet and outlet of the abrasive water jet was evaluated within the
research. It considerably differed. A parameter of the kerf width was evaluated by
means of a stereoscopic microscope Arsenal SZP 11-T ZOOM which is equipped with
a digital camera and an evaluating software Quick Industrial Photo 2.3. The evaluated
kerf was measured in 30 places 10 mm from the beginning and the end of the cut.
A thickness of the cut composite board was 4.50 ± 0.15 mm. A topography of the
machined surface depending on the cutting speed and AWJ or WJ technology was
evaluated within the research by means of a surface analysis by means of a scanning
electron microscopy (SEM - microscope TESCAN MIRA 3 GM). The samples were
dusted with gold by means of the equipment Quorum Q150R ES - Sputtering Depo-
sition Rate using Gold.
The experiment results proved a quiddity of a combination of the cutting speed and the
use of AWJ or WJ technology at dividing of the composite materials with long lon-
gitudinally oriented fibres (Fig. 2) and short non-oriented fibres (Fig. 3). It is obvious
from the results in Fig. 2 that a significant deformation/delamination occurs on the
bottom side of the cut at the use of WJ technology, i.e. without abrasive grains (see
Fig. 4A, D). This significant deformation did not occur at the use of AWJ technology
(Fig. 4B, E).
Fig. 2. Kerf width of cut by WJ and AWJ technology of polymer composite material with filler
based on long longitudinally oriented fibres from coconut processing.
The kerf width in the inlet did not significantly differ at the cutting of the composite
material with long longitudinally oriented fibres by WJ technology depending on the
cutting speeds in the interval from 50 to 1000 mm/min (Fig. 2). The kerf width differed
in the interval from 4.4 to 13.7%. The high influence of the kerf width was in the outlet
depending on the cutting speed when the significant differences occurred from the
speed 500 mm/min (in the interval 86.5 to 439.9%). A significant destruction of the
outlet side occurred at higher speeds, i.e. from 500 mm/min at cutting by means of the
water jet without the abrasive grains (Fig. 4D, F).
The kerf width in the inlet did not significantly differ at the cutting of the composite
material with long longitudinally oriented fibres by means of AWJ technology
Fig. 3. Kerf width of cut by WJ and AWJ technology of polymer composite material with filler
based on short randomly oriented fibres from coconut processing.
depending on the cutting speed in the interval from 50 to 1000 mm/min. The kerf width
differed in the interval 4.3 to 15.4%. Analogous trend was also in the outlet of the
abrasive water jet where more significant change in the interval 5.5 to 29.1% occurred
(Fig. 4E). A chipping of the composite board rarely occurred at higher speed
750 mm/min in the abrasive water jet outlet.
It is obvious in terms of the statistical comparison of the kerf width in the inlet and
the outlet depending on the cutting speeds that they are statistically non-homogeneous
groups (p = 0.0000) in the significance level 0.05, i.e. there is the difference between
the kerf width in the inlet and the outlet at both AWJ and WJ technology.
The kerf width in the inlet did not significantly differed at the cutting of the
composite material with short randomly oriented fibres by WJ technology depending
on the cutting speeds in the interval 50 to 1000 mm/min (the difference in the interval
0.3 to 15.8%) – see Fig. 3. The significant influence of the kerf width was in the outlet
at all tested cutting speeds (in the interval 78.3 to 517.2%).
The kerf width in the inlet did not significantly differed at the cutting of the
composite material with short randomly oriented fibres by AWJ technology depending
on the cutting speeds in the interval 50 to 1000 mm/min (9.0 to 26.2%) – see Fig. 3.
Analogous trend was also in the outlet of the abrasive water jet (0.1 to 34.5%).
The same trend as at the composite material with long longitudinally oriented fibres
was also observed at this composite material, namely higher differences in the kerf
width were diagnosed at higher speeds, i.e. over 750 mm/min. It is evident from
Fig. 4. SEM images of cut of polymer composite material based on waste fibres from coconut
processing - speed 100 mm/min: A: cut by WJ technology of composites with short fibres (MAG
49x), B: cut by AWJ technology of composites with short fibres (MAG 43x), C: detailed view on
cut by AWJ technology of short fibre composites (MAG 758x), D: cut by WJ technology of
composites with long fibres (MAG 56x), E: cut by AWJ technology of composites with long fibres
(MAG 58x), F: detailed view on cut by WJ technology of long fibre composites (MAG 633x).
Fig. 4C that the deformation of the fibres did not occur and the cut was uniform at the
use of AWJ technology.
It is obvious in terms of the statistical comparison of the kerf width in the inlet and
the outlet depending on the cutting speeds that they are statistically non-homogeneous
groups (p = 0.0000) in the significance level 0.05, i.e. there is the difference between
the kerf width in the inlet and the outlet at both AWJ and WJ technologies.
The cut was not in the whole cross-section at the tested composite materials with
the reinforcing phase in the form of the coconut fibres at the cutting speeds 750 and
1000 mm/min at WJ technology (without abrasive grains in the water jet). The water
jet had not sufficient kinetic and erosive ability to create the cut in the whole cross-
section. In the outlet, a breakout of the composite material occurred in the area of the
cut rather than the cut. Also a scattering of the results presented in Figs. 2 and 3 at the
cutting speeds 750 and 1000 mm/min is huge from that reason. The variation coeffi-
cient was up to 230%.
The cutting zone of the composite materials showed huge differences between WJ
and AWJ as it is evident from Fig. 4. An irregular cutting zone, namely in the outlet of
the water jet, is visible from Fig. 4A and D. The breakout area in the end of the cut is
visible in the outlet. This negative state occurred at all speeds at the use of WJ
technology. The water jet was already out of sufficient kinetic energy for the cut and it
came to the deformation leading to a fracture of the material. A regular cut with the use
of AWJ technology is visible from Fig. 4B and E. Figures 4A, B, D, E represent the cut
through the whole material.
Acting of WJ and AWJ on the filler of the composite materials in the form of fibres
from the coconut processing is visible in Fig. 5. A good interaction between the matrix
(the resin) and the reinforcing fibre is obvious from Fig. 5A. The cut after the abrasive
particles is evident on the surface of the fibre. The deformation/delamination of the
composite structure in the outlet of the water jet without the abrasive grains is evident
from Fig. 5B. The breakout of single fibres from the matrix occurred in the bottom part
of the cut at the use of WJ technology rather than the cut. Figure 5B shows the cut by
the water jet without the abrasive grains and it is evident that it comes to breaking out
of partial segments of the filler by acting the kinetic energy on the cut.
Fig. 5. SEM images of cut of polymer composite materials based on fibres from coconut
processing: A: detailed view on cut by AWJ – speed 750 mm/min (MAG 505x), B: detailed view
on cut by WJ – speed 750 mm/min (MAG 232x), C: detailed view on cut by AWJ with
significant trace after abrasive grains – speed 100 mm/min (MAG 1.21kx), D: detailed view on
cut by WJ of long longitudinally oriented fibres in composite structure – speed 100 mm/min
(MAG 136x), E: detailed view on cut by WJ – speed 100 mm/min (MAG 475x), F: detailed view
on cut by WJ of long longitudinally oriented fibres of composite material – speed 750 mm/min
(MAG 444x).
The delamination often occurs as a consequence of an impact with a high speed of

the nozzle [6, 8–10]. The delamination is important factor which can change the
mechanical behaviour of the composite systems during their technological processing,
e.g. cutting by the water jet [6, 8–10]. The experiment results proved that the delam-
ination can be caused also by an absence of abrasive grains at cutting by the water jet
technology.
A significant grooving in the bottom part of the cut is obvious from Fig. 5C at the
use of AWJ technology. A trace of the abrasive particle is visible in Fig. 5C. It is usual
cutting trace at the use of AWJ technology [11].
It is obvious from Fig. 5D and E that the deformation of the fibres occurs in the
direction of the cut at the cross-section. Figure 5E is a typical example. The delami-
nation of fibres in the bottom part of the cut occurred at higher cutting speeds also at the
use of AWJ technology. The cut delamination is a potential problem for the practical
application of the composite material. A fracture surface is spread from this non-
integrity caused by the delamination and a risk of the destruction is increased. This
negative factor shows itself namely at a cyclic loading of the composite material.
SEM analysis of the surface and the evaluation of the kerf width certified that AWJ is
much better than WJ. The research certified conclusions of Wang that the quality cuts of
the polymer composite materials can be effectively prepared by AWJ technology [12].
4 Conclusions
The research dealing with cutting of polymer fibre composite material with the filler
based on the waste from coconut processing by means of the unconventional tech-
nology, i.e. the abrasive water jet (AWJ), and the water jet (WJ) proved the quiddity of
the combination of the cutting speed and the presence of the abrasive grains (the use of
AWJ technology) on the effectivity of the area and the width of the cut. The significant
destruction of the material occurred in the water jet outlet (i.e. in the bottom side of the
cut) under unsuitable cutting conditions and at the absence of the abrasive grains. This
is the undesirable factor for following application of these materials in the practice.
They will be used as a design upper/view element which is applied on a basic material,
e.g. chipboards in the furniture industry. These materials have to be cut precisely
according to requirements of a shape and dimensions of a final product.
Acknowledgement. This paper has been made with the assistance of the grant IGA TF CZU
(Research on mechanical properties of polymeric composite materials cut by water jet).
References
1. Naprstkova, N., Kusmierczak, S.: Analysis of decrease machinability possible causes for
claimed alloy. Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J. 10(31), 94–101 (2016)
2. Novak, M., Naprstkova, N.: The influence of cutting conditions on surface roughness during
steel X38CrMoV5 grinding. Key Eng. Mater. 581, 247–254 (2014)
3. Valášek, P., D’Amato, R., Müller, M., Ruggiero, A.: Mechanical properties and abrasive
wear of white/brown coir epoxy. Compos. Part B Eng. 146, 88–97 (2018)
4. Müller, M., Valášek, P.: Research on aluminium alloy AlCu4 Mg surface machined by
abrasive water jet. Manuf. Technol. 17(6), 925–930 (2017)
5. Kušnerová, M., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Valicek, J., Hloch, S., Harnicarova, M., Kadnar, M.:
Innovative approach to advanced modulated waterjet technology. Technicki Vjesnik-
Technical Gazette 19(3), 475–480 (2012)
6. Wang, J., Guo, D.M.: A predictive depth of penetration model for abrasive waterjet cutting
of polymer matrix composites. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 121, 390–394 (2002)
7. Foldyna, J., Klich, J., Hlaváček, P., Zeleňák, M., Ščučka, J.: Erosion of metals by pulsating
water jet. Tehnicki Vjesnik 19(2), 381–386 (2012)
8. Shanmugam, D.K., Nguyen, T., Wang, J.: A study of delamination on graphite/epoxy
composites in abrasive waterjet machining. Compos. Part A 39, 923–929 (2008)
9. Shanmugam, D.K., Chen, F.L., Siores, E., Brandt, M.: Comparative study of jetting
machining technologies over laser machining technology for cutting composite materials.
Compos. Struct. 57, 289–296 (2002)
10. Lemma, E., Chen, F.L., Siores, E., Wang, J.: Study of cutting fiber reinforced composites by
using abrasive waterjet with cutting head oscillation. Compos. Struct. 57, 297–303 (2002)
11. Müller, M., D’Amato, R., Rudawska, A.: Machining of polymeric composites by means of
abrasive water-jet technology. In 16th International Scientific Conference: Engineering for
Rural Development, pp. 121–127. Latvia University Agriculture, Faculty Engineering,
Latvia (2017)
12. Wang, J.: Abrasive water jet machining of polymer matrix composites-cutting performance,
erosive process and predictive models. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 15, 757–768 (1999)
Recent Developments in Pulsating Water Jets
Josef Foldyna(&)
Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Studentská 1768,

708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
josef.foldyna@ugn.cas.cz
Abstract. Pulsating water jets represent one of the ways to intensify effects of
water jetting technology on materials. In the first part of the paper, phenomena
occurring during the impact of a drop of a liquid on a solid surface and reasons
for their use leading to the generation of pulsating water jets are briefly
described. In the next part, the concept of hydrodynamic nozzle for generating
of pulsating water jets is briefly mentioned. The final part of the paper deals with
the comparison of the erosive effects of continuous and pulsating jets generated
by the acoustic generator and the hydrodynamic nozzle. Presented results proved
superior performance of the pulsating jet generated by the acoustic generator.
The hydrodynamic nozzle exhibits also great potential for significant
improvement of water jetting performance.
Keywords: Water jet Impact pressure Hydrodynamic nozzle

“Gutta cavat lapidem, non vi sed saepe cadendo” (Drops of water
hollow out a stone, not by force, but by falling often) [1].
1 Introduction
The effects of high-speed water jets on disintegration of materials are well known to the
public. Pure water pressed by commonly used high pressure pumps up to 415 MPa has
sufficient energy to cut paper, wood, plastic, rubber, and thin metal sheets (up to about
1 mm) after passing through a very small hole (i.e. nozzle with a diameter of tenths up
to units of millimeters). After addition of abrasive particles to the high-velocity water
jet, either downstream the nozzle (so-called abrasive water jet) or upstream the nozzle
(so-called abrasive suspension jet), the range of applicability of the jets is greatly
increased. Abrasive jets are capable of cutting, drilling, turning or milling not only
metals, but also difficult to process materials such as composites, structural ceramics,
high-strength alloys, glass, etc. At present, no material is known that would resist the
action of the abrasive jet.
Despite the undisputed technological advances made in recent years in the field of
high-speed abrasive water jet applications, there is a constant pressure on the devel-
opment of new technologies using only pure water jets. The research teams are trying
to improve them to better adapt to ever more demanding environmental requirements,
further improve their performance, and at the same time make their use more
economical.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_7
Recent Developments in Pulsating Water Jets 55
One possible route is the use of ultra-high pressures to generate water jets. The
feasibility studies of cutting metals with pure water jets at pressures up to 690 MPa
were performed already in early nineties of the last century [2]. Currently commercially
available high-pressure water jet cutting devices are operated at pressures up to
700 MPa. However, such pressures cause extreme stress on individual parts of high-
pressure pumps, which adversely affects their service life.
An alternative approach can be characterized by the effort to eliminate the need for
extremely high pressures by the utilization of the physical phenomenon created by the
droplet’s impact on a solid surface.
2 Background
In the case of a collision of a fluid moving at high velocity with a rigid body, a short-
term transient phenomenon occurs. The phenomenon is accompanied by a noticeable
increase in pressure at the point of the fluid’s impact on the surface, and can cause
severe damage both on the surface and in the internal structure of the material exposed
to the impacting liquid.
The need to study the phenomena that occurs when a droplet strikes the solid
surface has been stimulated in the past primarily by the need to prevent erosion of
steam turbine blades. Currently, for example, there is extensive research on rain erosion
on aircraft and missiles, especially on window materials. Cavitation erosion is also
closely related to the impact of fluid on the solid surface.
The impact of the fluid on the solid surface takes place in two phases. The Fig. 1
illustrates schematically the fluid with density q1 impacting on the rigid surface at the
velocity v. In the first stage of the impact, the fluid behaves as compressible. A small
central area of the first contact is compressed under a uniform pressure and generates an
impact pressure pi due to the so-called water-hammer effect [3]. The impact pressure is
responsible for a large part of the damage caused by the impact of the fluid on the solid
surface.
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of two phases of the impact of a fluid on a rigid surface.
56 J. Foldyna
The magnitude of the impact pressure pi on the central axis of the impacting fluid
can be expressed as
vq1 c1 q2 c2
pi ¼ ð1Þ
q1 c1 þ q2 c2
where v is the impact velocity of the fluid and q1, q2 and c1, c2 are the densities and the
shock velocities in the fluid and the solid, respectively [4].
The first phase of the fluid impact lasts for several microseconds and corresponds to
the time at which the pressure drop wave propagates from the point of the outer contact
of the fluid and the rigid surface to the center of the impacting fluid.
When the impact pressure subsides, the second phase of the fluid impact begins.
During this phase, the fluid behaves as incompressible and the pressure in the central
axis of the impacting fluid drops to a much lower Bernoulli stagnation pressure ps,
which is given by
1
ps ¼ q1 v2 ð2Þ
2
The stagnation pressure lasts for a relatively long time. As soon as the pressure
deformation limit of the liquid is exceeded, the fluid starts to flow radially perpen-
dicular to the beam axis outwardly along the impact surface. The radial flow velocity
can be much higher than the impact velocity of the fluid, and as a result, the normal
forces from the impact of the fluid, as well as the shear forces, act on the surface of the
mate rial. If the surface is uneven or broken, radial fluid flow can cause such shear
forces that are able to create local shear cracks even on the surface of high-strength
materials [5].
The effects caused by the impact of a spherical drop of water on a solid surface at
the velocity of 200 ms−1 (corresponding to the velocity of water jet generated at
pressure of 20 MPa) were simulated numerically using the ANSYS CFD software. The
moment of maximum increase of the impact pressure is documented in Fig. 2 – the
maximum impact pressure reaches 78.5 MPa, with the radial velocity of the flow of
water on the surface being over 280 ms−1 at this time.
Subsequently, the impact pressure drops and the radial velocity of the flow
increases as the water escapes from the compressed area. Figure 3 illustrates a situation
when the radial velocity reaches a maximum value of 395 ms−1, with the impact
pressure dropping to 44 MPa.
Impact pressure pi is many times higher than the pressure ps –it can be approximately
4 to 20 times higher than the stagnation pressure, depending on the pressure upstream
the nozzle. Since the continuous water jet acts on the material essentially only by
stagnation pressure, it is desirable to divide it into a series of “droplets” capable of
producing an impact pressure upon impact and to use the above-described phenomena
accompanying the drop effect on the material to increase effects of high-speed water jets.
This can be achieved by generating sufficiently high-pressure pulsations of the
pressure liquid upstream the nozzle, resulting in the formation of pulsating liquid jets.
One of approaches to solve the problem of generating pulsating jets is based on the
Fig. 2. Numerical simulation of the impact of a spherical drop of water on a solid surface at the
velocity of 200 ms−1 at the moment of maximum impact pressure (top: impact pressure
distribution; bottom: radial velocity of the flow on the surface).
Fig. 3. Numerical simulation of the impact of a spherical drop of water on a solid surface at the
velocity of 200 ms−1 at the moment of maximum of radial velocity of the flow on the surface
(top: impact pressure distribution; bottom: radial velocity of the flow on the surface).
generation of acoustic waves by the action of an acoustic actuator on a pressurized fluid

and their transfer through a high pressure system to the nozzle, so-called pulsating jet
generator (see, for example, [6–8]).
58 J. Foldyna
Another possibility of generating pulsating jets represents the use of so-called

hydrodynamic nozzles [9, 10]. In this case, the pressure pulses are generated by the
flow of the pressure fluid through a specially shaped oscillatory chamber, resulting in a
self-excited oscillation of pressure and flow upstream the nozzle exit. The high-speed
jet generated by the hydrodynamic nozzle then has a character similar to the pulsating
jet as can be seen in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Visualized high-speed pulsating water jets. Top: Acoustically generated pulsating water
jet (10 MPa, 20 kHz; bottom: Pulsating jet generated by hydrodynamic nozzle (8 MPa,
9.5 kHz).
To be able to evaluate the performance of continuous and pulsating jets, their

erosion effects were compared in the laboratory.
3 Experimental Procedure
The objective of presented work was to compare erosion effects of water jets generated
by various types of nozzles. Three types of the nozzles were selected for the com-
parison: StoneAge Attack Tip AP4 0.038” (0.965 mm) for generation of continuous jet,
pulsating water jet generator 20 kHz equipped with StoneAge Attack Tip AP4 0.038”
(0.965 mm), and hydrodynamic nozzle HDN-01-11.
Firstly, the actual flow rate at two levels of pressure (10 and 20 MPa) was measured
to define nozzle discharge coefficients for tested nozzles and to be sure that the roughly
the same water flow rates will be generated by all tested nozzles at given operating
pressure during tests.
Then, optimum standoff distances at operating pressures of 50 and 100 MPa were
determined for individual nozzles by “ramp test” at the traversing velocity of
10 mms−1. Tests were performed on aluminium Al99.5 sheets.
Finally, erosion tests were performed at operating pressures of 50 and 100 MPa and
at five standoff distances selected around optimum standoff distances determined in the
previous stage. Again, the tests were performed at the traversing velocity of 10 mms−1
on aluminium Al99.5 sheets. Hydrodynamic nozzle was tested in two orientations:
(1) jet oscillates perpendicularly to the traversing direction, and (2) jet oscillates in
parallel to the traversing direction (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Orientation of hydrodynamic nozzle in the experiments: (a) jet oscillates perpendicularly
to the traversing direction, (b) jet oscillates in parallel to the traversing direction.
Volumes of removed VR were measured for individual cuts by optical profilometer

FRT MicroProf and material removal rates DVR were calculated.
Results are presented in form of graphs in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. The graphs compare
material removal rates obtained using tested types of jets at pressures of 50 and
100 MPa, respectively.
As can be seen in Fig. 6, jet generated by hydrodynamic nozzle oriented parallel
was able to remove small amounts of material even at 50 MPa. However, its perfor-
mance at this pressure was at the most about 10% of the performance of the pulsating
jet generated at 20 kHz. Continuous jet and jet generated by hydrodynamic nozzle
oriented perpendicularly did not remove any material at the operating pressure of
50 MPa.
At the testing pressure of 100 MPa, there were quite significant differences in the
performance of individual jets (Fig. 7). Whereas material removal rate of the jet
generated by the hydrodynamic nozzle oriented parallel was about 50% lower com-
pared to the pulsating jet generated at 20 kHz, it was still about 3 times higher
60 J. Foldyna
Fig. 6. Material removal rates obtained using tested types of jets at the pressure of 50 MPa.
Fig. 7. Material removal rates obtained using tested types of jets at the pressure of 100 MPa.
compared to that of continuous jet. In addition, the optimum standoff distance was
about 10 mm for the hydrodynamic nozzle (compare to optimum standoff distance of
350 mm for continuous jet).
Material removal rate of the jet generated by the hydrodynamic nozzle oriented
perpendicularly was about 70% lower compared to the pulsating jet generated at
20 kHz. However, it was almost two times higher compared to continuous jet. Again,
optimum standoff distance was about 10 mm for the jet generated by the hydrodynamic
nozzle.
Visual appearance of grooves created by individual jets under optimal conditions
can be seen in Figs. 8 and 9. Continuous jet creates shallow groove with clear features
of small droplet erosion occurring due to natural break-up of the jet at this relatively
large standoff distance (Fig. 8 left). Pulsating jet generated at 20 kHz creates deep
groove by the action of well defined and relatively large pulses of water (Fig. 8 right).
The jet generated by the hydrodynamic nozzle oriented perpendicularly creates wider
but shallower groove due to oscillations of the jet perpendicularly to the traversing
direction. Character of the groove created by the jet generated by the hydrodynamic
nozzle oriented parallel is similar (but shallower) to the groove created by pulsating jet.
Fig. 8. 3D surface scan of the groove created by continuous jet at the standoff distance of
350 mm (left) and by pulsating jet generated at 20 kHz and standoff-distance of 65 mm (right) –
operating pressure 100 MPa.
Fig. 9. 3D surface scan of the groove created by the jet generated by the hydrodynamic nozzle
oriented perpendicularly (left) and parallel (right) at the standoff distance of 10 mm – operating
pressure 100 MPa.
5 Conclusion
The experimental tests oriented at the comparison of material removal rate using
various nozzles under roughly the same hydraulic parameters of generated jets were
performed. The experiments proved superior performance of the pulsating jet generated
at 20 kHz at both testing pressures 50 and 100 MPa. Continuous jet was able to
remove material only at the pressure of 100 MPa at large standoff distances with
62 J. Foldyna
optimum standoff distance about 350 mm. Even the tested hydrodynamic nozzle does
not achieve performance of the pulsating jet nozzle at 20 kHz, the hydrodynamic
nozzle exhibits great potential for significant improvement of water jetting perfor-
mance. There are still some opened questions regarding the manufacturing of the
hydrodynamic nozzles because the quality of their internal surfaces (especially in
nozzle outlet) seems to be crucial for generation of highly effective pulsating water jets.
Acknowledgement. The work presented in the paper was performed under the support of the
project the Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and the Utilization of Raw Materials for
Energy Use – Sustainability program, reg. no. LO1406 financed by the Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic, and the long-term conceptual development of the
research institution RVO: 68145535. The author is thankful for the support.
References
1. Ovid: Epistulae ex Ponto, IV, 10, 5 (expanded in the Middle Ages)
2. Raghavan, C., Ting, E.: Hyper pressure water jet cutting of thin sheet metal. In: Labus, T.
J. (ed.). In: Proceedings of 6th American Water Jet Conference, pp. 493–504. Water Jet
Technology Association (1991)
3. Hancox, N.L., Brunton, J.H.: The erosion of solids by the repeated impact of liquid drops.
Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. A. Math. Phys. Sci. 1110(260), 121–139 (1966)
4. de Haller, P.: Untersuchungen über die durch Kavitation hervorgerufenen Korrosionen.
Schweizerische Bauzeitung 21& 22(101), 243–246, 260–264 (1933)
5. Klich, J., Klichová, D., Foldyna, V., Hlaváček, P., Foldyna, J.: Influence of variously
modified surface of aluminium alloy on the effect of pulsating water jet. Strojniski Vestnik-J.
Mech. Eng. 10(63), 577–582 (2017)
6. Foldyna, J., Švehla, B.: Method of generation of pressure pulsations and apparatus for
implementation of this method. US patent No. 7,934,666 (2011)
7. Zeleňák, M., Foldyna, J., Ščučka, J., Hloch, S., Říha, Z.: Visualisation and measurement of
high-speed pulsating and continuous water jets. Measurement 72, 1–8 (2015)
8. Lehocká, D., Klich, J., Foldyna, J., Hloch, S., Królczyk, J.B., Cárach, J., Krolczyk, G.:
Copper alloys disintegration using pulsating water jet. Measurement 82, 375–383 (2016)
9. Říha, Z.: Tool and hydrodynamic nozzle for generating high-pressure pulsating jet of liquid
without cavitation and saturated vapors. Czech patent No. 306290 (2016)
10. Klich, J., Říha, Z., Foldyna, V.: Influence of hydrodynamic nozzle wear on erosion effect of
self-excited pulsating water jet. In: Klichová, D., Sitek, L. (eds.) Water Jet 2017 – Research,
Development, Applications, pp. 73–80. Ústav geoniky AV ČR, Ostrava (2017)
Investigation on Pulsating Liquid Jet
with Physiological Saline on Aluminium
Surface
Akash Nag1(&), Sergej Hloch2,3, Amit Rai Dixit1,

and Dominik Cuha2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, India
akashnag1992@gmail.com
2
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TU of Košice with the seat in Prešov,
Bayerova 1, 080 01 Presov, Slovak Republic
3
Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Studentska 1768,
708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
Abstract. The paper deals with an experimental study related to the influence
of technological parameter namely standoff distance and fluid pressure over
disintegration depth created on aluminium surface. The fluid used for disinte-
gration is 0.9% physiological saline. This saline solution with density
1.008 kg/m3 higher than water 0.998 kg/m3, when impacts the surface induces
a larger force leading to deeper disintegration grooves keeping other parameters
constant. Special nozzle having diameter of 0.3 mm and 100 mm length was
used during disintegration process. A minimal pressure ranging from 8 MPa to
16 MPa along with standoff distance of 1 mm to 6 mm is varied to observe its
interactional effect over the depth formed during disintegration process. Groove
depth was measured using FRT device in which 10 readings of each groove
were recorded and their mean were considered for further analysis. The results
concluded that for intermediate values of standoff distance (3–4 mm) and higher
fluid pressure (13–16 MPa), deeper grooves were observed. Deepest mean
groove observed within the experimental domain was of 183 µm deep at 2 mm
standoff distance and 16 MPa fluid pressure. The experiments concluded that
saline jet can be used for disintegration of material effectively.
Keywords: Pulsating liquid jet Physiological saline Aluminium

Depth Profile
1 Introduction
The disintegration of materials by using water jet process started decades ago. They
were initially used for disintegrating rocks for coal mining [1] and for cleaning and
removal of layers or coatings from materials surface [2]. This technology was then
further used in food processing [3] and stone craving industries [4]. The efficiency of
the method reduced while being used to machine hard to cut material having high
strength, toughness and hardness. The existing technology had to use high-pressure

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_8
64 A. Nag et al.
pumps, which generated high water pressure (upto 620 MPa) resulting into a high-
velocity (200–800 m/s) water jet at the outlet of the nozzle which could create crack
and propagate it into the material for the further failure of material being disintegrated
[5]. Some modification to the technology was done by suspending small abrasive
grains which enhanced its machinability to a large extent. It is used to disintegrate hard
to cut materials [6], super alloys [7] and composite materials [8]. In this technique, the
water carries the abrasive grains suspended in it, at a higher velocity to strike the
material surface to erode it. Induction of abrasive grains in the water stream improves
the usage of this technique even at a lower pressure as compared to pure water jet
machining. This technology is also being used for the turning operation on hard to
machine materials [9]. Shortcomings with both the variants are that it uses high
pressure fluid which requires high pressure generating pumps, large consumption of
water and abrasives [10]. With intervention of water jet in biomedical applications [11],
it requires low pressure fluid compatible with biological environment to be used. To
crater these shortcomings, a new technique namely pulsating liquid jet (PLJ) was
invented. Pulsating water jet (PWJ) was created by inducing pulsations in the form of
shock waves by a piezoelectric transducer, which propagates along the water jet. These
pulsations in the water jet create a hammering effect when interacting with the material
surface. Due to this cyclic hammering, much lower water pressure can disintegrate the
material considering all other parameters same as compared to an abrasive water jet.
Nebekar et al. [12] made a device to produce and utilize the series of liquid clusters
from the continuous water stream, generated by an internal stream modulator to dis-
integrate rocks and other materials. Drawback faced by this setup was a small lifetime
of rotating parts of the modulator. Generation of pulsation using a helmotz oscillator
was done by Shen and Wang [13]. Irregularities in the flow were created by a change in
flow cross section which led to creation of pulsation. This technique of generation of
pulsation lacked the required level of modulations needed for disintegration. Vijay [14]
proposed another method for generating pulsation by using a vibrating transformer
near the nozzle tip, thus creating an ultrasonic field which would help in controlling the
high velocity water flow. This method created cavitation at the nozzle leading to its
high rate of wear. A new method of generation of pulsation was developed by Foldyna
and Svehla [15] which used acoustic waves created by the acoustic transducer, to travel
in a pressurized liquid up till the nozzle tip. These waves travel along with the water
causing it to form bunches, which then successively impact the machined surface to
generate a cyclic loading phenomenon to cause deformation or crack on the impacted
surface. The interaction of jet with surface consists of primarily 2 stages. In the initial
stage a “water hammer” phenomenon is generated which consist of impact of high
pressure liquid on the surface which causes majority damage to the surface. Second
stage comprises fluid flowing outwards from the impacted point. The tangential
velocity with which the fluid travels over the surface is considered approximately to be
5 times the velocity with which it impacted the surface. This velocity creates an added
shear forces on the surface along with the normal forces.
Several researchers have recorded better machining results regarding material
removal and surface finish while performing experiments using PLJ. Hloch et al. [16]
used both continuous water jet and PWJ to disintegrate bone cement. The research
showed the influence of water pressure in case of continuous water jet and pressure
Investigation on Pulsating Liquid Jet 65
along with nozzle geometry in the case of pulsating water jet on penetration depth of
grooves created while disintegrating Palacos R+J bone cement. Foldyna et al. [17]
observed the effect of machining parameters of pulsating water jet such as pressure,
standoff distance and amplitude on the volume removed, surface roughness and surface
topography using aluminium material. Lehocka et al. [18] disintegrated copper alloys
namely brass and bronze, using PWJ. The study primarily focused on the surface
topography, morphology and anisotropy of the material surface after being disinte-
grated by pulsating water jet. Effect of the number of passes and traverse speed on both
the material was analysed. Foldyna et al. [19] studied the influence of the number of
impacts and its velocity upon erosion of stainless steel when impinged by PWJ. Vari-
ation in operating pressure and stand-off distance was studied during experimentation.
A stand-off distance of 40 mm was kept while operating at 10 MPa while 50 mm for
20 and 30 MPa. Exposure time on the material surface was varied from 0.05 s to 5 s.
Bodnarova et al. [20] studied the use of different water jet methods for restoring
concrete structures. Water jet methods included use of continuous and PWJ with both
flat and rotating nozzles. Spray angle of 150 was used in case of flat nozzle. Lehocka
et al. [21] compared the effect of pulsating jet disintegration process on surface
integrity of copper and brass. Surface integrity study included the study of change in
surface layer and strengthening in the subsurface layer. Optical profilometry images
concluded that no definite boundaries were visible after disintegration. Hloch et al. [22]
used different commercially available bone cement to disintegrate using PWJ and study
the effect of water pressure over the material removal and depth of traces created.
Circular nozzle with an orifice diameter 0.7 mm was used during the experiment
keeping stand-off distance of 2 mm and traverse speed 1 mm/s. Water pressure was
varied from 8 to 20 MPa during the experimental runs.
The literature available showed that PLJ can be used effectively in various areas.
Moreover, very limited amount of research considering the influence of the density of
liquid used during the disintegration process has been conducted so far. This research
work is carried out to perceive the effectiveness of 0.9% NaCl solution in terms of
disintegration depth when used in PLJ. It involves a study to observe the influence of
stand-off distance and liquid pressure on the disintegration pattern of aluminium
material being disintegrated at low pressure i.e. under 16 MPa, using 0.9% physio-
logical saline fluid and also to determine the optimal distance of the nozzle from the
work material to achieve deeper disintegration depth.
2 Material and Method
The PLJ setup available in Institute of Geonics of the CAS in Ostrava was used for
conducting the experiments. The setup comprises a Karcher pump (delivering up to
67 l. min−1 at maximum operating pressure of 160 MPa) and ABB IRB 6640-180
robot for controlling the movement of the cutting head. ECOSON WJ-UG_630-40
generator was used to generate the acoustic wave for PLJ with a working frequency of
20 kHz. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1(a, b). Special nozzles for obtaining
deeper grooves were used for this experiment whose technical specifications are
66 A. Nag et al.
mentioned in Table 1. The constant and variable technological parameters considered

during the experiments are enlisted in Table 1.
Fig. 1. (a) ABB robot, with special designed nozzle long 10 mm with diameter 0, 3 mm,
(b) Measurement of disintegrated Aluminium surface by Micro Prof FRT device with the
measurement head SEN 000 03.
Table 1. Experimental values.

Frequency f [kHz] 20
Pressure p [MPa] 8–16
Nozzle diameter d [mm] 0.3
Nozzle length Ld [mm] 100
Stand-off distance Z [mm] 1–6
Traverse speed v [mm/s] 0.5
Material Aluminium
Amplitude A [mm] 14
Liquid Physiological saline (0.9% NaCl)
Pure aluminium plate was used as a work material for conducting all the experi-
ments. Aluminium is a non-magnetic and is highly electrical conductive material. It is
widely used in commercial application due to its high ductility, good corrosion
resistance property, low density and cheaper price. It is currently being used in aircraft
structural frames and automobile parts for its high strength to weight ratio and in
construction industry for its corrosion resistive properties. Aluminium is used for this
experiment for better visualization and understanding the effect of the process
parameter in form of distinguishable grooves formed over the surface of the material
after being disintegrated by PLJ due to its inherent properties of the material.
The liquid used for the disintegration of the work material was 0.9% NaCl solution
in water commonly known as physiological saline. This sterile solution is isotonic to
body fluid and is utilized to keep living tissue temporarily and is additionally used as a
solvent for parenterally administered drugs. Physiological saline as the working fluid
was used to observe the effect of change in density of the fluid over the disintegration
depth. The technological advantage of saline water is primarily in term of impact force
induced on the material during the disintegration process. Impact force exerted by a
liquid jet on a stationary object kept perpendicular to the axis of the jet is given by
Eq. 1. Density of 0.9% physiological saline is 1.0046 kg/m3 as compared to density of
water which is 0.998 kg/m3 at 20 °C. This increment in density of fluid keeping other
parameters constant, leads to increase in the impact force during the disintegration
process.
F ¼ qAv2 ð1Þ
Where q = Density of fluid, A is cross section of the impacted area and v is the
velocity of the jet.
The grooves formed by the jet were scanned by MicroProf FRT device for mea-
surement of the depth. 10 depth readings at an interval of 2 mm for each groove were
recorded and there means were calculated for obtaining the optimum depth achieved at
each combination of technological parameters. This optimized value would indicate the
optimal parameter that can be used for effective disintegration of the aluminium
workpiece within the given experimental domain.
3 Result and Discussion
Experimental runs at each combination of pressure and stand – off distance were
carried out according to the experimental Table 1. Pictorial view of material after being
disintegrated is shown Fig. 2.
The depth values of the grooves varied according to the technological parameter of
the system and characteristic of the material. In some experimental runs no visible
traces of disintegration was observed in the material. The mean values of each trace
with visible groove depth along with the standard deviation of the depth values are
plotted against the stand-off distance. Figure 3 shows variation in the depth at pressure
values 16 and 15 MPa whereas depth variation occurred for pressure values 14–8 MPa
is shown in Fig. 4.
The trend of groove depth is similar for higher pressure i.e. 16 and 15 MPa while
the depth profile shows uniformity in the trend for the working pressure below 15 MPa
up to 8 MPa. The depth of the grooves increases with an increase in the stand-off
distance until an optimum point and then decreases with further increase in the stand-
off distance [17]. The reason for such trend can be stated as the non-formation of fully
developed pulsations during the initial stage of the flow at a lower stand-off distance. In
absence of these pulsations, it acts as a continuous liquid jet leading to ineffective and
shallower disintegration groove. However, with an increase in the stand-off distance,
the liquid jet enters a transition zone in which fully developed liquid wave fronts are
produced having significant amount of energy which when impacts the material surface
causes considerable plastic deformation. These plastic deformation leads to compres-
sion of nearby surrounding material, inducing stress in the surface and sub-surface. Due
to this phenomenon deeper grooves are formed at a higher stand-off distance. Upon
68 A. Nag et al.
Fig. 2. Traces on sample created at pressures levels from 16 to 8 MPa, using physiological
saline.
Fig. 3. Variation of depth at 16 MPa and 15 MPa pressure with variable standoff distance.
further increase in the stand-off distance, the influence of external atmosphere becomes
dominant causing the high velocity jet to break down into clusters of droplets of liquid.
This phenomenon makes the pulsations lose its disintegrating ability and leads to a
lower depth of the grooves. The working pressure also influences the erosion capability
of the jet [16]. With an increase in pressure, the kinetic energy with which the jet exit
the nozzle increases which in turn increases the impact energy. This jet when strikes the
Fig. 4. Variation of depth at 14–8 MPa pressure with variable standoff distance.
surface of the material induces stresses higher than the ultimate strength of the material,
causing it to deform. Due to this deformation, larger material erosion takes place and
deeper grooves are formed. For a working pressure of 16 MPa and 15 MPa, the pro-
cess shows larger disintegrating property in form of grooves which starts to be visible
for stand-off distance as small as 1 mm and increases with the increase in distance.
After a certain increase in depth, it decreases with further increase in the stand-off
distance due to breaking up of jet in clusters of liquid droplets. The erosion depth
obtained at 16 MPa pressure was higher than compared to 15 MPa due to higher
momentum exchange between the jet and the material. For grooves formed by working
pressure lower than 13 MPa does not show any traces of erosion for a 1 mm stand-off
distance. However, for higher stand-off distance distinguishable groves were formed.
The maximum depth value of the grooves obtained for each working pressure,
decreases with the decrease in the pressure. Grooves created while disintegrating the
material at 8 MPa were noticeable only for 3 mm and 4 mm stand-off distance due to
low pressure values. The results of the experiments showed that a deeper removal of
material can be achieved by proper selection of values of input parameters.
4 Conclusion
Disintegration of material using saline jet was carried out effectively. Distinguishable
grooves caused due to erosion of aluminium were observed over material surface. The
results showed that at a lower value of nozzle distance from the surface (1–2 mm),
shallow groove depth were obtained. However, with an increase in the nozzle distance
(3–4 mm), the depth of the grooves increased steadily and maximum depth was
obtained at this range of standoff distance. With a larger increase in the standoff
distance (5–6 mm), the pulsation loses its effectiveness and again a low depth grooves
70 A. Nag et al.
are obtained. Fluid pressure also influenced the depth proportionally i.e. with increase
in fluid pressure the depth of the grooves increased. Maximum mean depth of
182.69 µm was observed at 16 MPa pressure and 2 mm Standoff distance.
The experimentation with saline fluid opens a new direction for research involving
disintegration of biomaterials such as bone cement, whose bio-physical properties gets
disturb while being disintegrated by non-bio compatible methods. Using 0.9% physi-
ological saline jet at low pressure values in PLJ can overcome the demerit faced by
other techniques and can be effectively used for medical purposes.
References
1. Barham, D.K., Buchanan, D.J.: A review of water jet assisted cutting techniques for rock and
coal cutting machines. Min. Eng. 6–14 (1987)
2. Folkes, J.: Waterjet—An innovative tool for manufacturing. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209,
6181–6189 (2009)
3. Van den Berg, R.W., Hoogland, H., Lelieveld, H.L.M., Van Schepdael, L.: High pressure
equipment designs for food processing applications. In: Ultra High Pressure Treatments of
Foods, pp. 297–313. Springer (2001)
4. Ozcelik, Y., Tercan, A.E., Yilmazkaya, E., Ciccu, R., Costa, G.: A Study of nozzle angle in
stone surface treatment with water jets. Constr. Build. Mater. 25, 4271–4278 (2011)
5. Kong, C.: Water-Jet Cutting BT - CIRP Encyclopedia of Production Engineering. Presented
at the (2014)
6. Hloch, S., Hlaváček, J., Vasilko, K., Cárach, J., Samardžić, I., Kozak, D., Hlavatý, I.,
Ščučka, J.J., Klich, J., Klichová, D.: Abrasive waterjet (AWJ) titanium tangential turning
evaluation. Metalurgija 53, 537–540 (2014)
7. Cárach, J., Hloch, S., Petrů, J., Nag, A., Gombár, M., Hromasová, M.: Hydroabrasive
disintegration of rotating Monel K-500 workpiece. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 96, 981–
1001 (2018)
8. Nag, A., Srivastava, A.K., Dixit, A.R., Chattopadhyaya, S., Mandal, A., Klichová, D.,
Hlaváček, P., Zeleňák, M., Hloch, S.: Influence of abrasive water jet turning parameters on
variation of diameter of hybrid metal matrix composite. In: Applications of Fluid Dynamics,
pp. 495–504. Springer (2018)
9. Nag, A., Ščučka, J., Hlavacek, P., Klichová, D., Srivastava, A.K., Hloch, S., Dixit, A.R.,
Foldyna, J., Zelenak, M.: Hybrid aluminium matrix composite AWJ turning using olivine
and Barton garnet. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 94, 2293–2300 (2018)
10. Azmir, M.A., Ahsan, A.K.: Investigation on glass/epoxy composite surfaces machined by
abrasive water jet machining. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 198, 122–128 (2008)
11. Honl, M., Rentzsch, R., Müller, G., Brandt, C., Bluhm, A., Hille, E., Louis, H., Morlock, M.:
The use of water-jetting technology in prostheses revision surgery—first results of parameter
studies on bone and bone cement. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 53, 781–790 (2000)
12. Nebeker, E.B., Rodriguez, S.E.: Percussive water jets for rock cutting. In: Proceedings of the
Third International Symposium on Jet Cutting Technology, pp. 11–13 (1976)
13. Shen, Z.H., Wang, Z.M.: Theoretical analysis of a jetdriven Helmholtz resonator and effect
of its configuration on the water jet cutting property. In: Proceedings of the 9th Int.
Symposium of Jet Cutting Technology/Cranfield, pp. D4–189 (1988)
14. Vijay, M.M.: Ultrasonically generated cavitating or interrupted jet (1992)
15. Foldyna, J., Svehla, B.: Method of generation of pressure pulsations and apparatus for
implementation of this method (2010)
16. Hloch, S., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Zeleňák, M., Hlaváček, P., Hvizdoš, P., Kľoc, J., Monka,
P., Monková, K., Kozak, D., Magurová, D.: Disintegration of bone cement by continuous
and pulsating water jet. Tech. Gaz. 20, 593–598 (2013)
17. Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Ščučka, J., Martinec, P., Valíček, J., Páleníková, K.: Effects of
pulsating water jet impact on aluminium surface. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209, 6174–
6180 (2009)
18. Lehocka, D., Klich, J., Foldyna, J., Hloch, S., Krolczyk, J.B., Carach, J., Krolczyk, G.M.:
Copper alloys disintegration using pulsating water jet. Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed. 82, 375–
383 (2016)
19. Foldyna, J., Klich, J., Hlavacek, P., Zelenak, M., Scucka, J.: Erosion of Metals by Pulsating
Water Jet. Teh. Vjesn. Gaz. 19, 381–386 (2012)
20. Bodnárová, L., Sitek, L., Hela, R., Foldyna, J.: New potentional of high-speed water jet
technology for renovating concrete structures. Slovak J. Civ. Eng. 19, 1–7 (2011)
integrity characteristics of CW004A copper and CW614 N brass. Measurement 110, 230–
238 (2017)
22. Hloch, S., Foldyna, J., Pude, F., Kľoc, J., Zeleňák, M., Hvizdoš, P., Monka, P., Smolko, I.,
Ščučka, J., Kozak, D.: Experimental in-vitro bone cements disintegration with ultrasonic
pulsating water jet for revision arthroplasty. Teh. Vjesn. Znan. časopis Teh. Fak. Sveučilišta
u Osijeku. 22, 1609–1615 (2015)
Parametric Study During Abrasive Water Jet
Turning of Hybrid Metal Matrix Composite
Ashish Kumar Srivastava1,2(&), Akash Nag2, Amit Rai Dixit2,

Sandeep Tiwari3, and Vishal Shankar Srivastava1
1
GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Greater Noida, GB Nagar, UP, India
ashish7185@gmail.com
2
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
3
Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad, UP, India
Abstract. The growing demand of efficient materials in automobile and aircraft

industries originates the development of metal matrix composites (MMCs) with
excellent properties such as higher strength, hardness and stiffness, better cor-
rosive and wear resistance and thermal properties. However, these materials are
not produced at a larger scale because of its poor machining performance due to
the presence of hard abrasive particle which leads to high tool wear and meager
machining outputs. This paper deals with the abrasive waterjet turning of the
newly developed hybrid MMC of A359/B4C/Al2O3 produced by electromag-
netic stir casting method. The main aim of the study is to discuss the effect of
process parameters of abrasive waterjet machin2ing on outcomes such as sur-
face roughness and metal removal rate. Response surface methodology and
ANOVA analysis has been applied to discuss the significant level of process
parameters and their mathematical relations. The results reveals that each output
response considered in the study was significantly affected by the machining
process parameters. The surface roughness is found in the range of 6.0545 µm
to 8.3825 µm, and MRR varies from 434.72 mm3/min to 565.02 mm3/min.
Keywords: Abrasive waterjet turning Surface roughness

Material removal rate
1 Introduction
In the present scenario of manufacturing industries, the demand for a new class
of engineering materials is escalating continuously. Such materials must possess
exceptional properties like high strength to weight ratio, better wear and corrosion
resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, etc. The combination of these
properties in a particular material accelerates the manufacturing of advanced materials
like composites [1]. Among all types of composites, metal matrix composites (MMCs)
are one of the superior materials for engineering applications. MMCs are the homo-
geneous phase of two distinct materials. One is a metallic phase of matrix and other is a
non-metallic phase of reinforcement which is dispersed in the matrix of metallic phase
[2]. In the automobile industry, aluminium based MMCs (AMMCs) are used at a larger

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_9
Parametric Study During Abrasive Water Jet 73
scale due to its favourable properties like lightweight, upgraded mechanical and
thermal properties, better corrosive and wear resistance [3]. MMCs have favorable
mechanical and physical properties, but the machinability of these materials is still a
challenging task. MMCs have high hardness, and the presence of the hard ceramic
particle, which is abrasive in nature leads to the reduced machining results low tool life
[4]. Conventional machining, particularly turning is widely used for most of the
MMCs, but due to high tool wear, it proves expensive [5]. From past few years, the
development of non-conventional turning is introduced as a substitute of conventional
turning which provides better machining results [6]. The newly developed turning
methods in the non-conventional field is abrasive waterjet turning (AWJT). The turning
mechanisms of these methods are different to conventional methods like it does not
involve the physical contact of tools to the workpiece material [7]. Abrasive waterjet
machining (AWJM) removes the workpiece material by plastic deformation caused due
to the impact force of high-velocity abrasive particle entrained in the high-pressure
water jet [8]. This technique was initially used for cutting of rocks and mining purposes
[9]. Abrasive waterjet turning (AWJT) is a variant of AWJM in which a rotary axis
added to the traditional AWJ setup to machine the cylindrical workpiece. In this
process, the machining starts at the circumference of the workpiece and is slowly fed
along workpiece axis [10]. In AWJT, the jet strikes the workpiece surface at a par-
ticular angle and moves in the axial direction to lengthen the cutting operation [11].
Many researchers have done many experiments using AWJT. Some of the sig-
nificant works are mentioned here. Hashish [12] first investigated the turning operation
via abrasive waterjet process. The first operation was done on MMC of magnesium
boron carbide, glass and aluminium to make specimens for tensile testing. Effect
of traverse speed, rotation speed, jet angle, and lateral feed increment has been dis-
cussed to express the surface quality and texture. Hloch et al. [9] performed tangential
turning on titanium grade 3 using abrasive waterjet at varying traverse speed
(1.5 to 7.5 mm/min). The workpiece diameter was taken 55 mm and abrasive used was
garnet (60 mesh size). Hlavacek et al. [10] investigated the effect of traverse speed,
rotational speed and direction of rotation on surface quality of sandstone workpiece
with AWJ turning. The diameter of workpiece was taken 50 mm. The traverse speed
and rotational speed were considered as a variable process and made in the range of 10
to 60 mm/min and 17 to 34 rpm respectively. Sitek and Hlavacek [13] discussed
the positive and negative aspects of the AWJ turning process and also examine
the behaviour of various materials like rocks, woods, graphite and several metals.
Carach et al. [14] studied the influence of traverse speed on machined surface while
turning Incoloy alloy 925. The drilling of hybrid MMC A356/Sic/Mica was reported by
Rajmohan and Palanikumar [15]. They studied the effect of machining parameters on
thrust force, surface roughness and burr height. RSM techniques has been applied to
get the set of optimized process parameters. Srivastava et al. [16] provided the com-
prehensive development in the field of non-conventional machining on composite
materials. They also discussed the merits and demerits of AWJ process over other
conventional and non-conventional methods regarding machining performance. Sri-
vastava et al. [17] has discussed the AWJ turning of hybrid MMC to evaluate
the surface integrity by varying the traverse speed. They reported the elements
of surface integrity such as roughness parameters, 3D surface visualization, surface
74 A. K. Srivastava et al.
topography and surface morphology. Lehocka et al. [18] has compared the surface
integrity of copper (CW004A) and brass (CW614 N) after acoustically enhanced
pulsed waterjet cutting. They discuss the strengthening of surface and subsurface
layers. Optical profilometry was used to discuss the topographical descriptions. Ravi
Kumar et al. [19] has worked on abrasive waterjet machining of aluminium/tungsten
carbide composites. They discuss the effect of process parameters on machining out-
comes as well as microstructural changes. Srivastava [20] investigated the effect of
peening on austenitic stainless steel by ultrasonically assisted pulsating waterjet. Sur-
face residual stresses, microhardness and topographical studies were determined at
varying traverse speed ranges from 0.25 mm/sec to 2 mm/sec. By the literature above,
it can be concluded that the AWJ turning process still needs a detailed study for precise
solutions like improved surface integrity and better output responses. The aim of the
present study is to examine the effect of process parameters of AWJ turning on
machining outcomes such as surface roughness and MRR.
In this study, A359 alloy is used as a base metal. The elemental composition of the
A359 alloy is given in Table 1. The reinforcements are used as B4C and Al2O3. The
thermophysical properties of all selected materials are given in Table 2. The particles
size of the reinforcement materials Al2O3 and B4C are 15 lm and 30 lm, respectively.
These reinforcements are added to the matrix material in the portions of 2%, each by
weight.
Table 1. Elemental composition of A359 [21].

Element Si Cu Mg Mn Fe Zn Ti Al
%age 8.5–9.5 0.2 0.5–0.7 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 Remaining
Table 2. Thermo-physical properties of A359 alloy Al2O3 and B4C [22].

Density Thermal conductivity Specific gravity Melting
(gm/cm3) W/m0 K (gm/cm3) point °C
A359 2.66 152 2.68 600
Al2O3 3.2 100 3.7 2072
B4C 2.52 30–42 2.51 2445
An electromagnetic stir casting process is used to develop the hybrid composites.

The detailed study about fabrication process is discussed in one of our published work
[21]. The mechanical and thermal properties of tested hybrid MMC is given in Table 3.
The experimental work of AWJ turning is performed on WJ2020-2Z-1xPJ waterjet
machine made of PTV, specially designed for cutting with water and abrasive water jet.
Table 3. Basic physical and mechanical properties of the tested hybrid MMC A359/Al2O3/B4C
[22].
Composite Density Strength Hardness Thermal Toughness
(gm/cm3) (MPa) (HRC) conductivity (J/m2)
(W/m.K)
A359/Al2O3/B4C 2.723 119.2 54.4 136 10.1
The water pressure is generated by PTV75-60 pump with two pressure intensifiers
(operating pressure of 40–415 MPa, max. flow of 7.8 lmin−1 at 415 MPa). The pro-
cess parameters selected for the study purpose are abrasive mass flow rate, traverse
speed of nozzle and rotational speed of workpiece. The working range of these process
parameters is decided by machine specifications and from the results of the pilot runs.
Table 4 shows the process parameters for AWJ turning and their level of design.
Table 4. Variable process parameters in AWJT process and their level of design.
S. No. Process parameters Symbol Level of
design
−1 0 +1
1 Abrasive mass flow rate (gm/min) A 200 300 400
2 Traverse speed (mm/min) B 10 20 30
3 Rotational speed (rpm) C 200 400 600
The other technological parameters are kept constant and are given in Table 5.
Three levels of machining are decided for each process parameter. A cylindrical
workpiece of selected hybrid MMC of diameter 20 mm is used for turning purpose.
Each experiment is performed for 10 mm turning length, and a depth of cut is 4 mm.
The turning operation of AWJT is shown in Fig. 1.
Table 5. Constant technological conditions of AWJ turning.

Parameters Value
Workpiece diameter (mm) 20
Length of turning (mm) 10
Depth of cut (mm) 4
Pressure of water p (MPa) 400
Water nozzle diameter ⌀ do (mm) 0.33
Focusing tube diameter ⌀ df (mm) 0.9
Standoff distance z (mm) 9
Theoretical diameter (mm) 16
Position of cutting head u (°) 90
Used abrasives Australian garnet
Size df (MESH) 80
Fig. 1. Turning mechanism and machining zone in AWJT process [23].
Two output responses namely surface roughness and MRR were selected to
evaluate the machining performance. Response surface methodology (RSM) is used to
analyse and optimise the response variables. Minitab 17 software is used to develop the
model and mathematical relations by the Box-Behnken design of response surface
methodology. The box-Behnken design is selected for all combination of the factors at
three levels (high +1 and low −1), three central points at confidence level 95% and
significance level 5%. The process involved 15 experimental observations at random
sets of the design of three input variables.
The machinability of hybrid MMC is analysed for AWJ turning. Table 6 shows
the experimental design and set of input parameters for each experiment along with
experimental observations of output responses. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test
is conducted to verify the significance of the model, model terms, lack of fits and error.
Table 7 shows the ANOVA results for surface roughness and MRR.
From the ANOVA results, it is clear that the quadratic mathematical model
designed for all response variables are significant for the analysis. It is indicated from
the ANOVA table that all three process parameters have a significant effect
on the responses surface roughness and MRR. The calculated F-values are found
greater than the standard F-values (6.61) for the significant terms. It indicates
the negligible effect of residuals in the model which is desirable for an error proof
equation. The final predicted regression equations regarding coded factors for surface
roughness and MRR are shown in Eqs. 1 and 2.
Surface roughness ðlmÞ ¼ 9:860 0:00644 Abrasive mass flow rate 0:0306 Traverse Speed
þ 0:00022 Rotational speed 0:000003 Abrasive mass flow rate2
þ 0:000861 Traverse Speed2 þ 0:000002 Rotational speed2
ð1Þ
þ 0:000061 Abrasive mass flow rate Traverse Speed
0:000007 Abrasive mass flow rate Rotational speed
0:000018 Traverse Speed Rotational speed
Table 6. Experimental design and output responses in AWJT process.

Run Abrasive mass Traverse Rotational Surface MRR
Order flow rate (ma) speed (v) speed (N) roughness (mm3/
(µm) min)
1 300 10 600 7.2654 504.94
2 300 30 600 7.4514 436.76
3 400 20 200 6.6587 565.02
4 200 10 400 8.1654 520.32
5 200 20 600 8.2256 434.72
6 300 10 200 7.2965 544.16
7 300 20 400 7.1155 517.73
8 300 20 400 7.2687 514.48
9 200 30 400 8.3825 438.41
10 300 30 200 7.6254 509.12
11 400 20 600 6.0545 521.48
12 300 20 400 7.3215 521.03
13 400 10 400 6.0884 551.94
14 200 20 200 8.2556 517.76
15 400 30 400 6.5488 535.69
Table 7. ANOVA results in AWJT process.

Source SS DOF MS F F Value p-value
Value (std)
Surface roughness
Model 7.80 9 0.87 83.67 4.77 <0.0001
Abrasive mass flow rate 7.37 1 7.37 711.9 6.61 <0.0001
Traverse speed 0.18 1 0.18 17.17 6.61 0.0090
Rotational speed 0.088 1 0.088 8.51 6.61 0.0332
Abrasive mass flow 0.015 1 0.015 1.43 6.61 0.2855
rate Traverse speed
rate Rotational speed
Traverse speed Rotational .00511 1 .00511 0.49 6.61 0.5139
speed
Residual 0.052 5 0.010
Lack of fit 0.029 3 0.0096 0.84 5.41 0.5836
Pure error 0.023 2 0.011
Cor total 7.85 14
R-Sqr. = 99.34% Adj R-Sqr. = 98.15% Pre. R-Sqr. 93.46%
Material removal rate
Model 23221.65 9 2580.1 230.15 4.77 <0.0001
Abrasive mass flow rate 8640.87 1 8640.8 770.76 6.61 <0.0001
Traverse speed 5069.24 1 5069.2 452.18 6.61 <0.0001
(continued)
Table 7. (continued)
Source SS DOF MS F F Value p-value
Value (std)
Rotational speed 7090.02 1 7090.0 632.43 6.61 <0.0001
rate Traverse Speed
rate Rotational speed
Traverse speed Rotational 274.56 1 274.56 24.49 6.61 0.0043
speed
Residual 56.05 5 11.21
Lack of fit 34.60 3 11.53 1.08 5.41 0.5150
Pure error 21.45 2 10.73
Cor total 23277.70 14
R-Sqr. = 99.76% Adj R-Sqr. = 99.33% Pre. R-Sqr. 97.41%

MRR mm3 =min ¼ 599:4 0:342 Abrasive mass flow rate 2:353 Traverse Speed
0:0056 Rotational speed þ 0:000242 Abrasive mass flow rate2
0:0858 Traverse Speed2 þ 0:000261 Rotational speed2
ð2Þ
þ 0:01641 Abrasive mass flow rate Traverse Speed
þ 0:000494 Abrasive mass flow rate Rotational speed
0:004142 Traverse Speed Rotational speed
From the ANOVA table, it is clear that all three process parameters have a sig-
nificant effect on surface roughness and MRR of the machined surface. From the
response table, it is also revealed that the minimum surface roughness measured
as 6.0545 µm at abrasive mass flow rate 400 gm/min, traverse speed 20 mm/min
and rotational speed 600 rpm. The maximum surface roughness value is 8.3825 µm
at abrasive mass flow rate 200 gm/min, traverse speed 30 mm/min and rotational speed
400 rpm. The similar range of values were also reported by other researchers [23, 24].
The maximum MRR is measured as 565.02 mm3/min at an abrasive mass flow rate
400 gm/min, traverse speed 20 mm/min and rotational speed 200 rpm. The minimum
MRR is measured as 434.72 mm3/min at an abrasive mass flow rate 200 gm/min,
traverse speed 20 mm/min and rotational speed 600 rpm. Figure 2 shows the 3D
response surfaces of surface roughness against each set of process parameters.
The effect of individual parameters on surface roughness indicated that while
increasing the abrasive mass flow rate and rotational speed, surface roughness
decreases. However, the surface gets rougher at a higher traverse speed of nozzle. It is
due to the fact that the material removal in AWJ process shows the plough nature [17,
22]. If abrasive mass flow rate increases then the mixture of abrasive and water
becomes homogeneous. It increases the continuity in jet density from entry to exit,
which reduces the plough nature and creates a smoother surface. The increase of
traverse speed reduces the interaction of abrasive particle at the machined surface,
Fig. 2. Effect of process parameters on surface roughness in AWJT process.

Fig. 3. Effect of process parameters on MRR in AWJT process.

which leads to increase in the ploughing nature and hence increases the roughness. In
case of MRR (Fig. 3), the analysis of individual process parameters shows that by
increasing the abrasive mass flow rate, MRR also increases. On the other hand, at
increasing traverse speed and the rotational speed of workpiece, MRR decreases. This
is due to the fact that with increase in rotational speed, the deviation of jet increases
which does not allow effective interaction with rotating workpiece and the abrasive jet.
Due to this at higher rpm a lower MRR is obtained. Increasing the abrasive mass flow
rate enhances the number of abrasives striking per unit area of the machined surface
hence the MRR increases.
The above Figs. 2 and 3 revels the effect of individual parameters on the machining
outcomes when it is considers separately. However, it is a difficult task to set the
optimized set of process parameters to get both responses (minimum surface roughness
and maximum MRR) in a single experimental run. Hence, the composite desirability
approach is used to identify the values of process parameters to get a combined
optimised response. The objective is to minimize the surface roughness and maximise
MRR. The feasible response values and corresponding process parameter values are
shown in Fig. 4. The intersection point of red colour line and the response curve will
considered as optimized value of the individual process parameter. It also indicated that
at abrasive mass flow rate of 400 gm/min, traverse speed 10 mm/min and rotational
speed nearly 260 rpm, the optimized set of output responses (minimum surface
roughness 6.1814 µm and maximum MRR 577.94 mm3/min) can be achieved. The
graph indicates that the composite desirability for optimised responses is 93.47%.
Fig. 4. Composite desirability for optimised responses in AWJ process.

It indicates that, if both the response are desired in a single experiment then it can be
achieved by 93.47% of their individual responses.
The modified desirability value of surface roughness and MRR is 87.41%, 99.94%,
respectively. A confirmation experiment was performed to check the validity
of the predicted model. The surface roughness and MRR values are measured
as 6.2565 µm and 561.325 mm3/min, respectively. From results, it can be concluded
that the experimental values are nearly close to the predicted values and hence, proves a
suitable mathematical model for a combined set of machining responses.
4 Conclusion
From the results, it can be concluded that AWJ turning processes can be successfully
applied for the turning of hybrid MMC workpiece. In this case, the material eroded
from the cylindrical surface by striking of high-speed abrasive particles on the
machined surface. The surface roughness is found in the range of 6.0545 µm
to 8.3825 µm, which is quite higher. This is due to the plough nature of AWJ process
with full of furrows and cutting traces which leads to the significantly higher surface
roughness. Another reason of higher surface roughness is the dislodgment of rein-
forcement particles which are not able to cut during turning operation. The minimum
and maximum MRR found in AWJ turning process is 434.72 mm3/min and 565.02
mm3/min, respectively. However, the present work is limited to the machining behavior
of the produced hybrid MMC in terms of surface roughness and MRR only. The other
related works like surface quality can also be considered as future work. The other
methods of non-conventional machining like laser turning can also develop to compare
the machining results and surface quality.
References
1. Srivastava, A., Dixit, A.R., Tiwari, S.: Experimental investigation of wire EDM process
parameters on aluminum metal matrix composite Al2024/SiC. Int. J. Adv. Res. Innov. 2,
511–515 (2014)
2. Hull, D., Clyne, T.W.: An Introduction to Composite Materials. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge (1996)
3. Rohatgi, P.K., Guo, R.Q., Huang, P., Ray, S.: Friction and abrasion resistance of cast
aluminium alloy- fly ash composites. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 28, 245–250 (1997)
4. Garg, H.K., Verma, K., Manna, A., Kumar, R.: Hybrid metal matrix composites and further
improvement in their machinability- A review. Int. J. Latest Res. Sci. Technol. 1(1), 36–44
(2012)
5. Blickwedel, H., Guo, N.S., Haferkamp, H., Louis, H.: Prediction of abrasive jet cutting
performance and quality. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Jet
Cutting Technology, pp. 163–179. Amsterdam, Netherland (1990)
6. Muller, F., Monaghan, J.: Non-conventional machining of particle reinforced metal matrix
composite. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 40, 1351–1366 (2000)
7. Sasimurugan, T., Palanikumar, K.: Analysis of the machining characteristics on surface

roughness of a hybrid aluminium metal matrix composite (Al6061-SiC-Al2O3). J. Miner.
Mater. Charact. Eng. 10(13), 1213–1224 (2011)
8. Cárach, J., Hloch, S., Hlaváček, P., Gombár, M., Klichová, D., Botko, F., Mital, D.,
Lehocká, D.: Hydro-abrasive disintegration of alloy Monel K-500-the influence of
technological and abrasive factors on the surface quality. Procedia Eng. 149, 17–23 (2016)
9. Hloch, S., Hlavacek, J., Vasilko, K., Karach, J., Samardzic, I., Kozak, D., Hlavaty, I.,
Scucka, J., Klichova, D., Klich, J.: Abrasive waterjet (AWJ) titanium tangential turning
evaluation. Metalurgija 53(4), 537–540 (2014)
10. Hlaváček, P., Cárach, J., Hloch, S., Vasilko, K., Klichová, D., Klich, J., Lehocká, D.:
Sandstone turning by abrasive waterjet. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 48, 2489–2493 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-015-0719-9
11. Kok, M.: A Study on the machinability of Al2O3 particle reinforced aluminium alloy
composite. Pract. Metallogr. 46(11), 580–597 (2009)
12. Hashish, M.: Turning with abrasive-waterjets- A first investigation. J. Eng. Ind. 109, 281–
290 (1987)
13. Sitek, L., Hlavacek, P.: Turning of materials with high-speed abrasive water jet. MM Sci.
J. (2016). https://doi.org/10.17973/MMSJ.2016_10_201692
14. Carach, J., Hloch, S., Hlaváček, P., Ščučka, J., Martinec, P., Petrů, J., Zlámal, T., Zeleňák,
M., Monka, P., Lehocká, D., Krolczyk, J.: Tangential turning of Incoloy alloy 925 using
abrasive water jet technology. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 82, 1747–1752 (2016). https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7489-0
15. Rajmohan, T., Palanikumar, K.: Application of the central composite design in optimization
of machining parameters in drilling hybrid metal matrix composites. Measurement 46, 1470–
1481 (2013)
16. Srivastava, A.K., Dixit, A.R., Tiwari, S.: A review on intensification of metal matrix
composites and its non-conventional machining. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater (2016). https://
doi.org/10.1515/secm-2015-0287
17. Srivastava, A.K., Nag, A., Dixit, A.R., Tiwari, S., Scucka, J., Zelenak, M., Hloch, S.,
Hlavacek, P.: Surface integrity in tangential turning of hybrid MMC A359/B 4 C/Al 2 O 3
by abrasive waterjet. J. Manuf. Process. 28, 11–20 (2017)
integrity characteristics of CW004A copper and CW614 N brass. Measurement (2017).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.07.005
19. Ravi Kumar, K., Sreebalaji, V.S., Pridhar, T.: Characterization and optimization of abrasive
water jet machining parameters of Aluminium/Tungsten carbide composites. Measurement
(2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.11.059
20. Srivastavaa, M., Hloch, S., Tripathi, R., Kozak, D., Chattopadhyaya, S., Dixit, A.R.,
Foldyna, J., Hvizdos, P., Fides, M., Adamcik, P.: Ultrasonically generated pulsed water jet
peening of austenitic stainless-steel surfaces. J. Manuf. Process. 32, 455–468 (2018)
21. Srivastava, A.K., Dixit, A.R., Tiwari, S.: Investigation of micro-structural and mechanical
properties of metal matrix composite A359/B4C through electromagnetic stir casting.
Indian J. Eng. Mater. Sci. 23, 171–180 (2016)
22. Nag, A., Ščučka, J., Hlavacek, P., Klichová, D., Srivastava, A.K., Hloch, S., Dixit, A.R.,
Foldyna, J., Zelenak, M.: Hybrid aluminium matrix composite AWJ turning using olivine
and Barton garnet. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 94(5–8), 2293–2300 (2017)
23. Nag, A., Srivastava, A.K., Dixit, A.R., Chattopadhyaya, S., Mandal, A., Klichová, D.,
Hlaváček, P., Zeleňák, M., Hloch, S.: Influence of abrasive water jet turning parameters on
variation of diameter of hybrid metal matrix composite. In: Applications of Fluid Dynamics.
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5329-
0_36
24. Mardi, K.B., Dixit, A.R., Srivastava, A.K., Mallick, A., Scucka, J., Hlaváček, P., Hloch, S.,
Zeleňák, M.: Effect of water pressure during abrasive waterjet machining of Mg-based
nanocomposite. Applications of Fluid Dynamics. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5329-0_46
Effect of Frequency Change During Pulsed
Waterjet Interaction with Stainless Steel
Madhulika Srivastava1(&), Sergej Hloch2,3, Miroslav Muller4,

Monika Hromasová4, Jaromír Cais5, Somnath Chattopadhyaya1,
Amit Rai Dixit1, and Jiří Klich3
1
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines),
826004 Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
madhulikamech3003@gmail.com
2
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TUKE with the seat in Prešov,
Bayerova 1, 08001 Presov, Slovakia
3
Institute of Geonics of the CAS,
Studentska 1768, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
4
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
5
Jan Evangelista Purkyne University, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Abstract. In the present work a detailed effect of pulsating water jet treatment
with the variation of standoff distance on the flat austenitic stainless steel surface
has been studied. During the experimentation, at a traverse speed of 30 mm/s
accidently the change in frequency was encountered in the repeated test (under
same treatment condition) which has been reported in this work. The frequency
was changed from f = 20.11 kHz to f = 20.27 kHz during the treatment process
at the pressure of p = 70 MPa with variation in standoff distance was increased
from z = 5 mm up to z = 101 mm (with step distance of 2 mm between suc-
cessive standoff distance). The change in microstructural topography of the
treated surface under the above-mentioned conditions was observed using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The strengthening mechanism on the
surface and sub-surface region due to the plastic deformation phenomenon
caused by the impact of the pulsating jet was evaluated by Vickers micro-
hardness test. The micro hardness test was conducted along the depth of the
treated region to analyze the effects in the sub-surface layers. Also, the erosion
stages at different standoff distance was evaluated by scanning the surface by
optical MicroProf FRT profilometer in order to analyze the nature of erosion
phenomenon with the variation of standoff distance and frequency during the
treatment process. The results obtained indicates that the change in frequency of
the pulsations and the variation in standoff distance has a significant impact on
the surface integrity of the treated material. As compare to the untreated surface
the hardness of the treated surface was increased up to a certain depth and the
higher frequency of pulsations has shown better improvement in the hardness
values. The above observations elaborated the effect of an important parameter
frequency and standoff distance for better and effective utilization of the tech-
nology for the surface treatment application.
Keywords: Ultrasonic Pulsed Water jet Erosion Integrity

Micro hardness Stainless steel Non-Abrasive water jet

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_10
86 M. Srivastava et al.
1 Introduction
The striking advantages of water jet technology over the years makes it useful for wide
areas of application like cutting, cleaning, surface layer removal, disintegration [1] etc.
However, still the efforts are made to improve the performance of technology from the
environmental and economical point of view [2]. With the recent growth and devel-
opment in the industrialization and technologies, it has become essential to adopt a
method which reduces the power consumption and cost while maintaining its quality.
In view of this the water jet technology has undergone various modifications. In the
recent years a new method of saving the energy and reducing the power consumption is
adopted by increasing the efficiency of the jet in form of pressure pulsations. This
method focusses on the generation of pulses via means of acoustic generators where the
pressure pulsations are initiated by acoustic actuator present inside the acoustic
chamber [3]. The acoustic actuator converts the electric power into mechanical
vibrations and are amplified by the mechanical amplifier. These amplified vibrations
are then transferred from the liquid waveguide to the nozzle system. The acoustic
chamber is equipped with tunable resonant chamber for matching the natural frequency
of the system to the frequency of pressure pulsations [3]. However, there are other
methods adopted for pulse generation like nozzles integrated with mechanical devices,
self-resonating nozzles and ultrasonic nozzles but these methods have certain disad-
vantages like the lifetime of the moving components in mechanical devices is low, in
self-resonating nozzles low depth of modulations of a liquid jet is obtained and in
ultrasonic nozzles high wear rate of the tip of the vibrating transformer and the
increased weight of the cutting tool [3]. The method of generation pulsations by
acoustic generator overcomes the above disadvantages. This method of pulse genera-
tion has been investigated for various applications in the recent years like disintegration
of materials like copper [4], aluminium [5], bone cement [6], stainless steel [2],
descaling applications [7], renovating of concrete surfaces [8], disintegration of rocks
[9]. Foldyna et al. [2] studied the influence of pulsating water jet impact on the erosion
pattern of austenitic stainless steel at an operating pressure of 10 MPa, 20 MPa and
30 MPa. A three stage erosion phenomenon occurred during the treatment process: in
the first stage plastic or brittle deformation in the impacted zone occurs, in the second
stage formation of erosion pits and its merging to form erosion crater takes place, in the
third stage the depth of these craters increases. Foldyna et al. [5] also investigated the
effect of pulsating water jet impact on aluminium surface where the aluminium sample
surface was exposed to various pulsating jets under different operating conditions. The
resulting surface was analyzed using optical microscopy and image analysis and was
observed that pulsating water jet erodes aluminium surface deeply and effectively at a
low pressure of 20 MPa. Klich et al. [10] also observed the effect of pulsating water jet
on aluminium alloy with variously modified surfaces using fan jet nozzle of 2 mm
diameter and 10° splash angle. The erosion of the surface layers were analyzed and its
relation with the varying traverse speed at constant z = 55 mm was studied. The results
obtained by surface roughness analysis showed that the initial surface properties has a
significant effect on the final topography. While investigating the surface topography
obtained by disintegrating the copper alloys (brass and bronze) using pulsating water
Effect of Frequency Change During Pulsed Waterjet Interaction 87
jet [4] (using flat nozzle at a pressure of 40 MPa with z = 55 mm) it was observed that
the average value of the roughness parameters was effected by the tensile strength and
hardness value of the material. At higher traverse speed and number of transitions
lower surface roughness was obtained in bronze however, in the case of brass at lower
traverse speed and the lower number of transitions are suitable surface was obtained.
These applications majorly focused on understanding how variation in process
parameters like jet pressure, traverse speed of the nozzle, diameter and geometry of the
nozzle affects the performance of the technology and its comparison to the other
technologies (continuous water jet, abrasive water jet) [11], but none of these studies
focused on understanding the effect of variation of the standoff distance and frequency
of pulsation during the treatment by ultrasonically generated pulsed water jet. The
present study focusses on determining optimum standoff distance for the surface
treatment application and also the effect of change in frequency of pulsation (which
was encountered accidently during the treatment process) on the surface quality has
been reported.
Initially, the erosion phenomenon on flat austenitic stainless steel (AISI 304) sur-
face with the variation of standoff distance was explored by evaluating the depth of the
treated region using optical MicroProf FRT profilometer. Further, the microstructural
topography of the treated region at various standoff distances was observed under a
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The strengthening effect of the technology was
evaluated by the micro hardness measurements which was conducted along the depth
of the treated surface using Vickers micro hardness tester. Overall, this study elaborated
the effect of an important parameters standoff distance and frequency of pulsations for
better and effective utilization of the technology for the surface treatment application.
2 Materials and Methods
The austenitic stainless steel 304 grade was selected as the material due to its signif-
icant properties like corrosive resistance, high toughness, formability, ductility and
drawability [12]. It is being used for wide applications in mechanical, automotive and
nuclear industries [13]. The stainless steel of grade 304 has also its application in
orthopedics, food and chemical processing industries [14].
The stainless steel AISI 304 sample of size 1000 mm 100 mm 10 mm having
mechanical and chemical properties mentioned in Table 1 was subjected to the treat-
ment process under pulsating water jet machine. The pulsating water jet machine
constitutes: a HAMMELMANN HDP 253 plunger pump (maximum operating pres-
sure of 250 MPa and flow rate of 40 l/min), an ABB robot IRB 6640–180/2.55 which
controls the motion of the PWJ head, and an ultrasonic generator ECOSON WJ-UG-
630-40 which contributes to the pulse generation.
The sample was clamped on the working table with the pulsating water jet head
positioning at 90° to the treated surface (Fig. 1(a)). The treatment was performed under
the experimental conditions mentioned in Table 2 with variation in z from 5 mm to
101 mm (z changing by 2 mm at every 20 mm treated region) under each condition
(Fig. 1(b)).
Table 1. Material composition and mechanical properties.

Material
AISI Chemical C = 0.08%, Mn = 2%, Si = 1%, S = 0.03%, Cr = 18–20%,
304 composition Ni = 8–10.5%, P = 0.04%
Mechanical (Hardness-Brinell) 88, l = 0.27–0.3, E = 200 GPa,
properties rt = 500 MPa, rK = 210 MPa, ductility = 45%
Fig. 1. (a) Experimental setup (b) Scheme adopted for treating the surface by varying the
standoff distance from zmin (minimum standoff distance) to zmax (maximum standoff distance)
Table 2. Experimental Conditions.

S. No. Nozzle d [mm] p [MPa] Amplitude f [kHz] Power v [mm/s] z [mm]
type [mm] [W]
1. Circular 1.19 70 22 20.11 200 30 5–101 [with
2. 20.27 280 step distance
of 2 mm]
In order to understand the erosion phenomenon under the subjected conditions the
treated regions (Fig. 2) was scanned using optical MicroProf FRT profilometer and the
depth of each region was evaluated using SPIP 6.6.1 software. The surface topography
of the treated region was analyzed under a scanning electron microscopy (SEM). To
determine the effect of this plastic deformation the hardness measurements along the
depth of the treated region was conducted using Vickers Hardness testing machine
Shimadzu HMV Micro Hardness Tester under a load of 50 g for 10 s.
Fig. 2. Treated surface at (a) z = 43 mm (b) z = 71 mm.
3.1 Surface Erosion

The surface erosion plays an important role for the surface treatment application as it
affects the service life of the material [15]. It significantly indicates the surface quality
of the component. The treated surface shown in Fig. 2 was scanned using optical
profilometer and the depth of the treated surface is evaluated using SPIP software. The
plot between depth and standoff distance (Fig. 3) shows the nature of the impacting jet
on the surface erosion of the material when the frequency of the pulsations was
changed slightly. In both the conditions, the erosion phenomenon varied with standoff
distance in various stages which shows that the frequency change has effect the erosion
phenomenon. The initial stage of the impact showed no material loss up to z = 35 mm
in case of lower frequency (20.11 kHz) and up to 55 mm in case of higher frequency

(20.27 kHz). Further, as the standoff distance was increased an initiation in the material
removal was observed which was plotted in terms of the depth of the surface generated.
This removal of the material accelerated rapidly till it reaches its maximum value under
each condition. The significant increase in the erosion effect was observed due to the
impact of well developed pulses. Once the depth reaches its maximum value it started
decreasing gradually. This nature could be attributed to diminishing effect of the pulses
into the small droplets which is a result of the aerodynamic drag [5] which reduces the
capacity of the pulsating water jet. With the further evolution in the erosion phe-
nomenon on increasing the standoff distance no depths were observed on the treated
surface.
Fig. 3. Effect of variation of standoff distance on the surface treated with changing frequencies
on depth of the treated surface.
It is evident from the plot Fig. 3 that the slight change in frequency effects the
erosion phenomenon on the treated surface when the other parameters remains con-
stant. In the region between z = 35 mm to 65 mm for the frequency of 20.11 kHz the
erosion effect was prominent and for the frequency 20.27 kHz the z = 55 mm to
75 mm showed the erosion effect. The change in the range of erosion effect with the
changing frequency is due to the break up length of the pulsating water jet i.e. with an
increase in frequency pulses of shorter length will be produced [5]. The difference in
the peak values of the depth obtained under both the frequency conditions is due to the
effect of the striking pulse which hits with maximum energy at the peaks of the
wavefront. In case of high frequency, f = 20.27 kHz the jet didn’t strike the surface at
the peak of the wavefront hence the depth obtained in this condition is low as compare
to the depth obtained in low frequency (f = 20.11 kHz). The change in frequency
encountered during the treatment process is potentially due to the wear of the
sonotrode.
3.2 Microstructural Topography

From the above analysis the range of the standoff distance shows distinct regions of
erosion. Instead of analyzing all the samples three samples were selected from the
above range of z. Through the analysis of the microstructural topography of the treated
surface the erosion phenomenon of the treatment process by pulsating water jet tech-
nology can be understood more widely. The several magnified images at selected
locations at a magnification of 200 X is presented here. The Fig. 3 shows the surface
topography of the samples treated under same conditions with slight variation in fre-
quencies of 20.11 kHz and 20.27 kHz at z = 43 mm, 61 mm and 75 mm. It is evident
from the Fig. 3 that the surface treated at a lower frequency (20.11 kHz) at smaller
z = 43 mm shows the presence of deep depressions (Fig. 4(a)) at distinct locations was
observed as the result of the surface erosion is caused by the well-developed impacting
pulsed water jet. This is in corresponds to the depth vs standoff distance plot Fig. 3
where the maximum depth (307 µm) was obtained at z = 43 mm. These deep
depressions indicate that the striking jet has enough impact force to cause serious
plastic deformations on the surface which also affects the material quality. As the
standoff distance was increased up to 61 mm these depressions disappeared but the
even removal of the surface layers was observed (Fig. 4(b)). On further increase in
z = 75 mm no deep depressions were observed rather a surface irregularity was gen-
erated (Fig. 4(c)) due to the diminishing effect of pulsed jet with droplets.
With the slight increase in the frequency to 20.27 kHz the surface topography
under the same conditions as previous (other parameters remaining constant only
z varies as 43 mm, 61 mm and 75 mm) changes. At the z = 43 mm some surface
irregularities was observed (Fig. 4(d)) because of the nature of the impacting jet. In this
range the cyclical impact of the pulse is not enough to exceed fracture strength of the
material therefore, fewer deformations were observed on the surface. As the standoff
distance was increased up to z = 61 mm, deep depressions appeared on the surface
(Fig. 4(e)) due to the impact of well-developed pulsating jet. This can be related to the
depth vs standoff distance plot (Fig. 3) obtained where the maximum depth (98 µm)
was obtained at z = 61 mm. This signifies that the stream of pulsating water jet is
capable of causing enough impact force to cause heavy deformations on the surface.
With an increase of z = 75 mm large surface erosion (Fig. 4(f)) at a distinct location
was observed. This is due to the fact that the shear stress developed by the cyclic
impact of the pulsed water jet tends to exceed the fracture strength of the material,
causing large erosion on the surface.
Fig. 4. SEM of the treated surface at p = 70 MPa, v = 30 mm.s−1.
Fig. 5. Indentation points along the depth of the treated surface.
The changes in the microstructural topography observed with the variation in the
standoff distance is attributed to the frequency of the impacting jet with high pressure.
3.3 Micro Hardness Measurements

The plastic deformation phenomenon occurring on the surface being impacted by
pulsating water jet causes the hardening of the surface and near sub-surface layers. The
effect of variation of standoff distance (at a pressure p = 70 MPa and traverse speed
v = 30 mm/s) for both the frequencies was plotted as a function of depth along the
treated surface (Figs. 6 and 7). The indentation points along the depth of the treated
surface made during the measurements is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 6. Hardness measurements along the depth of the treated region at p = 70 MPa,
v = 30 mm.s −1, f = 20.11 kHz.
For both the frequencies as compare to the hardness of initial untreated sample
there was a significant increase in the hardness observed after the treatment process by
pulsating water jet. At the frequency of f = 20.11 kHz, up to the depth of approxi-
mately 180 µm there was an increase in the hardness values in the sub-surface layers
with a maximum hardness of 503 HV at the depth of 30 µm. Also, it was observed that
for lower z = 43 mm the maximum increase in the hardness was recorded. This is
because the pulsations generated at this standoff distance are well developed and has
sufficient impacting energy to cause large plastic deformation on the impacting surface
and therefore, affecting its sub-surface layers. This observation is also very much
evident from the surface topography at the z = 43 mm (Fig. 4(a)). Further, when the
frequency of the pulsations was slightly increased to f = 20.27 kHz similar trend was
observed as in the previous case. The increase in hardness was observed up to the depth
of approximately 180 µm with maximum hardness recorded as 518 HV at the depth of
30 µm. However, no particular trend was observed with the variation of z. The max-
imum increase in the hardness was recorded at z = 61 mm. This again corresponds to
Fig. 7. Hardness measurements along the depth of the treated region at p = 70 MPa,
v = 30 mm.s −1, f = 20.27 kHz.
the surface topography of the region treated at z = 61 mm where the deep pits were
observed due to the large plastic deformation caused by the impacting jets.
4 Conclusion
The work deals with an observational description of accidentally changed frequency.

This study is an approach to determine the optimum standoff distance and also the
effect of frequency of pulsations on the erosion phenomenon occurring during the
treatment by pulsating water jet. From the present study following conclusions can be
drawn:
• The change in frequency from f = 20.11 kHz to f = 20.27 kHz causes the change in
the erosion phenomenon at different standoff distance (other conditions remaining
constant). This is due to the shorter length of the pulses produced at a higher
frequency.
• The surface quality of the material has been enhanced by the treatment of pulsating
water jet and the frequency, standoff distance variation has shown a significant
effect on its surface integrity. This frequency change faced during the treatment
process was the result of the wear of the sonotrode.
• The different stages of erosion phenomenon observed during the variation of the
standoff distance may be useful in determining the range of parameters for the
surface treatment application.
• The microhardness of the sub-surface along the depth of the treated surface has
been improved as compared to the initial hardness (423 HV) of the untreated
surface. At frequency f = 20.11 kHz and f = 20.27 kHz, the maximum hardness
values obtained were 518 HV and 503 HV respectively at the depth of 30 µm.
Till now not much study has been conducted on using pulsating water jet tech-
nology for the surface treatment application. This study gives a broader aspect of the
variation of parameters like frequency and determining optimum standoff distance
which will be helpful in determining the range parameters for the surface treatment
application with minimal effect on surface roughness. Further, more variations in
frequency parameter can be studied along with the variation in the pressure of the jet
and traverse speed of the nozzle. This will be helpful in understanding the dependency
of frequency parameter on the water jet process parameters.
Acknowledgements. This work was supported by VEGA 1/0096/18 and the joint collaborations
of the Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, India, and the Institute
of Geonics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ostrava- Poruba, Czech Republic. The experi-
ments were conducted at the Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ostrava-
Poruba, Czech Republic, with the support of the Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and
Utilization of Raw Materials for Energy Use - Sustainability Program, Reg. No. LO1406
financed by Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports, of the Czech Republic, and with the
support for the long-term conceptual development of the research institution RVO: 68145535.
Abbreviations and Symbols
p -pressure [MPa]
−1
v -traverse speed [mm.s ]
f -frequency [kHz]
d -diameter of nozzle [mm]
z -standoff distance [mm]
SEM -scanning electron microscopy
References
1. Foldyna, J.: Use of Acoustic Waves for Pulsating Water Jet Generation. Acoust. Waves -
From Microdevices to Helioseismology. 323–342 (2011)
2. Foldyna, J., Klich, J., Hlavacek, P., Zelenak, M., Scucka, J.: Erosion of metals by pulsating
water jet. Teh. Vjesn. Gaz. 19, 381–386 (2012)
3. Cited, R., Zimmerman, T.G., Alto, P.: US. Patent. 2, 0–3 (1985)
383 (2016)
5. Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Ščučka, J., Martinec, P., Valíček, J., Páleníková, K.: Effects of
pulsating water jet impact on aluminium surface. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209, 6174–
6180 (2009)
6. Hloch, S., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Zeleňák, M., Hlaváček, P., Hvizdoš, P., Kľoc, J., Monka,
P., Monková, K., Kozak, D., Magurová, D.: Disintegration of bone cement by continuous
and pulsating water jet. Tech. Gaz. 3651, 593–598 (1848)
7. Descaling by pulsating water jet. (2015)
8. Sitek, L., Foldyna, J., Martinec, P., Ščučka, J., Bodnárová, L., Hela, R.: Use of pulsating
water jet technology for removal of concrete in repair of concrete structures. Balt. J. Road
Bridg. Eng. 6, 235–242 (2011)
9. Tripathi, R., Srivastava, M., Hloch, S., Chattopadhyaya, S., Das, A.K., Pramanik, A.:
Performance analysis of pulsating water jet machining during disintegration of rocks by
means of acoustic emission, pp. 515–524 (2018)
10. Klich, J., Klichova, D., Foldyna, V., Hlavacek, P., Foldyna, J.: Influence of variously
modified surface of aluminium alloy on the effect of pulsating water jet. Strojniški Vestn.
J. Mech. Eng. 63, 577–582 (2017)
11. Zelenak, M., Foldyna, J., Scucka, J., Hloch, S., Riha, Z.: Visualisation and measurement of
high-speed pulsating and continuous water jets. Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed. 72, 1–8 (2015)
12. Srivastava, M., Hloch, S., Tripathi, R., Kozak, D., Chattopadhyaya, S., Dixit, A.R., Foldyna,
J., Hvizdos, P., Fides, M., Adamcik, P.: Ultrasonically generated pulsed water jet peening of
austenitic stainless-steel surfaces. J. Manuf. Process. 32, 455–468 (2018)
13. Srivastava, M., Tripathi, R., Hloch, S., Rajput, A., Khublani, D., Chattopadhyaya, S.,
Dixit, A.R., Foldyna, J., Adam, P., Klich, J., Zelenak, M., Klichov, D.: Surface Treatment of
AISI 304 Using Pulsating Water Jet Peening, pp. 535–548 (2018)
14. Arola, D., Alade, A.E., Weber, W.: Improving fatigue strength of metals using abrasive
waterjet peening. Mach. Sci. Technol. 10, 197–218 (2006)
15. Clitheroe, S.L.: The physical and microstructural properties of peened austenitic stainless
steel. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Manchester (2011)
Microstructure, Properties and Damage
Mechanisms by Water Jet Cutting of TiB2-Ti
Cermets Prepared by SPS
Viktor Puchý1, Martin Fides1, Róbert Džunda1, Richard Sedlák1,

Jaroslav Kováčik2, Sergej Hloch3, Petr Hlaváček3,
and Pavol Hvizdoš1(&)
1
Institute of Materials Research, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Watsonova 47,
040 01 Košice, Slovak Republic
phvizdos@saske.sk
2
Institute of Materials and Machine Mechanics, Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Dúbravská Cesta 9/6319, 845 13 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
3
Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Studentská 1768, 708 00 Ostrava-Poruba,
Czech Republic
Abstract. Process parameters of abrasive water jet (AWJ) machining of

TiB2+Ti ceramic matrix composites with 10%, 15% and 20% of Ti reinforce-
ment were investigated. The article focuses on microstructure damage processes
and kerf geometry in AWJ machining of TiB2+Ti composites. Two different
abrasive water jet cutting speeds and three sorts of composite materials, together
with a reference monolithic one, are considered. Microstructure in machined
samples was observed using scanning electron microscope. The characteristics
of the cuts such as kerf top width, kerf angle and surface roughness were
studied. The influence of cutting speed on abrasive process in composites with
various amounts of Ti was investigated. It was found that roughness decreases
and kerf taper ratio increases with increase in amount of Ti.
Keywords: Abrasive water jet machining TiB2+ti composite

Microstructure Kerf geometry
1 Introduction
The titanium diboride ceramics are electrically and thermally conductive materials with
very high hardness, good wear and temperature resistance and with high elastic
modulus. All these properties make it a suitable choice for many applications like
armors, cutting tools, turbine blades, and wear resistant parts working in severe con-
ditions. Preparation of pure titanium diborides, though, is a difficult task and obtaining
a sufficient density requires high sintering temperatures and long dwelling times. This
leads to the intense grain growth causing decrease of mechanical properties, mainly
fracture toughness and strength [1–3]. This unfavorable fact leads to the increasing
effort in the investigation of TiB2 based composites toughened by metal additive.
Composites with Ti addition are interesting materials thanks to their excellent
mechanical and electrical properties. In the present study, TiB2 and TiB2+Ti
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_11
98 V. Puchý et al.
composites were made by pulsed electric current sintering (PECS) or spark plasma
sintering (SPS). The advantage of this sintering technique is in its high heating rates
and short dwell times in comparison with conventional methods [4, 5]. It is considered
that SPS prepared TiB2 material will be used for the surface treatment of titanium and
titanium alloys via electro spark deposition (ESD) method [6]. ESD deposition enables
to produce hard and wear-resistant coatings on metallic substrates. The only essential
condition is that both, substrate and electrode materials, ought to be electrically con-
ductive. Significant advantage is that due to the diffusion of the electrode material into
the substrate and vice versa relatively good bonding between the layer and the substrate
occurs. ESD method enables to use titanium and titanium alloys (thanks to increase of
their surface hardness and wear resistance) as sonotrode cutting tools [7] and also for
biomedical applications in tooth implants [8].
The aim of the present paper is to explore the microstructure and mechanical
properties of TiB2+Ti composites with various amount of Ti, and to investigate the
influence of the two cutting speeds of the abrasive water jet machining on the efficiency
and damage mechanisms of TiB2+Ti composite materials.
2 Experimental Material and Methodology
HDH Ti powder (purity 99.4%, supplied by Kimet Special Metal Precision Casting
Co., Ltd., China) was used for the investigations. The powder is of typical angular
shape due to the HDH preparation method. Further, TiB2 powder also of angular shape
(purity 99%, -400 mesh, supplied by ESK Ceramics GmbH & Co. KG, Germany) was
used as a matrix powder. The powder size distributions were determined using Fritch
Analysette 22 laboratory equipment. For Ti powder it is d10 = 12 µm, d50 = 25 µm
and d90 = 45 µm. In the case of TiB2 it is d10 = 4 µm, d50 = 16 µm and d90 = 34 µm.
The TiB2 with Ti powder mixture was dry mixed in Turbula mixer (WAB AG,
Switzerland) for 30 min prior SPS. The TiB2+Ti powder was loaded into graphite die
with an inside diameter of 20 mm. SPS (Type HP D 10SD, FCT Systeme, Germany)
was performed in a vacuum (5 Pa). A pulsed direct electric current was applied with a
pulse duration of 15 ms and pause time of 3 ms throughout all the experiments. The
temperature was measured using a top pyrometer focused inside a hole in the punch at
distance of 4 mm from the sample. In the present study, the SPS schedule was varied to
assess the effects of temperature, heat rate and pressure on the glass-ceramic specimens,
as shown in Fig. 1. In all experiments, a minimum pressure of 7 MPa was applied to
ensure constant contact of the electrodes with the die/punch/sample system.
The die/punch assembly was wrapped in a graphite insulating felt and placed in the
SPS. The powder was then heated in low vacuum (10 Pa). The monolithic TiB2 was
densified at 2100 °C and 50 MPa for 10 min, while composites were densified at
1850 °C and 35 MPa for 10 min. The sintering temperature for the composites was
selected based on the fact that the melting point of Ti is 1668 °C. The density was
found using Archimedes method, hardness and indentation fracture toughness by
indentation methods using Vickers diamond tip loaded by 98.1 N. The cutting
experiments were performed on a CNC abrasive water jet machine with a 2D X-Y
cutting table PTV WJ2020-2Z-1xPJ with inclinable cutting head, especially designed
Microstructure, Properties and Damage Mechanisms 99
Fig. 1. Thermal, mechanical loading cycles, densification curves during SPS process of TiB2+Ti
composites and mechanisms of kerf geometry - schematic illustration.
for cutting with water and abrasive water jet. The machine was equipped with pump
pressure 200 MPa. Throughout the experiments, alumina abrasives with mesh size of
80 were used. The abrasives were delivered with feed speed 150 g/min using gravity
feed. The nozzle speeds were 20 mm/min and 200 mm/min. The impact angle was kept
constant at 90º throughout the experiments. The taper produced on kerf walls were
observed by light optical microscope Olympus GX71. The top width and bottom width
were measured using the Image J software for Windows. These width measurements
are used to calculate taper ratio using Eq. (1).
Wt
Kerf taper ratio ¼ ð1Þ
Wb
Where Wt = kerf top width and Wb = kerf bottom width. Depth and width of any
eroded cavity were estimated as the average of five measurements. The specific erosion
rate, ER, rate was calculated as follows:
h:b:vT
ER ¼ ð2Þ
mP
where h is the erosion depth, b is the average eroded width, vT is the traverse rate of the
machining head, and mP is the abrasive mass-flow rate. Because the erosion rate is the
ratio between the volumetric removal rate and the abrasive mass-flow rate, it is given in
mm3/g.
The study was performed to identify significance and influence of process parameters
on microstructure, kerf taper ratio and specific erosion rate of spark plasma sintered
TiB2+Ti composites. Measured results of microstructures, mechanical properties and
erosion parameters are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Monolithic TiB2 samples sintered at temperature (2100 °C) with a holding time of
10 min. attained 96.9% of theoretical density whereas TiB2+Ti samples sintered at the
100 V. Puchý et al.
Table 1. Microstructure parameters and mechanical properties of the investigated materials.

Experimental Apparent Relative Hardness Fracture toughness
materials density [g/cm3] density [%] HV1 [GPa] [MPa.m1/2]
TiB2 4.378 96.9 19.42 ± 4.85 5.86 ± 0.36
TiB2+10%Ti 3.840 85.0 5.31 ± 0.33 3.93 ± 0.54
TiB2+15%Ti 4.153 91.9 8.83 ± 1.41 5.92 ± 0.41
TiB2+20%Ti 4.452 98.5 12.54 ± 2.63 8.35 ± 0.65
relatively low temperature (1900 °C) attained from 85% to 98.5%. Figure 2 shows the
microstructure of sintered samples. In monolithic TiB2 (Fig. 2a), microstructure
exhibits no grain growth, contains some porosity (<3%), and average grain size is
25 µm. Figure 2b shows the least dense microstructure of TiB2 containing 10 vol.%
Ti. The Ti phase is interconnected and relatively homogenously distributed in the TiB2
matrix. With further increasing amount of Ti the composite density increases again
(Table 1).
Vickers hardness tests specify that the composite materials have a much lower
hardness. The comparative indents of those four materials were made with 9.81 N load.
The hardness of monolith material is about 19.4 GPa while that of the composite
materials is much lower and reaches maximum of about 12.5 GPa for TiB2+20%Ti.
The maximum of observed AWJ cut-edge roughness is 3.89 µm for monolith material
and minimum roughness is 3.61 µm in the case of TiB2+15%Ti composite. It is
observed that roughness decreases with increase in Ti content (Fig. 3) due to less
abrasive particles impingement and overlapping of machining action. As shown in
Table 2, it is clear that decrease in traverse speed decreases in cut-edge roughness due
to increased cutting ability of the jet. Increase of Ti volume in composites results in
decrease in cut-edge roughness due to larger amount of the ductile phase (Ti) which
deforms in plastic way. Also, bottom regions of cut of the composite samples show
more prominent trend to jet deflection Fig. 3d, that is why the bottom kerf width is
significantly smaller than the top one, and in the case of the higher speed 200 mm/min.
the jet did not cut through the material completely (Fig. 5b). During machining, the
AWJ penetrates into composite material easily, but deflection occurs when jet impinges
at Ti interface. Therefore, a sudden variation in jet penetration rate causes painting of
titanium on the cut-edge, Fig. 4d. In the present study, trans-granular cracking is
observed in samples machined with higher traverse speed, trans-granular cracks occur
due to stresses greater than required to generate the crack tips in the material.
Table 2. Erosion parameters of the investigated materials.

Experimental kerf top [µm] kerf bottom [µm] kerf taper ratio roughness [µm] Er [mm3/g]
materials (v = 20/200 mm/min.) (v = 20/200 mm/min.) (v = 20/200 mm/min.) (v = 20/200 mm/min.) (v = 20/200 mm/min.)
TiB2 1375/1238 1225/976 1.12/1.27 3.89/4.05 0.52/4.43
TiB2+10%Ti 917/825 500/352 1.83/2.34 3.75/3.88 0.28/2.35
TiB2+15%Ti 875/788 500/421 1.75/1.87 3.61/3.77 0.28/2.42
TiB2+20%Ti 1150/1035 450/0 2.56/- 2.05/1.90 0.32/0.63
Fig. 2. SEM images of the microstructure of monolithic TiB2 (a) and composite TiB2+10%Ti
samples (b).
During AWJ machining, erosive actions remove the material. Also, while gener-
ating the kerf, the expansion of jet makes cavities within the eroded space. The OM,
SEM and confocal microscopy studies show that samples with 10%Ti have rough cut
surface thanks to incomplete distribution of Ti in TiB2 matrix and relatively high
porosity due to imperfect sintering.
Fig. 3. OM of the kerf edges of monolith TiB2 samples (a) jet entry and (b) jet exit and
composite TiB2+15%Ti samples (c) jet entry and (d) jet exit.
In composites with higher amounts of Ti, its distribution in TiB2 matrix is quite
uniform as can be seen from fracture surface SEM images in Fig. 4. Furthermore, the
effect of Ti amount on the microstructure of sintered samples is observable. With the
higher amount of Ti in the samples, Figs. 4a–d show the erosion surfaces. Despite
considerable brittle fractures, ductile erosion areas can be observed in erosion surface
of composite materials. The brittle fracture surfaces are light with visible cracks, while
the ductile erosion or plastic surfaces appears dark. It indicates that the ductile erosion
mechanism does exist and an erosion machining method is dominantly characterized by
the ductile erosion. Titanium film damps the erosion process on the cut-edge surface
due to lower abrasion by water jet that reduces quantity of eroded cavities. Similar
observations are reported in [9, 10] where it was noted that damping is more severe in
erosion resistant materials. Ductile erosion can achieve micromaterial removal and the
eroded surface is smooth without any fracture. Decreasing roughness with increasing
amount of the ductile Ti is documented in Fig. 6. Impacting alumina particles can be
sometimes observed embedded onto the surfaces of the cut, Fig. 5a.
Fig. 4. SEM images of the kerf surface of monolith TiB2 (a), composite TiB2+10%Ti (b),
TiB2+15%Ti (c) and TiB2+20%Ti samples (d).
Fig. 5. SEM images of a cluster of alumina aggregate particles inside a notch cavity of
TiB2+10%Ti (a) and cut notch of TiB2+20%Ti (b) by cutting speed 200 mm/min.
Fig. 6. Axonometric plots of monolith TiB2 (a), composite TiB2+10%Ti (b), TiB2+15%Ti
(c) and TiB2+20%Ti samples (d) cut-edge surface, cutting speed 20 mm/min., showing
decreasing roughness with increasing Ti content.
4 Conclusions
AWJ cutting of TiB2+Ti composites with 0–20% Ti addition was studied. Kerf taper
ratio, kerf width and specific erosion rate with the composition (microstructure), and
the variation in process parameters have been analyzed. It can be concluded:
1. Cutting-edge surface roughness decreases with increase in amount of Ti.
2. Kerf taper ratio increases and specific erosion rate decreases with increasing Ti
content. Kerf top width decreases with increase in traverse rate.
3. Addition of Ti improved the performance of the composites. The future work will
be devoted to improve their densification and thus to achieve better microstructure.
The effect of the AWJ cutting parameters is worth of further investigation.
Acknowledgement. This work was supported by the projects “CeKSiM”, ITMS 26220120056,
of the Operational Program “Research and Development” financed through ERDF, by APVV-15-
0014 (ProCor) and VEGA 1/0096/18.
References
1. Chao, S., Goldsmith, J., Banerjee, D.: Titanium diboride composite with improved sintering
characteristics. Int. J. Refract. Metal Hard Mater. 49, 314–319 (2015)
2. Chlup, Z., Bača, Ľ., Halasová, M., Neubauer, E., Hadraba, H., Stelzer, N., Roupcová, P.:
Effect of metallic dopants on the microstructure and mechanical properties of TiB2. J. Eur.
Ceram. Soc. 35, 2745–2754 (2015)
3. Huang, S.G., Vanmeensel, K., Malek, O.J.A., Van der Biest, O., Vleugels, J.: Microstructure
and mechanical properties of pulsed electric current sintered B4C–TiB2 composites. Mater.
Sci. Eng. A 528, 1302–1309 (2011)
4. Omori, M.: Sintering, consolidation, reaction and crystal growth by the spark plasma system
(SPS). Mater. Sci. Eng., A 287, 183–188 (2000)
5. Orru, R., Licheri, R., Locci, A.M., Cincotti, A., Cao, G.: Consolidation/synthesis of
materials by electric current activated/assisted sintering. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 63(4–6),
127–287 (2009)
6. Kováčik, J., Baksa, P., Emmer, Š.: Electro spark deposition of TiB2 layers on Ti6Al4 V
alloy. Acta Metall. Slovaca 22(1), 52–59 (2016)
7. Emmer, Š., Baksa, P., Kováčik, J.: Effect of microstructure on the sonotrode properties of
tool materials Ferro-titanit WFN and steel CPM 10V. Kovove Mater. 53, 423–428 (2015)
8. Viskić, J., Schauperl, Z., Ćatić, A., Balog, M., Krizik, P., Gržeta, B., Popović, J., Ortolan,
S.M., Mehulić, K.: Effects of wire EDM on the microstructure of P/M titanium samples.
Acta Stomatol. Croat. 48(4), 285–291 (2014)
9. Choi, G.S., Choi, G.H.: Process analysis and monitoring in abrasive water jet machining of
alumina ceramics. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 37(3), 295–307 (1997)
10. Momber, A.W., Kovacevic, R.: Hydro-abrasive erosion of refractory ceramics. J. Mater. Sci.
38, 2861–2874 (2003)
Investigation on Feed Rate Influence
on Surface Quality in Abrasive Water Jet
Cutting of Composite Materials, Monitoring
Acoustic Emissions
Ioan Alexandru Popan(&), Vlad Bocanet, Nicolae Balc,

and Alina Ioan Popan
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, B-dul. Muncii,

No. 103-105, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
ioan.popan@tcm.utcluj.ro
Abstract. The paper deals an experimental study on cutting composite mate-

rials (CFRP) using abrasive water jet cutting (AWJC) process. The influence of
the feed rate on surface roughness is studied using acoustic emission
(AE) monitoring. For monitoring the process two acoustic emission sensors was
mounted, on the CFRP workpiece and on the cutting head. This monitoring
technique has proved that, between process parameter (feed rate and amplitude
of AE signal) is a clear connection. The surface roughness can be predicted
using online monitoring with acoustic emission (AE).
Keywords: Water jet cutting Composite materials Acoustic emissions

Surface roughness
1 Introduction
Composite materials, like Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRP), are used mainly in
automotive and aerospace industry [1] because of its specific characteristics, such as:
high strength to weight ratio, high modulus, corrosion and thermal resistance [2].
Abrasive water jet is an innovative tool, which can be used for processing all kind
of materials [3]. Water jet processing uses a very high-pressure water jet, which acts
either by itself or in mixing with abrasive particles [4]. This fluid tool can be used for
machining operations, like cutting [3], milling [5] and turning [6].
Using abrasive water jet, materials like titanium alloy, aluminum, stainless-steel,
composites or even ceramics, could be processed at a high dimensional accuracy and a
good surface quality [7]. Because this tool acts with small cutting forces, low
mechanical loading and reduced interface temperature [8], abrasive water jet cutting
(AWJC) is often use in industry for CFRP cutting [9].
The main process parameters of the AWJC process are: water pressure, feed rate,
abrasive mass flow and standoff distance [4]. For manufacturing precise parts with
a low surface roughness, it is important to optimize the process parameters [10]. The
most important parameter is the feed rate because it is adjusted to obtain the quality

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_12
106 I. A. Popan et al.
characteristics [3]. Increasing the feed rate the surface roughness is increasing also, in
case of composite materials [11].
The AWJC is a complex process, which involves many parameters with a strong
effect on cutting quality. For this reason, non-destructive testing such as Acoustic
emission (AE) is used to study this process [12]. The main application of AE is online
controlling and monitoring of manufacturing processes [13].
AE is an energy wave with high frequency (20 kHz–2 MHz) and low amplitude,
propagated trough the material by a wide range of processes. Acoustic emission (AE) is
defined in standard BSEN1330-9:2000 [14]. During the last 30 years, AE has been
used in monitorization of a wide range of processes like: AWJ cutting [13], milling [15]
and turning [16], evaluation of grinding process, tool wear in turning and milling
processes.
The evaluation of the AE signals, generated by AWJC, is made analyzing the
following parameters: amplitude, frequency [12], bursts energy [13], power spectral
density [14], etc.
In this paper the influence of traverse feed rate on the surface roughness of the cut
surface is studied using AE signal generated.
The surface cut by AWJC is divided in three zones: initial damage zone, smooth
cutting zone and rough cutting zone (see Fig. 1) [4]. To understand the influence of this
main process parameter, traverse feed rate on surface quality, each zone must be
analyzed.
Fig. 1. The main zones of a surface cut Fig. 2. Omax 2626 abrasive waterjet center.
by AWJC [4].
The experimental study was conducted on an abrasive waterjet center, Omax 2626, (see
Fig. 2). It is equipped with an OMAX high pressure pump (output pressure of maxi-
mum 400 MPa) and an electronic abrasive delivery system Alffi (0–600 g/min). The
cutting system used in this experiment is new, to avoid the errors generated by the wear
of orifice and focusing tube. The process parameters used on this study are presented in
Table 1. The variation range of the process studied parameter (feed rate) was selected
within the equipment limits (0–4500 mm/min) and the common ranges used for CPRF
Investigation on Feed Rate Influence on Surface Quality 107
Table 1. Process parameters.

Technological parameter Value
Sample thickness 6 mm
Pressure 350 MPa
Feed rate 50, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 mm/min
Abrasive type/size Australian Garnet/80 mesh
Abrasive mass flow 0.440 kg/min
Nozzle diameter 0.76 mm
Orifice diameter (diamond) 0.35 mm
Standoff distance 1 mm
cutting: 50, 1000, 2000, 3000 and 4000 mm/min. Passive piezoelectric AE-sensors of
type Vallen VS900-M were used to measure the AE. This sensor VS900-M has a high
sensitivity over a broad frequency range with compromises regarding the flatness of
response. The response frequency (fPeak) is from 100 up to 900 kHz [17].
First sensor was fixed with plastic glue on the middle of the workpiece at 30 mm
from the cutting line. This distance, 30 mm, was maintained for all the trails by moving
the sensor. The second sensor was fixed on the cutting head, like in the schematic
representation from Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. The experimental setup for AE monitoring.
Preamplifiers 2/4/6 Physical Acoustic were used to amplify the AE signal. The gain
could be selected between 20/40/60 dB and internal bandpass filters is 01–1.2 MHz.
For this case a gain of 20 dB was selected. Each experiment was repeated by 5 times.
The monitoring system was made using a National Instruments data acquisition
board (DAQ). This board PCI-6111 can be used to acquire AE signal at 5M samples/s
for up to four channels. The AE sensors were connected to the analogue input of the
DAQ through the connection box NI 2110. The software packages used were from
National Instruments. To control the data acquisitions was used NI LabView 2015 and
for data analyses was used NI DIAdem 2015.
The sample is a 6 mm thickness plate of multi-layer carbon fiber reinforced plastics

(CFRP) manufactured by ECOTECH. It is made from carbon fiber prepreg (CE 8201-
200-45, 3k-fabric style 452 in twill weave 2/2) with an epoxy resin (364 g/m2) in a heat
pressing process. The CPRF specimens had the dimensions of 100 50 6 mm and
they were fixed in the clamping system presented in Fig. 3.
3 Results and Discussions

3.1 Analysis of the Signal
The analysis of the signal were done using the NI Diadem 2015 software developed by
National Instruments. For each experiment, three data files of the two AE signals were
saved.
The AE signal can be splited in 3 phases: the entering of the jet in the workpiece,
the phase where the cutting process becomes stable and the exit of the jet from the
workpiece (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. The main phases of the AE signal obtain during the experiment.
The raw data of the AE signal is continuous during the cutting and a burst is
observed when the jet enters or exit from the workpiece. In this paper is analyzed the
continuous AE signal, obtained during the cutting. Making a time-domain analysis of
the raw AE signal, the signal provides a clear information about the cutting.
By increasing the feed rate, from 50 up to 4000 mm/min, the RMS amplitude of the
signal is increasing from 0.309 up to 1.2 V (see Fig. 5). In this study the RMS (Root
Mean Square) amplitude value of the raw signal is used.
For obtaining more information about the signal, a frequency domain analysis was
made. The frequency domain was obtained using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). To
estimate the Power Spectral Density (PSD) of the AE signal, the Hanning method was
used. The frequency domain analyzed was the response frequency (fPeak) of the
sensor, 100–900 kHz.
In Fig. 6 is represented the feed rate influence of the on Power Spectral Density
(PSD). Increasing the feed rate from 50 up to 4000 mm/min, the PSD is increasing
Fig. 5. The raw data of the AE signal obtained during the cutting.
Fig. 6. The Power Spectral Density (PSD) of the AE signal.
from 0.37 10−6 up to 5.7 10−6 V2/Hz. This variation was detected between
100–150 kHz. This observation proves that, the process parameters are influencing the
AE signal in case of cutting the CFRP material, at 100–150 kHz frequency.
3.2 Analysis of the Surface Roughness Using AE Signal

Using the NanoFocus 3D microscope the 3D surfaces topography of the cut surfaces
was scanned. In each of the three main zones 1.6 1.6 mm was scanned, using
a Gaussian filter 0.8.
The surface roughness was measured on each zone of the cut surface: initial
damage zone (0.5 mm from the top edge), smooth cutting zone (in the middle of the cut
surface) and rough cutting zone (0.5 mm from the bottom edge). The surface roughness
parameter Ra and RMS Amplitude of the AE signal are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. The surface roughness parameter Ra µm and RMS Amplitude V of the AE signal.
Feed rate Initial damage Smooth cutting Rough cutting AERMS
mm/min zone Ra µm zone Ra µm zone Ra µm amplitude V
50 1.65 1.46 1.56 0.309
1000 2.01 1.85 2.7 0.695
2000 2.62 2.2 4.58 0.928
3000 3.3 3.05 5.7 0.998
4000 3.8 3.5 6.3 1.2
In the graphical representation from Fig. 7a is represented the influence of the

process parameter (feed rate) on the output parameters the surface roughness and RMS
amplitude of the AE signal. The feed rate range varies between 50 and 4000 mm/min
and it is used in an amount of abrasive mass flow 0.45 kg/min and a water pressure of
350 MPa.
Analyzing the variation of the surface roughness on the initial damaged zone (with
red line) it can be observed that increasing the feed rate from 50 up to 4000 mm/min
the surface roughness Ra increases from 1.87 to 2.74 lm. On the smooth cutting zone
(blue line) was obtained the best surface quality, the variation trend of the Ra is the
same with initial damage zone, it is increasing from 2.8 up to 3.1 lm.
On the rough cutting zone (green line) was observed the biggest variation of the
surface quality. Increasing the feed rate, the surface roughness Ra increases from 2.8 up
to 9.1 lm.
In Fig. 7b the influence of the feed rate on the AE signal generated during the
cutting is plotted. By increasing the feed rate between 50–4000 [mm/min], the RMS
Amplitude of the AE signal is increasing from 0.309 up to 1.2 [V]. Using the measured
values, a linear regression model was computed. The regression equation is visible in
the figure. The model is significant (p < .001) and the model fits the data well
(R2 = 0.931).
Fig. 7. The influence of the traverse feed rate onto surface roughness (a) and onto RMS
amplitude of the AE signal (b).
4 Conclusions
This monitoring with AE of the AWJC process, in case of cutting composite materials
CFRP has been proved to be a reliable for studying and online monitoring. On this
experimental study was observed a clear connection between AE signal and feed rate.
The specific conclusions from this experimental study are:

• The AE signal can be split in 3 phases: the entering of the jet in the workpiece, the
phase where the cutting process becomes stable and the exit of the jet from the
workpiece.
• Increasing the feed rate from 50 up to 4000 mm/min the RMS amplitude of the AE
signal is increasing from 0.309 up to 1.2 V. On the same time, analysing the Power
Spectral Density, it can be seen that it is increasing from 0.37 10−6 up to
5.7 10−6 V2/Hz. The frequency where the process parameter has influence on AE
signal in case of cutting CFRP is 100–150 kHz.
• The feed rate has a strong influence onto surface quality. Increasing the feed rate
from 50 up to 4000 mm/min the surface roughness Ra increases in all three zones
(from 1.87 up to 2.74 lm on the smooth cutting zone and 2.8 up to 3.1 lm in case
of initial damage zone. On the rough cutting zone was observed the biggest vari-
ation (the surface roughness Ra increases from 2.8 up to 9.1 lm).
Acknowledgments. This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority
for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNCS/CCCDI–UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P2-
2.1-BG-2016-0216, within PNCDI III, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca through the research
Contract no. 2001/12.07.2017, Internal Competition CICDI-2017 and the H2020 AMaTUC
project (GA 691787).
References
1. Vitale, P., Francucci, G., Rapp, H., Stocchi, A.: Manufacturing and compressive response of
ultra-lightweight CFRP cores. Comp. Struct. 194, 188–198 (2018)
2. Popescu, A., Hancu, L., Bere, P.: Research concerning the optimum extrusion temperature
for reinforced polyamide. Appl. Mech. Mater. 371, 394–398 (2013)
3. Shanmugam, D.K.: A study of delamination on graphite/epoxy composites in abrasive
waterjet machining. Comp. Part A 39, 923–929 (2008)
4. Popan, I.A., Contiu, G., Campbell I.: Investigation on standoff distance influence on kerf
characteristics in abrasive water jet cutting of composite materials. In: MATEC Web of
Conferences, vol. 137, p. 01009 (2017)
5. Rabani, A., Madariaga, J., Bouvier, C., Axinte, D.: An approach for using iterative learning
for controlling the jet penetration depth in abrasive waterjet milling. J. Manuf. Process. 22,
99–107 (2016)
6. Nag, A., Srivastava, A., Dixit, A., Chattopadhyaya, S., Mandal, A., Klichová, D., Hlaváček,
P., Zeleňák, M., Hloch, S.: Influence of abrasive water jet turning parameters on variation of
diameter of hybrid metal matrix composite. In: Applications of Fluid Dynamics, pp. 495–
504 (2018)
7. Filip, A.C., Mihail, L.A., Vasiloni, M.A.: An experimental study on the dimensional
accuracy of holes made by abrasive waterjet machining of Hardox steels. In: MATEC Web
of Conferences, vol. 137, p. 02003 (2017)
8. Popan, I.A., Balc, N., Carean, A., Luca, A., Ceclan, V.: Developing a new program to
calculate the optimum water jet cutting parameters. Acad. J. Manuf. Eng. 9 (2011)
9. Putz, M., Rennau, A., Dix, M.: High precision machining of hybrid layer composites by
abrasive waterjet cutting. Procedia Manuf. 21, 583–590 (2018)
10. Deam, R.T., Lemma, E., Ahmed, D.H.: Modelling of the abrasive water jet cutting process.
Wear 257(9–10), 877–891 (2004)
11. Schwartzentruber, J., Spelt, J.K., Papini, M.: Prediction of surface roughness in abrasive
waterjet trimming of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 122,
1–17 (2017)
12. Hloch, S., Valíček, J., Kozak, D., Tozan, H., Chattopadhyay, S., Adamčík, P.: Analysis of
acoustic emission emerging during hydro abrasive cutting and options for indirect quality
control. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 66, 45–58 (2013)
13. Lissek, F., Kaufeld, M., Tegas, J., Hloch, S.: Online-monitoring for abrasive waterjet cutting
of CFRP via acoustic emission: evaluation of machining parameters and work piece quality
due to burst analysis. In: ICMEM 2016. Procedia Engineering, vol. 149, pp. 67–76 (2016)
14. Rabani, A., Marinescu, I., Axinte, D.: Acoustic emission energy transfer rate: a method for
monitoring abrasive water jet milling. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf 61, 80–89 (2016)
15. Tripathi, R., Srivastava, M., Hloch, S., Adamčík, P., Chattopadhyaya, S., Dasa, A.K.:
Monitoring of acoustic emission during the disintegration of crock. In: International
Conference on Manufacturing Engineering and Materials, ICMEM 2016. Procedia Engi-
neering, vol. 149, pp. 481–488 (2016)
16. Barry, J., Byrne, G., Lennon, D.: Observations on chip formation and acoustic emission in
machining Ti–6Al–4V alloy. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 41, 1055–1070 (2001)
17. http://www.vallen.de
Comparison of Non-destructive Sensing
Methods on Surface Created by Waterjet
Technology
Jiří Klich1,2(&), Dagmar Klichová1,2, and Kamil Souček1,2

1
Institute of Geonics of the CAS, v.v.i, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
jiri.klich@ugn.cas.cz
2
Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilisation of Raw Materials
for Energy Use, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
Abstract. The article is a response to the lack of information, especially in the

area of non-destructive techniques suitable for wide practical application. The
article deals with evaluation of the disintegrated material volume removed from
the samples by a water jet. The study presents a quantified disintegrated material
volume by means of an optical profilometer MicroProf FRT, a digital micro-
scope VHX-5100 and X-ray computed micro-tomograph XT H 225 ST. Based
on a comparison of measured data, it is possible to state that the methods of
optical profilometer and a digital microscope give us very close volume values.
While the values of the volume of removed material analysed by X-Ray l-CT
reach higher its values. After detailed analysis of the individual tomographic
cross-sections in area of kerf surface it can be concluded that complex mor-
phology of this surface can explain differences in the results. There are visible
some re-entrant features like an overhangs and undercuts at the surface created
by high pressure water jet.
Keywords: X-Ray computed tomography Optical profilometer

Digital microscope Surface topography Waterjet technology
1 Introduction
New measurement methods and equipment opens new areas in the analysis of the
surface texture properties. Surface functionality is influenced by production methods
[1]. Dimensional and geometric accuracy is required for all functional surfaces.
Inappropriate selection of the surface quality leads to unnecessary production cost
increase or even failure. [2, 3]
The erosion capability of the jets is widely exploited for many applications in
modern industry. Water jet technology achieved significant progress during last decades
in applications such as cutting of wide range of materials, surface cleaning and removal
of surface layers [4]. Plain water jets (WJ) are generated by the change of pressure
energy of water to kinetic energy by the acceleration of the water flow in the nozzle [5].
Maximum pressures currently used to generate plain water jets are up to 700 MPa. This
jet type is suitable for cutting of softer materials (rubber, paper, wood, plastic etc.),
cleaning of materials from paints and coatings and removal of surface layers.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_13
Comparison of Non-destructive Sensing Methods on Surface 115
The article focuses on the evaluation of the disintegrated material volume removed
from the samples by a water jet. The study presents a quantified disintegrated material
volume by means of an optical profilometer MicroProf FRT, a digital microscope
VHX-5100 and X-ray computed tomography (X-Ray CT). It defines new methods of
volume parameter measurements. Results of values of volume parameters obtained
from the surface of the experimentally created samples from EN AW 6060 material are
presented.
Industrial X-Ray computer tomography (X-Ray CT) represents non-destructive
imaging method picturing examined object in defined, target oriented 2D cuts in area of
interest of the examined object, X-Ray CT method is mainly used for non-destructive
studying inner structure of examined objects such as defects, pores, inclusions, dense
non-homogeneity etc. This non-destructive method can be also used for studying
surface defects, for measuring their volumes, areas, roughness and dimensions. In this
paper we used X-Ray CT for measuring volume of kerf made by high pressure water jet
(HPWJ) in order to compare with traditionally used, above mentioned, optical methods.
Using industrial X-Ray computer micro-tomography (X-Ray µ-CT) is exceptionally
advantageous. By this X-ray µ-CT can be achieved resolution of individual building
units (so called voxels) in the CT volume or cross-sections at the level of unit or first
tens of micrometers [6].
2 Experimental Setting
High-pressure water was supplied to the water jet head by a plunger pump capable to
deliver up to 40l∙min−1 of water at operating pressure up to 250 MPa. The head was
equipped with commercially available nozzle with orifice diameter of 0.047 in.
Test samples were prepared from aluminium alloy EN AW 6060. Dimensions of
sheet metal were 50 100 5 mm.
To expose the surface of the sample to effect of water jet, following testing pro-
cedure was developed. Robotic arm ensured the nozzle movement with exactly pro-
grammed trajectory. The traversing velocity of the nozzle was set to 0.5 mm∙s−1 during
the experiments; stand-off distance was set to 50 mm. This stand-off distance was
determined as optimal one for given experimental conditions in previous tests. The
angle of incidence was set to 90°.
Tests were performed at operating pressure of 100 MPa. The area of each sample
was exposed to the action of water jet. After the testing kerf was performed, abrasive
water jet technology was used to cut the samples from sheet metal to eliminate thermal
effects on the sample properties. The final dimension of samples was 10 mm in
diameter (see Fig. 1).
116 J. Klich et al.
Fig. 1. Samples.
3 Methodology of Measurement
Volume of disintegrated material by the waterjet technology was precisely studied by

means of an optical profilometer MicroProf FRT, a digital microscope VHX-5100 and
µ-X-Ray µ-CT system XT H 225 ST.
3.1 Optical Profilometer MicroProf FRT

The produced kerfs were scanned by a MicroProf FRT optical profilometer. The dis-
tance of the measuring points for each kerf was set to 10 lm in the direction of jet
travel (y-axis) and 10 lm in the direction perpendicular to the travel direction (x-axis).
The scanning and reconstruction process of one sample takes approximately two hours.
The scanned data were analysed using the Scanning Probe Image Processor (SPIP)
software. The monitored parameter in the planned experiment was the removed
material volume V [mm3]. Its calculation was made using the SPIP software. The
evaluation of the collected volume of material from the individual kerfs was carried out
in several steps. First, it was necessary to get a 3D scan of the topography of the kerf
and the base material. A zero level was placed in the plane of the base surface of the
material. Figure 2(a) illustrates a 3D visualization of a kerf created by a pulsating water
jet, where material removing is apparent. In Fig. 2(b) the area of material re-moval
(blue marked area) below the zero boundaries of the base material is indicated. Using
the histogram, the observed area was divided into a section above and below the plane
located at the zero surface of the material surface, sees Fig. 2(c). The soft-ware cal-
culates the volume between the actual kerf surface and the plane of the sample surface.
In Fig. 2(d) the profile of the kerf is drawn, where the blue marked area shows the
volume of material removed.
3.2 Digital Microscope VHX-5100

A Keyence digital microscope and SPIP software for data analysis were used to
measure the collected material volume. The measured volume was obtained from
whole surface of sample and a 6 mm long section (Fig. 3a). Schematic illustration of
groove profile can be seen in Fig. 3c. The scanning and reconstruction process of one
Fig. 2. (a) 3D visualization of the kerf scan and parts of the base material, (b) representation of
the area of material removal (blue marked area), (c) histogram, (d) sample plane cut, where the
profile of the kerf and the removed material volume are indicated.
sample takes approximately ten minutes. The monitored parameter in the planned
experiment was the removed material volume V [mm3]. Its calculation was made using
the VHX-5000 software. The evaluation of the collected volume of material from the
individual kerfs was carried out as evaluation by Optical profilometer. First, it was
necessary to get a 3D scan of the topography of the kerf and the base material. Figure 3
(a) illustrates a 3D visualization of a kerf created by a water jet, where material
removing is apparent and representation of the area of material removal (yellow marked
area). The software calculates the volume between the actual kerf surface and the plane
of the sample surface. In Fig. 3(c) the profile of the kerf is drawn, where the blue
marked area shows the volume of material removed.
3.3 X-Ray CT
For the purpose of this study we used X-Ray µ-CT scanner XT H 225 ST made by
Nikon Metrology which can be characterized as follows:
• Full system control and image processing software (3D CT Pro – reconstruction
software and VGStudio MAX 2.2 with additional modules for custom image
analysis).
• Rotating systems of X-Ray CT scanning with X-ray conical beam.
These inspection system cover a wide range of applications in the field of X-Ray
CT and radiography, including the research materials and geomaterials analysis (e.g.
structure, porosity, defects) as well as inspection of small castings, plastic parts and
complex mechanisms, palaeontology (e.g. inspection of bones, sculls, fossils),
archaeologists dimensional measurement of internal an surface components, digital
archiving of models, defectoscopy of the machines and equipment parts, analysis of the
biological structures etc.
For reconstruction of the 3D CT volume of used samples, we acquired 3 141 2D
radiographic projections (images) of the individual sample at a known rotational angle
during one full sample turn (360°). The exposition time of the one radiographic pro-
jection was 2000 ms consisting of two radiographic frames (1000 ms). The scanning
and reconstruction process of one sample takes approximately two hours and resulting
118 J. Klich et al.
Fig. 3. (a) 3D visualization of the kerf scan and parts of the base materiál and representation of
the area of material removal (yellow marked area), (b) sample where the profile of the kerf
(c) profile of the kerf and the removed material volume are indicated.
resolution of the individual cubic voxels in CT volume is represented by value of cc.

6 µm (the voxel resolution is directly proportional to the geometrical magnification of
the sample on the flat panel X-ray detector). For CT data analysis we used software VG
Studio Max v. 2.2. (VGS)
After basic reconstruction and visualization of CT data representing the analyzed
specimen (see Fig 4a), we first used a Gaussian adaptive filter to reduce noise in the CT
cross-sections, which allowed us to find more easily a voxels threshold value for
surface determination of the specimen. For determination of this threshold value,
automatic function of VGS’ software was used. This threshold value is determined
from the central part of gradient of the voxel values at the material/air transition (see
Fig. 4b). In next step, we interlaced the plane through the upper base of the cylindrical
sample, defining the top (upper) margin of prepared regions of interest (ROI) used for
volume calculation of the disintegrated material by HPWJ (see Fig. 5a). Next
boundaries of the regions of interest were in one case formed by the reconstructed
original surface of the cylindrical specimen, in next case by a prism with an edge size
of approximately 6 6 1.5 mm located in the centre of the specimen touching the
interlaced plane through its upper base. The VGS add-on module (Defect analysis) was
used for volume calculation of removed material using HPWJ. For the used add-on
module, we applied following settings: (I) analysis in prepared ROIs, (II) the control
algorithm - Only Threshold value (the same values as for surface determination) and
(III) the analysis mode - Voids for volume calculation of the space belongs to air which
represents volume of the created groove by HPWJ. An illustrative example of visu-

alization of the removed material after its segmentation by the above described pro-
cedure is evident from Fig. 6. The characteristic transverse tomographic cross-section
of the specimen perpendicular to the direction of the water nozzle movement is shown
in Fig. 7.
Fig. 4. (a) Visualization of CT data representing the analyzed specimen, (b) scheme of threshold
value determination based on histogram of the voxel values distribution in CT volume.
3.4 Results and Discussion

The result measured values of the total volume of disintegrated material, by using all
three evaluation methods, are given in Table 1. From this table, it is evident that
methods of optical profilometer and a digital microscope give very similar values, i.e.
in the range of about 22.5–23.1 mm3. While the values of the removed material vol-
ume, find out by the X-Ray l-CT, generally reach higher values in the range of 24.0–
25.0 mm3. This fact was originally attributed to the difficulty in determining the exact
boundary of ROI in areas of the created groove in its marginal parts of the analysed
sample (see Fig. 6). For this reason, we have further analysed the volume of the
removed material in the ROI placed in the centre of the sample in the shape of a prism
with an edge size of about 6 mm (see Fig. 5). The found out values of the volume of
the removed material of these ROIs are given in Table 2. Based on a comparison of
measured data, it is possible to state that the methods of Optical Profilometer and
a Digital Microscope give us again very close volume values, i.e. in the range of about
12.9 to 13.7 mm3. While the values of the volume of removed material analysed by
X-Ray l-CT again reach higher its values, in this case in the range of about
14.7–15.7 mm3. For the purpose of a more accurate comparison, we calculated the
average value of the specific (unit) area of the removed material expressed as a ratio of
disintegrated volume and ROI length parallel to HPWJ process. This calculated ratio is
presented graphically in Fig. 8.
120 J. Klich et al.
Fig. 5. (a) Interlaced plane through the upper base of the cylindrical sample, defining the upper
margin of individual ROIs, (b) graphical visualization of the used ROI for calculation of removed
material.
Fig. 6. Example of visualization of the removed material after its segmentation in the cylindrical
and prism ROI – Sample No 1.
Fig. 7. The characteristic transverse tomographic cross-section of the groove created by HPWJ.
Table 1. The all collected material volume.

Sensing method Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
DV [mm3] V [mm3] V [mm3]
Optical Profilometer MicroProf FRT 22.629 22.702 22.964
Digital Microscope VHX-5100 22.562 23.129 22.464
X-Ray µ-CT system XT H 225 ST 24.190 23.950 24.995
Table 2. The collected material volume from define area 6 6 mm.

Sensing method Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
V [mm3] V [mm3] V [mm3]
Optical Profilometer MicroProf FRT 13.728 13.475 13.308
Digital Microscope VHX-5100 13.283 12.976 13.145
µ-X-Ray CT 15.077 14.726 15,706
3.000
Optical Profilometer
2.500 MicroProf FRT
V [mm2]
2.000 Digital Microscope

VHX-5100
1.500 X-Ray µ-CT system
XT H 225 ST
1.000
sample 1 sample2 sample3
Fig. 8. Average value of the specific (unit) area of the removed material expressed.
4 Conclusion
The study has proven the possibility of use all three methods in order to determine
volume of disintegrated material by HPWJ. Using optical methods, very close volume
values of disintegrated material were measured unlike X-ray µ-CT method, which
shown result volume values of disintegrated material still about 13,5 to 19,5% higher
even in case of comparable ROI localized in the mid part of the sample. After checking
CT data, overall procedure and calibrating all X-ray µ-CT system, no faults, that could
explain quite high values deviance, were found. After detailed analysis of tomography
of cuts in area of kerf surface it can be concluded that complex morphology of this
surface can explain differences in the results. In Fig. 9 we can see detail of surface
morphology of produced kerf by HPWJ, from which it is obvious that in individual
produced kerfs there are under-surface areas of disintegrated material that cannot be
intercepted by optical methods, but X-ray µ-CT method is very well able to recognize
and analyse these hidden areas. The advantage of X-Ray µ-CT against other two used
methods is the ability to catch, visualise and analyse surfaces that are determined of
such shape where for one (x; y) position of analysed surface there exist two or more
coordinates (positions). Such complex types of surfaces can be found e.g. at Electron
122 J. Klich et al.
Fig. 9. Detail of the surface of the groove created by HPWJ.
Beam Melting (EBM) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM) metal powder bed fusion
additive manufacturing (AM) technique [7].
Time demand of measuring is an important parameter when comparing the above
mentioned contactless methods. The process of scanning and reconstructing of one
sample using a digital microscope takes about ten minutes. While using Optical pro-
filometer and X-ray µ-CT for scanning the surface, the measuring takes two hours. The
advantage of the digital microscope against the two other methods is a big time saving
with twelve times faster measuring of one sample.
Acknowledgments. This article was written within the scope of a project of the Institute of
Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilisation of Raw Materials for Energy Use – Sustainability
Program, (Reg. No. LO1406). The presented work was also supported by a project for the long-
term conceptual development of research organisations RVO: 68145535 and Czech Ministry of
Industry and Trade project No. FV30233. The authors are very thankful for the support.
References
1. Sitek, L., Bodnárová, L., Souček, K., Staš, L., Gurková, L.: Analysis of inner structure
changes of concretes exposed to high temperatures using micro x-ray computed tomography.
Acta geodynamica et geomaterialia 12(1), 79–89 (2015)
integrity characteristics of CW004A copper and CW614 N brass. Measurement 110, 230–238
(2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.07.005
3. Lehocká, D., Klich, J., Foldyna, J., Hloch, S., Hvizdoš, P., Fides, M., Botko, F., Cárach, J.:
Surface integrity evaluation of brass CW614 N after impact of acoustically excited pulsating
water jet. Procedia Eng. 149, 236–244 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.662
4. Peng, G., Ishizuka, M., Hayama, S.: An improved CIP-CUP method for submerged water jet
flow simulation. JSME Int. J. Ser. B. Fluids Therm. Eng. 44(4), 497–504 (2001). https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1001-6058(16)60700-X
5. Peng, G., Yang, C., Oguma, Y., et al.: Numerical analysis of cavitation cloud shedding in
a submerged water jet. J. Hydrodyn. 28(6), 986–993 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-
6058(16)60700-X
6. Vavro, M., Souček, K., Daněk, T., Matýsek, D., Georgiovská, L., Zajícová, V.: Utilization of
X-ray computed micro-tomography to evaluate iron sulphide distribution in roofing slates.
Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. (2018)
7. Townsend, A., Pagani, L., Scott, P.J., Blunt, L.: CT measurement of re-entrant additively
manufactured surfaces. In: Abstract Booklet of 8th Conference on Industrial Computed
Tomography, 6th–9th February 2018, Wels Austria (2018)
Investigation of Limestone Cutting Efficiency
by the Abrasive Water Suspension Jet
Andrzej Perec(&)
Jacob of Paradies University,

Teatralna 25, 66-400 Gorzów Wielkopolski, Poland
aperec@ajp.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper concern to the impact of the Abrasive Water Suspension
Jet (AWSJ) limestone cutting process parameters, such as abrasive flow rate,
diameter and length of the forming nozzle jet under reduced pressure on the
depth of cut. Achieving such a high efficiency in the processing of this rock
results from the use of circular motion of the liquid to create a stream. This has
become possible due to the replacement of a low-efficiency injector mixer with a
new mixer in which the hydro-abrasive mixture is generated directly under high
pressure. The conducted research allowed to determine the best geometric
dimensions of the working nozzle and abrasive flow rate to achieve the best
machining effects were achieved.
Keywords: AWSJ Advanced manufacturing Cutting depth

Abrasive
1 Introduction
One of the fastest growing advanced technologies is high-pressure water jet cutting.
This advanced production technology competes effectively with conventional methods
of materials separation. It is caused primarily by its universal character, resulting from
the wide possibilities of cutting both various materials, as well as cutting complicated
shapes or conducting it in extreme conditions (hazard of fire, explosion, etc.) and
environmental friendliness [1, 2].
The disadvantage of existing AWJ systems for cutting under 400–600 MPa is the
use for the generation of the jet the injector-mixer. It is poor performance device,
especially in the case of very high speed differences in mixed media. The elimination of
the injector-mixer and the use of circular flow rinsing to mix the pre-formed abrasive
mixture and water directly under high pressure allows for similar machining effects.
The effects of the abrasive machining process are determined by the phenomena
occurring in the abrasive grain contact zones with the workpiece. Studying these
phenomena in real conditions is very difficult or even impossible [3–5]. Therefore,
other modern methods were used, such as computer numerical simulations and, of
course, modeling using statistical and mathematical methods.
Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation model of the AWSJ nozzle was used by
Deepak et al. to find some relations between operational parameters and jet efficiency
[6]. They found that the increase in inlet pressure causes a significant increase in the
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_14
Investigation of Limestone Cutting Efficiency by the AWSJ 125
surface friction coefficient that approaches peaks with a sudden change in flow in the
critical section of the geometry, and linear increase of the average kinetic output of the
stream. However, the output energy decreases with the increase in the volume fraction
of the abrasive particles.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modeling was used by Kowsari et al. [7] to
derive a generalized relation between channel geometry and erosive flow (the non-
linearity function), which was used in an existing numerical-empirical model to predict
the depths, widths, and shapes of ASJM micro-channels in sintered ceramics and by
Liwszyc et al. [8] to flows simulation in Abrasive Suspension-Injection cutting system.
Among the statistical and mathematical methods, the orthogonal array method was
also used for modeling of AWJ machining. The prediction of machining effects using
this method was applied both to the cutting depth [9] and the quality of the treated
surface [10] as well as the efficiency of the cutting process [11].
Successfully modeling processing can use the response surface method. Majumder
et al. [12] used the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to evaluate the minimum
surface roughness of the cut low carbon steel by abrasive water jet. A statistical model
was generated to predict surface roughness.
Also at Shandong University, Liu et al. [13] investigated the effect of operating
parameters at on depth of penetration and surface roughness (Ra) in turning of alumina
ceramics using abrasive waterjet. The quadratic regression models were developed to
predict the depth of penetration and Ra by experiments using Response Surface
Methodology. Thus the developed model can be effectively used to predict the depth of
penetration and surface roughness in the machining of alumina ceramics.
Lehocka et al. [14] studied the disintegration effect of ultrasound-enhanced pul-
sating water jet (PWJ) technology on brass CW614N. The mathematical model on
basis RSM was developed and confirmed. The experiment and results present a part of
an extensive research focused on describing the PWJ disintegration efficiency for metal
materials.
2 Materials and Method

2.1 Abrasive Material
In the AWSJ system, silica sand was used as the abrasive material primarily due to its
high efficiency and low price. As in the case of other abrasives, the largest grains are
the most effective [15, 16]. Among the used abrasive grains (#60, #46 and #30), the
most effective quartz sand #30 was for cutting (Table 1).
2.2 Treatment Material

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in
the form of the mineral calcite. It most commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow marine
waters. It is usually an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation of
shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also be a chemical sedimentary rock formed
by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water [19].
126 A. Perec
Table 1. Silica sand properties [17, 18].

Crystal Hexagonal
system
Twinning Very common by Dauphiné or Brazil
law; less common by Japanese law; rare
by several other laws
Unit cell a = 4.91 Å; c = 5.41 Å
Habit Crystals short to prismatic elongated
along c axis, hexagonal, horizontally
striated, bent, distorted, skeletal
Fracture Conchoidal
Tenacity Brittle
Color Colorless, white, gray, yellow to brown
to black, violet, pink
Hardness 7
(Mohs)
Specific 2655 kg/m3
gravity
The limestone used for research comes from the quarry of Morawica/Poland and is
called the “Kielce marble”. It is a hard limestone, has a fine-grained structure, a
conchoidal fracture, the color of coffee with milk. Limestone from Morawica have the
following properties:
• Density: 2780 kg/m3
• Compressive strength: 82–117 MPa
Limestone can be treated with conventional methods only by means of cutting, but
to achieve high performance, use expensive diamond saw blades that allow cutting only
in straight lines. This limitation can be eliminated by the use of the Abrasive Water Jet
technology.
2.3 Test Rig

The test rig (Fig. 1a) was make on the basis of prototypical appliance and is built from
two pressure vessels and four independent hydraulic branches [9]. Each branch consists
of the following valves: a cut-off valve, a throttle valve, a check valve and a manometer
(Fig. 1b). An overflow valve performs AWSJ system from damage made by to high
pressure. It is set at the pressure of 30 MPa. A hydraulic monitor P26 type is the source
of a high pressure. It makes it possible to obtain the maximum pressure of 75 MPa with
the rate of water flow of 75 dm3/min.
The abrasive flow rate was determined indirectly by measuring the abrasive weight,
that flowed through the nozzle into the tank, in a measured time at various settings of
the throttle valve. The characteristics of the abrasive dosing through the throttling valve
for the tested pressures is shown in Fig. 1c.
Fig. 1. Test rig: (a) view: 1 – AWSJ device, 2 – Water pump, 3 – Cutting table, 4 – Control
device, (b) hydraulic diagram, (c) abrasive flow characteristic (d) detail of the cutting process
[21].
2.4 Test Method

Cutting of materials was made by directing the jet perpendicular to the workpiece
(Fig. 1c) and causing its linear displacement relative to the working nozzle [20].
The thickness of the cut samples of the materials was chosen so that the most
effective machining parameters did not result in full cutting, which could make it
difficult to correctly determine the cutting depth.
Process parameters such as water pressure, traverse speed, stand-off distance,
abrasive flow rate, pressure and nozzle dimensions were chosen based on our previous
works [22, 23]. The cutting process was carried out at abrasive flow rate from 50 g/s to
90 g/s, pressure of 28 MPa and traverse speed of 4 mm/s. Working nozzles made of
tungsten carbide H03. Following dimension of nozzle was used: ID 2.0 mm; 2.25 mm;
2.5 mm and 2.75 mm and nozzle length: 50, 75 and 100 mm. The other parameters,
like as pressure = 28 MPa, stand-off distance = 4 mm was invariable during the
research.
The design of experiment (DOE) was used to minimize the number of tests and to
reduce the time of research. The research was performed in accordance with the full
factorial design. The Response Surface Method (RSM) was used with a Box-Behnken
model. It consists of 60 experiments (Table 2).
RSM is a combination of statistical and mathematical methods for modeling. It can
be used in multi-objective optimization [24]. Additionally, it also provides a connection
128 A. Perec
Table 2. Independent and dependent variables of the experiment.

No Nozzle length [mm] Nozzle ID [mm] Abrasive flow rate [g/s] Cutting depth [mm]
1 50 2.00 50 20.01
2 50 2.00 60 23.01
3 50 2.00 70 25.47
4 50 2.00 80 21.21
5 50 2.00 90 20.01
6 50 2.25 50 18.01
7 50 2.25 60 25.04
8 50 2.25 70 25.00
9 50 2.25 80 25.04
10 50 2.25 90 21.01
11 50 2.50 50 19.74
12 50 2.50 60 24.64
13 50 2.50 70 26.89
14 50 2.50 80 26.43
15 50 2.50 90 22.09
16 50 2.75 50 22.34
17 50 2.75 60 24.14
18 50 2.75 70 25.77
19 50 2.75 80 24.30
20 50 2.75 90 23.21
21 75 2.00 50 24.96
22 75 2.00 60 25.56
23 75 2.00 70 26.36
24 75 2.00 80 28.10
25 75 2.00 90 29.74
26 75 2.25 50 25.66
27 75 2.25 60 27.90
28 75 2.25 70 27.07
29 75 2.25 80 30.29
30 75 2.25 90 32.53
31 75 2.50 50 26.93
32 75 2.50 60 28.07
33 75 2.50 70 29.16
34 75 2.50 80 30.79
35 75 2.50 90 34.97
36 75 2.75 50 30.56
37 75 2.75 60 34.19
38 75 2.75 70 36.50
39 75 2.75 80 38.00
40 75 2.75 90 37.99
(continued)
No Nozzle length [mm] Nozzle ID [mm] Abrasive flow rate [g/s] Cutting depth [mm]
41 100 2.00 50 16.07
42 100 2.00 60 19.80
43 100 2.00 70 22.83
44 100 2.00 80 22.46
45 100 2.00 90 23.00
46 100 2.25 50 19.69
47 100 2.25 60 20.61
48 100 2.25 70 23.93
49 100 2.25 80 25.07
50 100 2.25 90 22.36
51 100 2.50 50 20.94
52 100 2.50 60 22.76
53 100 2.50 70 28.83
54 100 2.50 80 27.51
55 100 2.50 90 27.50
56 100 2.75 50 24.60
57 100 2.75 60 29.73
58 100 2.75 70 31.94
59 100 2.75 80 34.67
60 100 2.75 90 33.94
between the process variables and the observed responses under consideration.
A polynomial equation of second order for determining the regression model value is:
Xk Xk
y ¼ b0 þ bx þ
i¼1 i i i¼1
bii x2i e ð1Þ
where:
y is the corresponding response,
xi indicates values of the i-th machining parameter,
b0, bi, bii are the regressions coefficients,
e is the error obtained during cutting.
The effect of control factors (independent variables) on the process was made through
ANOVA (ANalysis Of Variance). The results of this analysis display the figures given
in Table 3.
The analysis was performed for a 95% confidence level (a = 0.05). The P-value
of <0.05 implies that the model factor is significant.
130 A. Perec
Table 3. Analysis of variance factors.

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value VIF
Model 9 1320.67 146.74 51.28 0.000 1.00
Linear 3 589.04 196.35 68.61 0.000 1.00
Nozzle length 1 30.43 30.43 0.63 0.002 1.00
Nozzle ID 1 380.68 380.68 133.03 0.000 1.00
Abrasive flow rate 1 177.93 177.93 62.18 0.000 1.00
Square 3 599.53 199.84 69.83 0.000 1.00
Nozzle length2 1 516.97 516.97 180.65 0.000 1.00
Nozzle ID [mm]2 1 19.27 19.27 6.73 0.012 1.00
Abrasive flow rate2 1 63.30 63.3 22.12 0.000 1.00
2-Way Interaction 3 132.11 44.04 15.39 0.000 1.00
Nozzle length Nozzle ID 1 87.34 87.345 30.52 0.000 1.00
Nozzle length Abrasive flow rate 1 38.09 38.09 13.31 0.001 1.00
Nozzle ID Abrasive flow rate 1 6.67 6.67 2.33 0.133 1.00
Error 50 143.08 2.86
Total 59
SS is sum of squares, DF is degree of freedom, MS is mean square, F is ratio of variance
of a source to variance of error, P is Poisson coefficient and VIF is variance inflation
factor.
All factors have most significant impact on cutting depth. The capability of the
model was tested with an R-squared calculation. In regression, a R-squared coefficient
of determination is a statistical measure of how well the regression line approximates
the real data points. Table 4 presents a standard error of the regression S = 1.69165,
and R-squared = 90.22% and R-squared adjusted = 88.47% and an R-squared pre-
dicted on 86.36%. Such high and little differing values show that the raw data fit
satisfactory to the regression line.
Table 4. Analysis of variance model summary.

S R-sq R-sq (adj) R-sq (pred)
1.69165 90.22% 88.47% 86.36%
To measure multicollinearity, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was tested. VIF
measures how much the variance of an estimated regression coefficient increases if
predictors are correlated. For the VIF = 1, there is no multicollinearity but if the VIF
is >1, the predictors may be moderately correlated. For all tested factors there no
multicollinearity (VIF = 1.00) was observed.
On grounds of coefficients the final cutting depth control models was formulated:
Dc ¼ 29:5 þ 0:834 lN 55:8 dN þ 0:574 ma 0:009963:l2N þ 9:07 dN2 0:00614 m2a þ

ð2Þ
þ 0:2115 lN : dN þ 0:002760 lN : ma þ 0:0844 dN : ma
where:
Dc is cutting depth [mm],
lN is nozzle length [mm],
dN is nozzle ID [mm],
ma is abrasive flow rate [g/s].
The normal scattering chart of cutting depth is presented in the Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Scattering chart for depth of cut. Fig. 3. An exemplary view of the
limestone surface cut. Pressure
28 MPa, traverse speed = 2 mm/s,
abrasive flow rate = 80 g/s, nozzle
ID = 2.75 mm, nozzle length =
75 mm.
It can be concluded, that the points are close to a straight line. Therefore, it suggests
that the mathematical model which has been developed is satisfactory.
Figure 3 shows an example view of the cut limestone surface. It is visible on the
tarnish, and in the lower part, clear arched machining marks that are completely
invisible in the upper part. Triangular uncut, characteristic of waterjet cutting, is very
slender in this material.
The surface response chart of the effect of nozzle ID and length on cutting depth are
shown in Fig. 4. The maximum cutting depth for 75 mm length nozzle can be observed
at all abrasive flow rates. Decreasing of the nozzle ID results in a decrease in cutting
depth due to a smaller energy of abrasive grains, and hence a smaller number of cutting
edges. The nature of this relationship was observed with all tested abrasive flow rates.
The surface response plot of the effect of a nozzle length and abrasive flow rate on
cutting depth (Fig. 5) shows that cutting depth is at the maximum for a middle nozzle
length (75 mm) and abrasive flow rate for each nozzle ID. The lowest values of the
cutting depth for the extreme nozzle length and abrasive flow rate were observed.
132 A. Perec
Fig. 4. The impact of nozzle ID and length on the cutting depth at abrasive flow rate: (a) 50 g/s,
(b)70 g/, (c) 90 g/s.
Fig. 5. The impact of nozzle length and abrasive flow rate on the cutting depth with nozzle ID:
(a) 2.000 mm, (b) 2.375 mm, (c) 2.750 mm.
Fig. 6. The impact of nozzle ID and abrasive flow rate on the cutting depth with nozzle length:
(a) 50 mm, (b) 75 mm, (c) 100 mm.
The surface response graph of the effect of nozzle ID and abrasive flow rate on
cutting depth are shown in Fig. 6. Also in this case, the maximum cutting depth for
an middle abrasive flow rate (equal to 70 g/s) can be observed. The increase in nozzle
length leads to a growth in the cutting depth value. The biggest depth of cut is reached
with the middle long (75 mm) nozzle. In this case too, the character of this relationship
was observed with all tested nozzle length.
4 Conclusions
The following conclusions are deduced from the above research:

– All tested factors of the AWSJ process have most significant factor on cutting depth.
– The raw data of investigation fit well to the regression line.
– For all regression coefficients of the model, no multicollinearity was observed
(VIF = 1.00).
– The best AWSJ process parameters in tested area are following: biggest nozzle ID
(2.75 mm), middle nozzle length (75 mm) and middle abrasive flow rate (80 g/s).
– At the best effects of cutting the limestone maximum cutting depth more than
40 mm were achieved (nozzle ID = Ø 2.75 mm, nozzle length of 75 mm, abrasive
flow rate = 80 g/s).
In the direction of further development of the AWJ, two opposite trends can be
observed. The first trend is the pressure increase of over 600 MPa while reducing the
diameter of working nozzles ID below 0.2 mm. The increase in pressure should be
expected with more energy of the jet.
The opposite trend is to lower the pressure and increase the intensity of water and
abrasive flow rate. Here we expect the jet energy to increase by increasing the mass
flow rate.
However, the most interesting is, still in the series of preliminary research, the
direction of combining the advantages of AWJ and AWSJ. it is called Abrasive Slurry
Injection Jet (ASIJ), which consists in injecting wet grit (slurry) under high pressure.
Under 280 MPa at 0.3 mm nozzle ID cutting efficiency is almost 3 times bigger [8]
than at 400 MPa.
References
1. Perec, A.: Environmental aspects of abrasive water jet cutting. Ann. Set Environ. Protect.
- Rocznik Ochrona Srodowiska 20 (2018)
2. Perec, A.: Disintegration and recycling possibility of selected abrasives for water jet cutting.
DYNA 84, 249–256 (2017)
3. Kukielka, L., Krzyzynski, T.: New thermo-elastic thermo-visco-plastic material model and
its application. Zeitschrift fur Angewande Mathematik und Mechanik. 80(sup. 3), S595–
S596 (2000)
4. Kukielka, L., Kukielka, K., Kułakowska, A., Patyk, R., Bohdal, L.: Incremental modelling
and numerical solution of the contact problem between movable elastic and elastic/visco-
plastic bodies and application in the technological processes. Appl. Mech. Mater. 474, 159–
164 (2014)
5. Nadolny, K., Sutowski, P., Herman, D.: Analysis of aluminum oxynitride AlON (Abral®)
abrasive grains during the brittle fracture process using stress-wave emission techniques. Int.
J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 81, 1961–1976 (2015)
6. Deepak, D., Anjaiah, D., Karanth, K.V., Sharma, N.Y.: CFD simulation of flow in an
abrasive water suspension jet: the effect of inlet operating pressure and volume fraction on
skin friction and exit kinetic energy. Adv. Mech. Eng. 4, 1–8 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1155/
2012/186430
134 A. Perec
7. Kowsari, K., Nouraei, H., Samareh, B., Papini, M., Spelt, J.K.: CFD-aided prediction of the
shape of abrasive slurry jet micro-machined channels in sintered ceramics. Ceram. Int. 42,
7030–7042 (2016)
8. Liwszyc, D., Liwszyc, A., Liwszyc, J., Perec, A.: Abrasive Slurry–Injection Jet (AS IJ) a
New CNC Cutting Technology. In: 2011 WJTA American Waterjet Conference, Houston,
p. E-2. WaterJet Technology Association (2011)
9. Perec, A.: Abrasive suspension water jet cutting optimization using orthogonal array design.
Procedia Eng. 149, 366–373 (2016)
10. Perec, A., Pude, F., Kaufeld, M., Wegener, K.: Obtaining the selected surface roughness by
means of mathematical model based parameter optimization in abrasive waterjet cutting.
Strojniski vestnik – J. Mech. Eng. 10, 1–9 (2017)
11. Hu, G., Zhu, W., Cai, H., Xu, C., Bai, Y., Cheng, J., Yuan, J., Yu, T.: Mathematical model
for abrasive suspension jet cutting based on orthogonal test design. J. Shanghai Univ.
(English Edition) 13, 37–44 (2009)
12. Majumder, S.K., Mandal, B., Das, S., Das, P.K.: An experimental investigation on surface
roughness achieved during abrasive water-jet machining of low carbon steel. J. Assoc. Eng.
India 87, 26–32 (2017)
13. Liu, D., Huang, C., Wang, J., Zhu, H., Yao, P., Liu, Z.: Modeling and optimization of
operating parameters for abrasive waterjet turning alumina ceramics using response surface
methodology combined with Box-Behnken design. Ceram. Int. 40, 7899–7908 (2014)
14. Lehocká, D., Klich, J., Botko, F., Foldyna, J., Hloch, S., Kepič, J., Kovaľ, K., Krejči, L.,
Storkan, Z.: Pulsating water jet erosion effect on a brass flat solid surface. Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Technol. 97, 1099–1112 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-1882-4
15. Prazmo, J., Sobczak, R., Perec, A.: Abrasive grain disintegration during high-pressure
abrasive water jet cutting in the abrasive reuse aspect. In: Klichova, D., Sitek, L. (eds.)
Conference on Water Jetting Technology: Water Jet 2017 – Research, Development,
Application, pp. 137–150. Ústav geoniky AV ČR, v.v.i. (2017)
16. Perec, A.: Abrasive grain breakage process during the high-pressure waterjet formation. In:
WJTA American Waterjet Conference, p. C-2. WaterJet Technology Association (2011)
17. Martinec, P., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Ščučka, J., Vašek, J., Martinec, P.: Abrasives for AWJ
cutting (2002)
18. Sobczak, R., Prazmo, J., Perec, A., Chmielik, I.: Dust free surface treatment parameters of
the three-phase jet, generated in the sandbot device. MM Sci. J. 872–876 (2016)
19. King, H.: Limestone: rock uses, formation, composition, pictures. https://geology.com/rocks/
limestone.shtml
20. Perec, A., Pude, F., Stirnimann, J., Wegener, K.: Feasibility study on the use of fractal
analysis for evaluating the surface quality generated by waterjet. Tehnički vjesnik 22,
879–883 (2015)
21. Perec, A.: Influence of conditions highpressure, suspensive, hydroabrasive jet creation onto
cutting materials parameters in lower working pressure aspect. Koszalin University of
Technology, Koszalin (1995)
22. Perec, A.: Some aspects of hydroabrasive suspensive jet cutting of aluminum alloy. In: Lee,
C.-I., Jeon, S., Song, J.-J. (eds.) 7th Pacific Rim International Conference on Water Jetting
Technology, pp. 349–356. Korean Society of WJT (2003)
23. Perec, A.: Some aspects of hydroabrasive suspensive jet cutting of syenite. In: 17-th
International Conference on Water Jetting: Advances and Future Needs, Mainz (2004)
24. Perec, A.: Experimental research into alternative abrasive material for the abrasive water jet
cutting of titanium. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 97, 1529–1540 (2018)
Erosion Test with High-speed Water Jet
Applied on Surface of Concrete Treated
with Solution of Modified Lithium Silicates
Petr Hlaváček1,2(&), Libor Sitek1,2, Rudolf Hela3,

and Lenka Bodnárová3
1
Studentska 1768, 70800 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
petr.hlavacek@ugn.cas.cz
2
Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilization of Raw Materials
for Energy Use, 70800 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
3
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University of Technology,
Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract. The paper focuses on the erosion resistance test based on surface
treatment by a high-speed water jet applied on concrete. A reference concrete
sample and concrete samples with three types of solution of modified lithium
silicates applied on the concrete surface were tested under various erosion
conditions. Two different jet impact angles (45° and 90°) were investigated.
A significant difference in the erosion rate in the surface layers was observed
comparing the untreated concrete and the concrete treated by various solutions
of modified lithium silicates, but only in the initial phase of erosion.
Keywords: Cement-based composite Lithium silicates Erosion

High-speed water jet
1 Introduction
Cement-based composites used for the constructions of dams, drainage tunnels, canals,
etc. are affected by progressive erosion by rapidly flowing water together with abrasive
wear caused by the occurrence of small particles in the water flow (e.g. [2]). High
durability and erosion resistance of the material used are more significant for the
resistance against this type of loading than the very high material strength.
The durability of the concrete structure depends not only on the materials used,
their interconnections and inner structure, but especially on physical and chemical
influences of the environment. In case of concrete structures exposed to effects of
flowing water, such as dams, canals, sewers and drains, harbor constructions, etc., one
of the main forms of degradation is associated with erosive processes. Erosion caused
by the surface wear of the concrete structures by rapidly flowing water is characterized
by gradual concrete degradation and transport of the fragmented material on the
concrete surface [10].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_15
136 P. Hlaváček et al.
One of the possibilities to increase the resistance of concrete against the erosive
wear is the use of special impregnations creating a durable protective layer on the
concrete surface. Progressive lithium silicate-based impregnating agents penetrate into
the pores of the surface layer of the concrete, chemically react with the free lime
occurring in the cement surface layer and form a dense microstructure that is chemi-
cally durable and resistant against the erosion and abrasion.
The erosion of concrete structures exposed to flowing fluids (clean water, water
with small particles such as sand or sewage water) is a long-term process; it usually
takes several months to years before certain damage can be observed. However, the
damage can be detected in shorter time due to the application of accelerated testing
methods. That is why the attention is focused on the development of appropriate
methods for evaluation of the resistance of materials against the erosive wear. One of
the progressive ways to an accelerated mechanical simulation of the erosion are the
methods applying high-speed water flows and different strategies of their action on the
surface of a studied material. The logical selection of the water jet/flow technology is
based on its similarity to the real erosive process. Several studies on the erosion of
cement composites using accelerated tests have been published so far. Some works
focused on the use of pure water jets without additives [7], other works described the
application of abrasive water jets [1, 5, 6, 9] or effects of artificially created cavitation
[8]. The authors’ contribution to the problem of the accelerated simulation of the
erosive wear of concrete is based on many years of experience with the degradation of
cement composites by high-speed water flows [3, 4, 11], etc.
The aim of this research is to verify the suitability of the use of plain water jet for
the accelerated erosion tests on concrete samples which are surface-treated by special
solutions based on lithium silicates.
2 Experimental Set-up and Procedure
2.1 Materials
A preliminary study on the resistance of concrete samples with three lithium silicate
solutions applied on the surface against the flowing water under in short-time erosion
tests was performed. The concrete samples with the same composition and mechanical
properties were prepared for the testing. After mixing and casting, the mixtures were
cured and hardened for 28 days. The compressive strength was measured according to
EN 12390–3 Testing hardened concrete - Part 3: Compressive strength of test speci-
mens, the flexural strength was measured according to EN 12390–5 Testing hardened
concrete - Part 5: Flexural strength of test specimens. Compositions and properties of
the composites tested are provided in Tables 1 and 2.
Three types of the solution of modified lithium silicates (Table 3) were conse-
quently applied on sample surfaces according to the recommendations by manufac-
turers of solutions. In the text below, the individual solution of modified lithium
silicates are marked at random as the sample A, B and C to be avoid any legal dispute
with the manufacturers of the solutions.
Erosion Test with High-speed Water Jet 137
Table 1. Composition of concrete mixtures.

Composition (per 1 m3 of fresh concrete) Quantity [kg]
Cement CEM I 42.5 R 380
Aggregate 0–4 mm river sand 1100
Aggregate 4–8 mm crushed aggregate granodiorite 650
Water 146
Table 2. Properties of concrete mixtures after 28 days of curing.

Density [kg m3] 2250
Compressive strength [MPa] 50
Flexural strength [MPa] 6.2
Table 3. Tested lithium silicate densifiers.

Solutions of modified lithium silicates Producer
Sample 1 Reference sample –
Sample 2 Mapecrete LI Hardener Mapei
Sample 3 Sikafloor-CureHard GL Sika CZ
Sample 4 MC-TOP Li MC-Bauchemie
2.2 Erosion Test Method

The experimental set-up consisted of a high-pressure water pump PTV75-60 with two
pressure multipliers (working pressure from 40 MPa to 415 MPa, maximum flow rate
of 7.8 l/min at 415 MPa), standard cutting head Slice I with nozzle arrangement (water
nozzle diameter 0.33 mm, focusing tube diameter of 1.02 mm and focusing tube length
of 76.2 mm) and a CNC-controlled 3D-positioning X-Y cutting table PTV WJ202-2Z
1xPJ with a tilting cutting head specially designed for the water jet cutting. The
traversing velocity of the cutting head was controlled by a table control system. The
concrete samples were exposed to the water jet at the standoff distance of 50 mm (i.e.
the distance between exit of the focusing tube and the sample surface). Based on the
previous tests, constant operation water pressure of 80 MPa was used during experi-
ments. The jet impact angles used in this study were 45° and 90° (see Fig. 1).
In order to influence a larger area of the concrete sample, the water jet was moved
along the milling trajectory by the zig-zag method. Thus, one milling cycle was
composed of two zig-zag trajectories rotated to each other by 90° (see Fig. 2).
Traversing velocity of the water jet moving above the concrete sample was set at
500 mm/min. One erosion (milling) cycle lasted about 110 s.
2.3 Evaluation of Erosion

The average maximum depth of erosion Hmax reached in every newly created pocket as
well as the eroded volume Ve were the basic parameters used for the evaluation of
Fig. 1. Experimental application of the water jet on concrete sample (left – jet impact angle of
45°; right – jet impact angle of 90°).
Fig. 2. Combination of trajectories used for one erosion cycle during treatment of concrete
specimens by the water jet.
erosion processes. Both parameters were determined by mobile digital microscope

Keyence VHX 5000. The average maximum depth was calculated as the average value
of maximum depths of 40 profiles (located at a distance of 0.25 mm from each other)
measured in a newly created pocket, see Fig. 3.
Once the eroded concrete volume of individual pockets Ve was measured, the
volumetric erosion rate Vr was specified as follows:
Ve
Vr ¼ ; ð1Þ
te
where te is the exposure time
te ¼ N tc : ð2Þ
Fig. 3. Example of evaluation of the average maximum depth of erosion Hmax.
N is the number of milling cycles and tc is the time needed for one milling cycle.
Unlike the removed volume of material Ve, the volumetric erosion rate Vr indicates the
rate of erosion of surface layers of the testing samples and better determinates the
erosion abilities of the high-speed water jet impacting on the densified surface layer.
3 Experimental Results and Discussion
3.1 Average Maximum Depth of Erosion

Results of experiments on erosion of concretes surface layers strengthened by various
solutions are presented in graphical form in the Figures below. Figures 4 and 5 shows
the average maximum depths reached in individual concrete samples.
The highest value of the depth of erosion in the first milling cycle was measured in
the reference sample, i.e. Hmax = 2.3 mm at the jet impact angle of 45°. The smallest
depth of erosion in the first milling cycle was measured in the sample B - Hmax =
1.02 mm at the jet impact angle of 45°, what represents an improvement of more than
50%. In the second milling cycle, the reference sample remains the least resistant
against the erosive wear. However, the difference in erosive wear between the reference
sample and the densified samples is not so significant. Compared to the sample B, the
difference is only about 13%. After the third milling cycle, the erosion is no longer
Fig. 4. Results of the erosion testing made in concrete samples: the maximum depth of erosion
Hmax in various numbers of cycles (angle of jet impact 45°).
Fig. 5. Results of the erosion testing made in concrete samples: the maximum depth of erosion
Hmax in various numbers of cycles (angle of jet impact 90°).
dependent on whether or not the sample was treated using the solution. The water jet
penetrates directly under the densified layer and the differences between individual
samples are eliminated. During the first and possibly the second milling cycle, the
protective layer is being removed, which obviously reduces the erosive wear.
At the jet impact angle of 90°, results of the erosion are similar to the results
achieved at the jet impact angle of 45°, except that the value of the average maximum
depth is higher. This is due to the fact that at the angle of 45° the applied forces of the
water jet are decomposed, and a proportion of the energy impinging on the sample
surface is reflected.
3.2 Volumetric Erosion Rate

Interesting results were achieved when evaluating the volumetric erosion rate Vr, too.
Figures 6 and 7 shows the volumetric erosion rate Vr reached in individual concrete
samples. Initially, the layer of concrete untreated by any solution is removed most
rapidly. In the case of the treated concrete samples, after the removal of the densified
surface layer, the erosion rate is comparable to that of the untreated reference sample.
Nothing prevents the high-speed water jet to easily remove the lower untreated con-
crete layers.
Fig. 6. Results of the erosion testing made in concrete samples: the volumetric erosion rate Vr in
various numbers of cycles (angle of jet impact 45°).
Fig. 7. Results of the erosion testing made in concrete samples: the volumetric erosion rate Vr in
various numbers of cycles (angle of jet impact 90°).
4 Conclusion
Based on experimental results, the following can be concluded from the investigations:
1. Two quantitative parameters were used for the erosion assessment, namely the
maximal depth of erosion Hmax and the rate of volumetric erosion Vr. It can be said
that both parameters have similar informative power.
2. Higher erosion resistance was observed by concretes with solution of modified
lithium silicates, but only in the initial phase of erosion.
3. The resistance of treated surface layers against the erosion caused by the water flow
differs significantly according to the manufacturers of impregnation agents. How-
ever, all tested solutions increased the erosion resistance of the treated surface layer.
4. In general, the erosion rate is lower at the jet impact angle of 45° compared to the jet
impact angle of 90° due to the reflection of a proportion of the impinging water jet
energy. While the perpendicular impact of the jet on the studied surface can be
associated to real case of impact of water to bottom of stilling basin, the impact at the
angle of 45° corresponds better to the natural flow of fast flowing streams on the
concrete surfaces for instance in effluent weirs, canals, wastewater disposal system etc.
Acknowledgement. This work was supported by grant of the Czech Science Foundation (18-
25035S) and by project of the Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and the Utilization of
Raw Materials for Energy Use – Sustainability program, reg. no. LO1406 financed by the
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. Some parts of presented work
was also supported by a project for the long-term conceptual development of research organi-
sations RVO: 68145535. The authors are very thankful for the support.
References
1. Binici, H., Aksogan, O., Gorur, E.B., Kaplan, H., Bodur, M.N.: Hydro-abrasive erosion of
concrete incorporating ground blast-furnace slag and ground basaltic pumice. Constr. Build.
Mater. 23, 804–811 (2009)
2. Galvao, J.C.A.: Abrasive effects observed in concrete hydraulic surfaces of dams and
application of repair materials
3. Hela, R., Bodnárová, L., Sitek, L., Foldyna, J.: High-speed water jet technology for
renovation of concrete structures - new trends and possibilities. Cement-Wapno-Beton, vol.
15, 268 p. (2010)
4. Hlaváč, L.M., Bodnárová, L., Janurová, E., Sitek, L.: Comparison of continuous and pulsing
water jets for repair actions on road and bridge concrete. Baltic J. Road Bridge Eng. 7, 53–59
(2012). https://doi.org/10.3846/bjrbe.2012.08
5. Horszczaruk, E.K.: Hydro-abrasive erosion of high performance fiber-reinforced concrete.
Wear 267, 110–115 (2009)
6. Hu, X.G., Momber, A.W., Yin, Y.G.: Hydro-abrasive erosion of steel-fibre reinforced
hydraulic concrete. Wear 253, 848–854 (2002)
7. Hu, X.G., Momber, A.W., Yin, Y.: Erosive wear of hydraulic concrete with low steel fiber
content. J. Hydraul. Eng. 132, 1331–1340 (2006)
8. Momber, A.W.: Short-time cavitation erosion of concrete. Wear 241, 47–52 (2000)
9. Momber, A.W.: Effects of erodent flow energy and local exposure time on the erosion of
cement-based composites at high-speed hydro-abrasive flow. Wear 378–379, 145–154
(2017)
10. Saegrov, S., Hafskjold, L.S., Konig, A., et al.: Wastewater network challenges and solutions.
In: Hlavinek, P., Kukharchyk, T., Marsalek, J., Mahrikova, I. (eds.) Conference NATO
Advanced Research Workshop on Integrated Urban Water Resources Management, Senec,
Slovakia, 19–23 Oct 2005, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C-Environmental
Security, pp. 147–158. Springer, Dordrecht (2006)
11. Sitek, L., Bodnárová, L., Válek, J., et al.: Effects of water jet on heat-affected concretes. In:
Juozapaitis, A., Vainiunas, P., Zavadskas, E.K. (eds.) Modern Building Materials, Structures
and Techniques, Procedia Engineering, vol. 57, pp. 1036–1044 (2013). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.proeng.2013.04.131
Analysis of Micro Continuous Water Jet Based
on Numerical Modelling and Flow Monitoring
Michal Zelenak1(&), Zdenek Riha1, Kamil Soucek1, and Frank Pude2

1
michal.zelenak@ugn.cas.cz
2
Steinbeis Consulting Center High-Pressure Waterjet Technology,
Horgau, Germany
Abstract. The paper deals with application of numerical modelling, computed

tomography and optical diagnostic techniques for study of continuous micro
water jet behaviors. The main emphasis is placed on numerical modelling of
high speed water jet generation inside a circular nozzle and its outlet. The
theoretical studies are performed based on the 3D geometry of nozzle received
from the computed tomography. The models are experimentally verified by flow
monitoring and visualization techniques. For the purpose of experimental test-
ing, a closed water circuit was designed. The methods of Particle Tracking
Velocimetry, Laser Induced Fluorescence and Shadowgraphy together with
fluorescent seeding particles were applied for determination of jet velocity fields.
A series of experiments was conducted to measure the flow conditions. Basic
methods and principles used in the experiments are described in the paper. The
results and analyses of the micro CWJs flow based on numerical modelling,
visualization and monitoring show very good conformity of theoretical and
practical tests.
Keywords: CFD modelling CT computed tomography PTV

Micro water jet Seeding particles
1 Introduction
The high-speed water jet (WJ) represents a progressive technology that is used in
a variety of industrial applications for cutting, drilling, milling, turning, surface
blasting and structuring. A circular water nozzle converts the pressure energy
(<600 MPa) of water into the kinetic energy [1]. Operating conditions used to generate
high-speed water jet require a high resistance and durability of the nozzle material.
Nozzles are usually made of ruby, sapphire or diamond with an internal diameter of
0.05 to 0.5 mm [2]. High resistance of the diamond material requires corresponding
micro-cutting tool for orifice preparation. A micro cutting tool material cannot be easily
processed using conventional methods. Up to now, such tools have been primarily
fabricated by grinding or electrical discharge machining. A new method based on
picosecond laser used for shape modification of the diamond nozzles was tested by
Eberle in his doctoral thesis [3].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_16
Analysis of Micro Continuous Water Jet 145
It is obvious that the process preparation of the diamond nozzles is a very complex
task. There are many technological, material, and physical aspects that influence the
final geometrical shape and quality of the orifice manufacture. All these factors have an
impact on jet properties during its generation. Experimental results of nozzle testing at
the Department of Material Disintegration at the Institute of Geonics show that quality
and accuracy of the nozzle manufacture have a significant impact on its proper func-
tionality and lifetime. A lot of numerical studies have been already focused on the
simulation of the flow inside the nozzle using the ideal CAD geometries. Results of
nozzle designs and measurements can vary due to geometrical deviations and surface
irregularities of manufacture.
This paper focuses on analysis of continuous micro water (CWJ) jets based on
numerical modelling, visualization and flow monitoring. The main motivation is to
compare a numerical calculation and measuring methods designed for the CWJs
analysis. The main emphasis is placed on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simu-
lation and determination of water flow properties during generation of the water jet.
Numerical modelling of flow inside the nozzle is performed based on real 3D geometry
received from computed tomography. For the purpose of experimental testing, a closed
water circuit includes low-pressure water pump and flow diagnostics was designed.
The optical - spectroscopic methods of Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV), Laser
Induced Fluorescence (LIF) and Shadowgraph were applied together with fluorescent
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) seeding particles for determination the jet velocity
fields. A series of experiments was conducted to measure of flow properties. The basic
methods and principles used in the experiment are described below. Results of mea-
surements are consequently compared with numerical studies.
2 Methods
2.1 Scanning of Nozzle Geometry Using Micro X-Ray Computed

Tomography
The computed tomography (CT) is a progressive method for visualization of the inner
structures of different types of materials. The method uses the penetration capability of
X-radiation through analyzed target objects. The 2D radiographic projections are done
using the X-rays area detector with a determined number of pixels. The radiograph, or
projection, is a 2D map of pixels that visualizes the intensity of X-ray signals trans-
mitted through the studied object by different levels of grey color. To generate a 3D CT
volume, a series of sequential 2D X-ray images are captured as the object is rotated
trough 360°. This information are then reconstructed to generate a 3D volumetric
representation of the object. In addition to the outer surfaces, the reconstructed volume
contains all information of interior surfaces and structure – as well as information on
the material structure. It is possible to navigate through the CT volume at any given
point, through any plane. As a result, even interior measurements can be easily
obtained, as well as the added benefit of localizing structural material imperfections and
identifying assembly errors not usually visible through traditional nondestructive
testing methods (NDT) [4]. Quality and accuracy of the 3D model reconstruction is
146 M. Zelenak et al.
given by accuracy of calibration, magnification and numbers of radiographic projec-

tions. In the (Fig. 1a) is scheme of CT micro scanner Nikon XT H225 with the
description of main parts. Reconstruction of a 3D nozzle used in the experiment is
presented in (Fig. 1b).
Fig. 1. Description of CT micro scanner and the 3D model nozzle reconstruction.

2.2 CFD Modelling of Water Flow Inside Nozzle

The CFD modelling of the fluid flow inside the nozzle and at its output provides
meaningful information about the given phenomenon. It is very complicated to acquire
complex information about the phenomenon only by means of experimental mea-
surements. The geometry of the nozzle is very small and, moreover, the nozzle is under
very high pressure. Any modifications of the nozzle geometry with regards to mea-
surement requirements are very difficult or even impossible.
The water jet nozzle consists of the nozzle holder and diamond orifice. The dia-
mond orifice is fixed into the nozzle holder and the whole assembly is then mounted to
the body of the given tool where it is fixed through the walls. High-pressure water is
supplied to the orifice. In the diamond orifice, the pressure energy changes into the
kinetic energy and loss energy. In the smallest hole of the diamond orifice, water
accelerates and the high-speed water jet is generated. The energy of the high-speed
water jet can be used for cutting materials, cleaning of the surfaces, accelerating
abrasive particles, etc. Distribution of flow variables in the given domain is presented in
(Fig. 2 b, c and d).
Fig. 2. Numerical model of the nozzle and calculated fluids flow fields, input pressure of
14 MPa.
The CFD model was created based on the information acquired by the X-ray
computing tomography. The scanned surface in “STL” mesh file format was modified in
the CAD software (SpaceClaim) to a 3D volume. The 3D model was consequently used
for the creation of the CFD model of the given nozzle. It can be seen in (Fig. 2a). Due to
this procedure, very accurate geometric data were used for the calculation. Processing of
accurate input data was a basic condition for the achievement of high-quality results.
The numerical model simulated a two-phase turbulent flow of compressible water
and incompressible air in the above-described space. The turbulent flow was defined by
the two-equation RANS model SST-kx. The 3D multiphase flow was solved as
a steady-state equation.
2.3 Optical Diagnostic Techniques for Micro Continuous Water Jet

Visualization
For the velocity measurements of micro CWJ, fluorescent seeding particles are added
into water. The fluorescent seeding particles allow that only the light signal of the
specified wavelength emitted by particles is transmitted on the chip of the digital
camera during recording. In Fig. 3, the scheme of a 2D PTV recording system using
the LIF method for tracking of the seeding particles in the non-transparent flow of the
micro CWJ is presented. This experimental assembly was extended by the shadow-
graph technique. The shadowgraphy allows both visualising the shape and structure of
the water jet (fluid phase) and at the same time observing the motion of seeding
particles (solid phase) using LIF [5]. Backlight illumination optics are installed behind
the jet against the position of the camera lens. Illumination of water jet by planar light
sheet and the backlight are realised using a pulsed laser [6].
In general, the PTV method measures whole velocity fields by taking at least two
images shortly after each other using a digital camera and calculating the distance
between individual particles travelled within this time [7]. The velocity is calculated
from the time difference and length between two identical particles [8, 9].
Seeding Particles
For the visualisation of the non-transparent water flow, the spherical Poly (methyl
methacrylate) (PMMA) particles saturated with the fluorescent dye e Rhodamine B
(C28H31ClN2O3) were used as seeding particles (Fig. 4). The microspheres had the size
of 20 to 70 µm (average diameter of 46 µm). Basic properties of the particles are
presented Table 1.
3 Experiment
The experimental assembly used for the visualisation and velocity measurement of
CWJs generated by a Kärcher water pump (max. flow rate of 11.7 l.min−1 at the
operating pressure of 14, 5 MPa) connected to a water head, water catching tank and
recording system. The water head equipped with a scanned diamond nozzle oriented to
the catching tank was fixed in the holder placed on the frame. A schematic drawing of
the experimental water circuit is presented in Fig. 5. The PMMA fluorescent seeding
Fig. 3. 2D PTV recording system combined with shadowgraphy used for CWJ visualization.
Fig. 4. PMMA seeding particles saturated with the Rhodamine B fluorescent dye.
Table 1. Properties of PMMA seeding particles.

Density [g.cm−3] 1.19
Refractive index [-] 1.48
Temperature resistance [°C] 85
Size [µm] 20–70
Mean diameter [µm] 46
Sphericity [%] 99
particles in an amount of 3 g were mixed into 15 L of pure water and put into the tank.
This arrangement allowed repeated visualization of particles (by their repeated passage
through the water nozzle). The hydraulic flow rate and the pressure was monitored
using a turbine flow meter with a digital unit and a pressure sensor with 0.1%
resp. 0.15% accuracy. Data acquisition and processing was performed in the LabVIEW
Interface and MS Excel.
Fig. 5. Experimental configuration of water loop for CWJ visualization.
The LaVision recording system equipped with Imager Pro X2 M CCD camera (op-
erating in double frame mode), a microlens with band-pass filter, Nd: YAG NL 135-15
double-pulse laser (wavelength of 532 nm, pulse width of 9 ns, 135 mJ max. energy) and
optical diffusor (diameter of 110 mm) was used for a water jet velocity measurments.
The velocity of seeding particles was measured at reference pressures of 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14 MPa. The size of the field of view of a recording window positioned
immediately behind the nozzle outlet was 24 18 mm. One thousand double frame
images were taken at one recording sequence at each pressure level. Time delay
between laser pulses of the first and second frame illumination was 0.75 µs.
The experimental results of pressure-flow measurement behind pump are summarized

in Table 2. The values of pressures and flow rates are average values taken from a one-
minute interval with 1 s sampling rate. The comparison of the results of the CFD,
measurement and theory is graphically illustrated in Fig. 6.
Table 2. Results of pressures and flow measurement, pavg – average value of pressure,
Qavg – average value of flow rate, SEM – standard error of the mean.
pavg [MPa] SEM [MPa] Qavg [l.min−1] SEM [l.min−1]
7.9809 0.011 0.3517 0.0003
9.0006 0.041 0.3792 0.0009
10.0403 0.016 0.3998 0.0004
11.0206 0.008 0.4186 0.0003
12.0242 0.100 0.4386 0.0018
13.0539 0.039 0.4588 0.0009
13.9618 0.017 0.4780 0.0005
The shape of the flow field in the given domain was calculated for seven levels
corresponding to the values of pressure received from the measurement. The deviation
between the measured and calculated volume flow rates is around 8%. This deviation is
caused by virtualization of the nozzle into the 3D model. It was observed that the
lowest diameter measured on the CAD model was 0.24 mm instead of the real diameter
of 0.25 mm verified by optical measurement. In this case, inaccuracy of the CAD
model fitting was in this case 0.01 mm. Comparison of theoretical flow rates for the
diameter of 0.24 mm and 0.25 mm using discharge coefficient u = 0.96 is illustrated
also in the graph Fig. 7. The measured values of the flow corresponded well with
theoretical calculation.
The velocities of PMMA seeding particles in the water jet flowing downstream of
the nozzle exit under various experimental conditions are presented in Table 3. For
calculated average values of particle velocities at the given pressures, standard error of
the mean is also calculated.
The graphical distribution of water jet velocities behind the nozzle outlet under
different operating pressures is illustrated in Fig. 8. The graph represents the distri-
bution of jet velocities acquired from numerical models and measurements. The green
line shows velocity of jet calculated by CFD in Fluent. The calculation was performed
based on the determination of volume flow rate in the lowest area of 3D CAD nozzle
orifice under given border conditions. The red line represents the average values of the
velocities of the PMMA seeding particles examined by optical measurement inside the
water jet flow. The brown line represents the velocity of the water jet calculated based
on direct volume flow rate and pressure measurements after determining the discharge
coefficient for the tested nozzle.
Fig. 6. Schematic drawing of the measured area with detail of a field of view at nozzle outlet.
Fig. 7. Comparison of the calculated flow rates to measured data.
Table 3. Results of PMMA seeding particles velocities, N – number of particles, vavg – average
velocity of seeding particles, SEM – standard error of the mean.
Pressure [MPa] N [-] vavg [m.s−1] SEM [m.s−1]
8 298 116.86 1.58
9 271 126.94 1.17
10 215 135.91 1.18
11 254 141.06 1.85
12 280 147.97 1.56
13 251 155.06 1.95
14 375 160.83 2.45
Fig. 8. Influence of operating pressure on average velocity of jet - comparison of theoretical and
measured values.
It is obvious from the graph in Fig. 8 and from Tables 2 and 3 that an increase in
water pressure (i.e. increase in water jet velocity) results in an increase in the flow rate
of water and velocities of PMMA particles downstream of the nozzle exit. It can be
stated that the measured average velocities of seeding particles follow the same trend at
increasing operating pressure as the theoretically calculated velocity of CWJ. In
addition, the results show a good agreement of measured data with model studies.
The results of the CFD calculation, direct flow monitoring and PTV optical mea-
surement correspond well with the theoretical model of velocity described by the
following Eq. (1):
sffiffiffiffiffi
2p
v¼u ð1Þ
q
where p is the operating pressure [Pa], q is the water density [kg.m−3] and u is the
nozzle discharge coefficient (u ¼ 0:96 was used in the calculation). This simple model
is also illustrated in the graph in Fig. 8. Only the optical investigation using PMMA
seeding particles at pressures of 8, 9 MPa shows certain data deviation and worse
agreement with all studies performed.
5 Conclusion
The results and analyses of the micro CWJs flow based on numerical modelling,
visualization and monitoring show very good conformity of theoretical and practical
tests. The presented optical experiments using the PMMA seeding particles show that
the designed measuring assembly and procedures are suitable for investigating of water
jet velocities at tested pressure ranges. A very high precision of the turbine flow meter
guarantees observation of the flow parameters o with respect to an overall nozzle
efficiency.
Determination of jet velocities using the PTV based on the tracking of seeding
particles in the flow is an indirect measurement method. Therefore, selection of par-
ticles, their size and mechanical properties are essential in order to avoid significant
discrepancies between fluid and particle motion. Higher accuracy of measurement
results can be achieved with the use of smaller particles with density close to the
density of the fluid medium. Standard error of the mean will be then smaller. On the
other hand, the implementation requirements of the experiment are demanding, espe-
cially as regards the image resolution, detection capabilities, the volume of the prepared
suspension and, in particular, the cost of the experiment. The designed closed water
circuit allowing repeated passage of the fluorescent particles through the water jetting
system solves the problem of their relatively high purchase price.
During the experiment, the Rhodamine B fluorescent particles are partially released
into the air in the form of micro droplets. As the Rhodamine B molecules can have
carcinogenic effects, it is advisable to carry out the experiments in a separate envi-
ronment using a suction system and protective equipment.
Based on the initial experience, design of an experimental setup usable for testing
real pressure parameters (<100 MPa) commonly used to generate the high-speed water
jet in both scientific and industrial applications is planned.
Acknowledgements. This article was written in connection with the project of the Institute of
Clean Technologies for Mining and the Utilization of Raw Materials for Energy Use –
Sustainability program, reg. no. LO1406 financed by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports
of the Czech Republic, and with support for the long-term conceptual development of the research
institution RVO: 68145535.
References
1. Putz, M., Dittrich, M., Dix, M.: Process monitoring of abrasive waterjet formation.
Procedia CIRP 14, 43–46 (2016)
2. Carach, J., Hloch, S., Petru, J., Nag, A., Gombar, M., Hromasova, M.: Hydroabrasive
disintegration of rotating Monel K-500 workpiece. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 96, 981–1001
(2017)
3. Eberle, G., Dold, C., Wegener, K.: Picosecond laser fabrication of micro cutting tool
geometries on polycrystalline diamond composites using a high-numerical aperture micro
scanning system, In: LASE - SPIE Photonics West, San Francisco, USA, pp. 935103-1–
935103-9 (2015)
4. https://www.nikon.com/products/industrial-metrology/support/download
5. Riha, Z., Zelenak M.: Flow field analysis in abrasive head as tool for high-speed abrasive jet
cutting. In: Water Jet 2017, pp. 153–163 (2017). ISBN 978-80-86407-71-5
6. Zelenak, M., Scucka J., Soucek, K.: Velocity measurements on continuous micro water jet
using fluorescent PMMA seeding particles. In: Water Jet 2017, pp. 221–231 (2017). ISBN
978-80-86407-71-5
7. Raffel, M., Willert, C., Kompenhans, J.: Particle Image Velocimetry, a Practical Guide.
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York (1998)
8. LaVision, Particle Master Shadow, Manual, Göttingen (2012)
9. LaVision, Flow master, Manual, Göttingen (2012)
An Acoustic Emission Study of Rock
Disintegration by Pulsating Water-Jet
Rupam Tripathi1(&), Sergej Hloch2,3, Somnath Chattopadhyaya4,

Pavel Adamcik4, and Alok Kumar Das1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of technology
(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad 826004, India
rupam.tripathi10@gmail.com
2
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TUKE with the Seat in Presov,
Bayerova 1, 080 01 Presov, Slovak Republic
3
Department of Material Disintegration, Institute of Geonics of the CAS,
4
Technicka Diagnostika, spol.s r.o, Presov, Slovak Republic
Abstract. The collision of a high-velocity liquid mass with a solid generates

short high pressures transients, which is responsible for the damage to the
surface and its interior. The main advantage of the pulsating jet as compared to
the continuous water-jet technology is that the impact pressure (due to ham-
mering effect) is several times greater in pulsating water jet. The impact of the
pulses induces fatigue stresses in the target material due to cyclic loading which
is the most influential factor responsible for the disintegration. However, this
technology is reported to the current trend of the application. During the labo-
ratory experiments on Silesian granite were examined the relationship between
the acoustic emission and parametric conditions of the pulsating water-jet. This
research paper deals with an application of acoustic emission measurement as an
on-line monitoring tool for analyzing the disintegration phenomenon of rock by
pulsating water jet which locally affects the structural integrity of rocks. The
correlation between rock disintegration and dynamic signal performance was
obtained for several rock materials at various settings of jet parameters.
Keywords: Pulsating Water-Jet Acoustic emission Rock disintegration
1 Introduction
Rock is an inhomogeneous and anisotropic material, which comprises several natural

defects in various scales such as grain boundaries micro cracks pores and join inclusion
[1]. The mechanism of the disintegration of granite material is due to applied stress
which is induced by the micro-cracks growth and disintegration is distributed
approximately uniformly throughout the granite sample [2]. The rock disintegration
plays a vital role in mining, civil, geology and architectural fields [3]. The use of water-
jet for rock cutting application is centuries old technology, but nowadays many limi-
tations are associated with the conventional rock breakage systems. For examples, rock
breakage through blasting process is time-consuming and by impact hammers is a

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_17
An Acoustic Emission Study of Rock Disintegration by Pulsating Water-Jet 157
cumbersome process due to these reasons the pulsating water jet comes into the profile
[4]. Pulsating water-jet technology is an environment friendly process which causes no
heat affected zone [5]. In the recent years, this technology has been widely used for
cutting, cleaning and disintegration applications on various metals and non-metals,
ceramics, biomedical materials, and another form of composites materials [5, 6]. This
technology has numerous advantageous such as reduced noise, dust and vibration,
preservation of surrounding material. In addition to that, it eliminates the requirement
of high-pressure pumps making this cost-effective technology [7]. Foldyna et al. [8]
performed experiments on basalt, granite, and sandstone to check the performance
analysis of pulsating water-jet over continuous waterjet under the same parametric
conditions. They found that the pulsating water jet has more regular slots with a
maximum depth as compared to the continuous water-jet material. Foldyna et al. [9]
also used pulsating water jet technology for removing the degraded surface layers of
the concrete. A series of experiments was conducted to evaluate the performance of
pulsating water jet and continuous water jet. The result showed that pulsating water jet
has achieved higher efficiency in comparison to the continuous water jet in all the
configuration test.
In the recent year, non-destructive testing has achieved more popularity due to
available sensors devices and software tools. Non-destructive testing is widely used in
for applications like underground mining but direct field application of this technology
is still limited. It directly provides material property values and characteristics which is
responsible for the determining the rock mass behavior [10]. Acoustic emission
(AE) consists of high-frequency transient elastic waves that can be originating from a
sudden release of energy at a localized point within a loaded material [11]. Acoustic
emission has been widely used in industries and various other fields such as steam
pipes and pressure vessels, composites materials, monitor the welding and corrosion
progress, metals and also applied numerous structural components. It is a technique to
direct monitor the defects formation and failure of structural materials. However, it can
provide information on the stress field, fatigue and the fracture pattern behavior. Tri-
pathi et al. [5] investigated disintegration of rock by monitored the acoustic emission
during the PWJ and compared the phenomenon with a continuous water jet. The
relation between the acoustic signals and controlled parameters in terms of the depth
and width of the cut was determined. In this study, acoustic emission method is used as
a devious monitoring tool to stimulate a better control over the process parameters to
attain the required disintegration level. Hloch et al. [12] studied the AE technique to
measure the fault condition during the cutting operation with minimum human inter-
vention. The AErms value observed the dependencies within the time section t on the
cutting head traverse speed v moreover, AWJ technology can be used as an online
control function to monitor the head traverse speed. Hassan et al. [13, 14] envisaged the
actual depth of cut in AWJ cutting under normal cutting conditions by AE technique.
For the observation of the depth during the process, the strain gauge and sensors were
installed on the workpiece. The AErms shows the linear relationship between the depths
of cut and could be used for its on-line monitoring. Knill et al. [15] proposed the
acoustic emission technique to record the signal during uniaxial loading of rock
sample. They found the nature of acoustic emission signal relationship with a variable
parameter such as pulse rate, signal energy content and amplitude distribution. Mathis
158 R. Tripathi et al.
and chmelik et al. [16] investigated the acoustic emission phenomena, which is helpful
to assess the twining and slip activity during the plastic deformation. Behind of these
possible mechanism is responsible for the motion of the dislocation, which is caused by
the stress relaxation process. There are numerous authors have been addressed the
theoretical calculations of the impingement depth of the AWJ in ductile materials and
brittle materials. By contrast it is not possible to achieve the performance of online
monitoring and controlling of the depth during AWJ. A very few authors concentrated
the online monitoring during pulsating water-jet.
The main aim of this paper deals with an application of acoustic emission mea-
surement as an on-line monitoring tool for analyzing the disintegration phenomenon of
rock by pulsating water jet which locally affects the structural integrity of rocks. The
correlation between rock disintegration and dynamic signal behaviour was obtained for
granite materials at various settings of jet parameters.
Silesian granite is taken as material, which is extracted from zulova locality in the
Ostrava. These experiments were carried out in the Institute of Geonics at Ostrava. The
technological assembly (Fig. 1a) of the setup consists of a Hammelmann HDP with the
maximum operating pressure of 160 MPa, the maximum flow rate of 67 1.min−1 and
ABB robot IRB 6640 180/2.55 used for manipulation of the cutting head. Pulsation
effect was generated by Ecoson WJ-UJ 630-40 ultrasonic device with the modulation
frequency of 20 kHz. The circular nozzle (STONEAGE) of diameter d = 1.9 mm was
used for the experiments under various parametric conditions mentioned in Table 1.
During the experiments, three acoustic sensors were clamped in the three positions.
First sensor was clamped directly on the workpiece, data was collected by the
accelerometers PCB IMI (series type 607 A11) with an integrated cable. The sensor
was connected to the measurement system of NI PXI by the under acoustic emission
observation.
After the disintegration, the disintegrated grooves were scanned using optical
Profilo meter and depth was evaluated by the SPIP software.
Figure 2 shows the profile of the grooves along the x-axis (cross-section of the grooves)
generated during PWJ disintegration. These profiles are generated by SPIP 6.2.6 soft-
ware, evaluated by the scanned surfaced using optical Profilometer. In the Fig. 2a the
maximum depth of the cut of 2 mm was observed at a traverse speed of v = 1 mm/s. At
a traverse speed of v = 2 mm.s−1 also the maximum depth obtained is approximately
2 mm. The reason behind this phenomenon is the maximum interaction time during
impacting of the jet at lower traverse speed. However, at a higher traverse speed of
v = 3 mm.s−1 and v = 4 mm.s−1 higher depth of cut of approximately 2.8 mm and
3.5 mm was obtained. This is the mainly due to the inhomogeneity of the granite
material and impact of the pulses that some abrupt profile of the grooves were observed.
Fig. 1. (a) Experimental Setup (b) Recorded acoustic emission signal (c) Treated granite sample
at 20 MPa.
Table 1. Process parameter of the experimental setup.

Sl No. Description Detail
1 Type of Material Silesian Granite
2 Size of Material 30 cm
3 Type of Machining Pulsating Water Jet
4 Nozzle Dia d (mm) 1.9
5 Nozzle Type Circular
6 Nozzle Make Stone Age
7 Pump Pressure p (MPa) 20 MPa
8 Velocity v (mm.s−1) 5,4,3,2,1
9 Stand Off Distance z (mm) 45
The pattern of the acoustic emission as a function of the time is determined by the
time distribution of impulsive deformation, which occurs within the material, depends on
the type of material. Figure 2 shows the acoustic emission signals with the burst emis-
sions recorded during the disintegration phenomenon. The continuous nature of the
signals corresponds to the microscopic deformations taking place during the disinte-
gration, as the result of the stress generated by the impacting jet. At pump pressure
p = 20 MPa and v = 1 mm.s−1 two major burst emission can be observed with a max-
imum amplitude ±200 V at a duration of 20 s, as shown in Fig. 2a. In the Fig. 2b, at a
traverse speed 2 mm.s−1 two major burst emission can be noticed with maximum
amplitude ±200 V and a duration of 26 s. At higher traverse speed of v = 2 mm.s−1 and
3 mm.s−1, same trend was observed with the amplitude of ±100 V and a duration 50 s.
Fig. 2. Profile of the grooves along x-axis (a) 1 mm.s−1 (b) 2 mm.s−1 (c) 3 mm.s−1 (d) 4 mm.s−1.
Fig. 3. Acoustic Emission signals recorded during disintegration (a) 1 mm.s−1 (b) 2 mm. s−1
(c) 3 mm. s−1 (d) 4 mm. s−1.
Figure 2b showed the highest peak value in comparison to others as the grooves were
disintegrated at the lowest traverse speed of v = 1 mm.s−1, i.e. the jet interacts with the
material for a longer duration causing more impact energy. The initial peaks of the signal
have less intensity due to an insufficient impacting energy of water jet at the beginning.
The sharp point at the end represents the transition of waterjet over the edge of the sample.
The acoustic signals generated during the disintegration of the grooves at traverse
speed of v = 1 mm.s−1, 2 mm.s−1, 3 mm.s−1 and 4 mm.s−1 can be related to the sur-
face morphology of the generated grooves in the Fig. 2. It was evident from the Figs. 2
and 3 that at the maximum disintegration depths the signals showed the bust emissions
with maximum amplitude however; at the starting and end of the disintegration process
low amplitude emissions were observed. The acoustic signals demonstrated the state of
ongoing deformation process taking place due to the interaction of the pulsating jet and
also the materials response to the impact.
4 Conclusion
The pulsating water jet technology is an optimistic tool not only for manufacturing
industries but also for the other industries including civil and mining engineering and
architectural fields due to its distinctive features of working at a lower pressure while
maintaining its quality. This technology is capable of achieving a very important
alternative application to the classical operation of sand and ball blasting.
From the above study we can conclude that:
1. Acoustic Emission Signals measurement during disintegration showed the increase
with the increment in the traverse speed. The heterogeneity of the signal in terms of
the amplitude in the time course of the above modulated (downhill) signal is
possibly because the very cutting profile is more irregular (in width and in depth).
2. No particular trend was observed in depth of cut during disintegration of pulsating
water-jet by means of the acoustic emission. However during surface topography
analysis of the cross-section of the grooves maximum depth of cut were obtain at
higher traverse-speed.
3. It was found that the acoustic emission signal generated during pulsating water jet
depends upon on the depth of the grooves formed in the traverse direction.
4. Under all the traverse speed acoustic emission signals follows the burst nature. It
was observed the most promising result of the pulsating water-jet during disinte-
gration of granite material.
5. The acoustic emission behaviour was observed the obtain the elicited acoustic signal
under different conditions act as control mechanism during the cutting process.
6. It is assumed as a non-destructive tool to monitor the ongoing process of the
material disintegration during cyclic loading.
Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development
Agency under contract no. APVV-207-12. Experiments were conducted with the support of the
project of the Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilization of Raw Materials for
Energy Use– Sustainability Program, reg. no. LO1406 financed by the Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic, and Institute of Geonics of the CAS with support for the
long-term conceptual development of the research institution RVO: 68145535.
References
1. Agioutantis, Z., Kaklis, K., Mavrigiannakis, S., Verigakis, M., Vallianatos, F., Saltas, V.:
Potential of acoustic emissions from three point bending tests as rock failure precursors. Int.
J. Min. Sci. Technol. 26, 155–160 (2016)
2. Lei, X., Masuda, K., Nishizawa, O., Jouniaux, L., Liu, L., Ma, W., Satoh, T., Kusunose, K.:
Detailed analysis of acoustic emission activity during catastrophic fracture of faults in rock.
J. Struct. Geol. 26, 247–258 (2004)
3. Dehkhoda, S.: Experimental and Numerical Study of Rock breakage by Pulsed Water Jets.
Dissertation PhD Thesis, University of Queensland (2011)
4. Dehkhoda, S., Hood, M.: The internal failure of rock samples subjected to pulsed water jet
impacts. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 66, 91–96 (2014)
5. Tripathi, R., Srivastava, M., Hloch, S., Chattopadhyaya, S., Das, A.K., Pramanik, A.,
Klichová, D., Adamcik, P.: Performance analysis of pulsating water jet machining during
disintegration of rocks by means of acoustic emission. In: Lecture Notes in Mechanical
Engineering. pp. 515–524 (2018)
383 (2016)
7. Srivastava, M., Tripathi, R., Hloch, S., Rajput, A., Khublani, D., Chattopadhyaya, S.,
Dixit, A.R., Foldyna, J., Adamčík, P., Klich, J., Zelenak, M., Klichová, D.: Surface
Treatment of AISI 304 Using Pulsating Water Jet Peening. In: Lecture Notes in Mechanical
Engineering. Eng. pp. 535–548 (2018)
8. Sitek, L., Martinec, P., Jekl, P.: Rock cutting by pulsing water jets. In: Proceedings of the
International Symposium of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (Eurock 2005),
pp. 129–134 (2005)
9. Foldyna, J.: New potentional of high-speed water jet technology for renovating concrete
structures. Slovak J. Civ. Eng. 19, 1–7 (2011)
10. Mechanics, R., December, R.E., Li, C.: Acoustic Emission Characteristics and Failure of
Uniaxially Stressed Granitic Rocks: The Effect of Rock Fabric (2002)
11. Tian, S., Sheng, M., Li, Z., Ge, H., Li, G.: Acoustic emission characteristics of sedimentary
rocks under high-velocity waterjet impingement. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 1–10 (2017)
12. Hloch, S., Valíček, J., Kozak, D., Tozan, H., Chattopadhyaya, S., Adamčík, P.: Analysis of
acoustic emission emerging during hydroabrasive cutting and options for indirect quality
control. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 66, 45–58 (2013)
13. Hassan, A.I., Chen, C., Kovacevic, R.: On-line monitoring of depth of cut in AWJ cutting.
Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 44, 595–605 (2004)
14. Momber, A.W., Mohan, R.S., Kovacevic, R.: On-line analysis of hydro-abrasive erosion of
pre-cracked materials by acoustic emission. Theor. Appl. Fract., Mech (1999)
15. Knill, J.L., Franklin, J.A., Malone, A.W.: A study of acoustic emission from stressed rock.
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 5, 87–88 (1968)
16. By, P.: World’ s largest Science, Technology & Medicine Open Access book publisher
Exploring Plastic Deformation of Metallic Materials by the Acoustic Emission Technique
(2012)
Evaluation of Possibility of AISI 304 Stainless
Steel Mechanical Surface Treatment
with Ultrasonically Enhanced
Pulsating Water Jet
Dominika Lehocká1,2(&), Vladimír Simkulet1, Jiří Klich2,

Zdeněk Štorkan3, Lucie Krejčí3, Ján Kepič4, and Jaroslav Birčák1
1
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with A Seat in Presov,
Technical University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, 080 01 Presov, Slovak Republic
dominika.lehocka@tuke.sk
2
Institute of Geonics, The Czech Academy of Sciences,
Studentska 1768, 708 00 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
3
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava,
17. listopadu 15, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
4
Institute of Materials Research, Slovak Academy of Sciences, UMV SAV,
Watsonova 47, 043 53 Kosice, Slovak Republic
Abstract. Experimental study described in this article is focused on evaluation of

dynamic effect of PWJ on disintegration efficiency on AISI 304 stainless steel
surface. AISI304 stainless steel was disintegrated with circular nozzle diameter
1.19 mm, pressure 70 MPa, frequency 20.25 kHz and traverse speed 100 mm.s−1
(202 impacts per millimeter). Disintegration efficiency was evaluated based on
surface and subsurface characteristics. Surface characteristics were evaluated
based on surface topography and roughness parameters Ra [lm], Rz [lm],
Rp [lm] and Rv [lm] comparison of disintegrated and non-affected area. Sub-
surface changes in material structure were described based on metallographic
analysis and hardness measurement HV0.2 under the eroded area. The results of
the disintegration efficiency evaluation of AISI 304 stainless steel surface show
that was no massive erosion of material. Surface quality was slightly changed.
Small microscopic craters were predominantly created on surface. Craters were
characterized with predominant pitting mechanism and prevails fracture mecha-
nism of material removal.
Keywords: Ultrasonic Pulsating water jet Surface topography

Microstructure Stainless steel
1 Introduction
1.1 Water Jet Technology

Water jet technology is most often used for cutting of various material types across
industrial sectors. Water jet belongs to very flexible technologies. By using modified
water flow, it is possible to achieve different effects on the material. Character of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_18
164 D. Lehocká et al.
generated flow is crucial for determination of the application area. The water jet can be
used as continuous and discontinuous and with [1] or without abrasive addition.
Material disintegration with discontinuous water jet without abrasive addition is
characterized by water hammer effect (repeated impacts of high-kinetic clusters of
liquid on the material surface) [2], Intensified water jet has high disintegration effi-
ciency. Material is disintegrated at low pressures without abrasives.
Discontinuous water jet is suitable for applications affecting the material surface
such as surface treatment, surface roughening and cleaning of surface in various areas
in industry. The mechanical properties of water drops offer a wide range of applications
in engineering and the consumer industry [3]. The destructive potential of a PWJ finds
applications in the remediation of concrete structures [4], mining industry and rock
disintegration (rock cutting [5] and breakage of rocks [6]), surface roughening [7],
descaling [8], and surface treatment of ornamental stones. The current research shows
the potential of a PWJ in orthopedic applications (reimplantation of endoprothesis [9]).
1.2 Mechanical Surface Treatment

Surface peening (strengthening) technology is used for improving material´s utility
properties. Compressive stresses applied to the surface layer increase fatigue strength.
Different methods [10] are used in practice to strengthen surfaces, such as: shot peening
[11] or [12], laser shock peening (LSP) [13], and ultrasonic shot peening [14] or [15].
Water jet peening is one of the possibilities [16] of surface strengthening. First
possibility is continuous water jet peening on aluminium [17] and stainless steel [18].
In the liquid peening process, high impacts of continuous water droplets are used to
impinge a metal surface causing local plastic deformation [19].
Second investigated possibility is ultrasonic cavitation peening investigated at
different standoff distances [20], different jet velocity [21] and using for detection of
surface plastic deformation [22]. In ultrasonic cavitation peening [23], cavitation
bubbles [24] are used for surface peening [25]. During the ultrasonic cavitation peening
process, cavitation bubbles grow and then collapse violently. After the collapse of the
bubble, a shock wave and a micro jet are produced. This mechanism creates defor-
mation or erosion on the treated surface. The cavitation bubbles were generated by
vibration via the ultrasonic horn [20] and [22].
Ultrasonic enhanced water jet peening is third possibility for surface strengthening.
Using water hammer effect offers possibility to increase water jet efficiency and
decrease technological requirements (lower pump pressure, higher disintegration, or
erosion speed rate). Ultrasonic enhanced water jet peening could be used for appli-
cations, where the dusty environment is undesirable or for surface treatment before
applying another technology.
1.3 Ultrasonically Enhanced Pulsating Water Jet

Presented article is focused on ultrasonically enhanced pulsating water jet (PWJ) effect
on AISI 304 stainless steel surface.
PWJ technology fulfils the requirement of decreasing the water pressure [26]. PWJ
principle is based on generating adequate pressure pulses, which affect the out flowing
Evaluation of Possibility of AISI 304 Stainless Steel 165
water. The pulses are generated by applying ultrasonic impulses in the sonotrode,
which is main component of the PWJ cutting head (Fig. 1A). The pressure pulses [27]
cause the outflow of water to have a variable output speed. A continuous WJ is broken
down to single clusters owing to the effect of the accelerated parts of the WJ (Fig. 1B).
An interruption is caused by reducing the distance between the WJ and its accelerated
parts. Subsequently, a material gets disintegrated by the effect of the impact of the high
kinetic-energy water clusters (Fig. 1B).
Fig. 1. (A) Technological assembly set up of a PWJ; (B) Visualization of an ultrasonic-

enhanced PWJ.
Primary objectives of presented study are to describe disintegration efficiency of

ultrasonically enhanced PWJ with using circular nozzle on surface topography and
changes in subsurface layer of stainless steel AISI 304. The experiment was performed
with regard to results of works [28–32]. In works [28–31] was assumed, that in the case
of PWJ disintegration, the mechanical hardening (strengthening) of the material occur.
Areas of PWJ efficiency were described in work [31].
Experimental investigation follows research [33, 34], where the static effect of
number of PWJ impacts on erosion efficiency was described. Experimental study in this
article is aimed on evaluation of dynamic effect of PWJ on disintegration efficiency.
The dynamic effect of PWJ was characterized by traverse speed v [mm.s−1]. Disinte-
gration efficiency was evaluated based on surface topography, roughness parameters Ra
[lm], Rz [lm], Rp [lm] and Rv [lm] in disintegrated and non-affected area. Subsurface
changes in material structure were described based on metallographic analysis and
hardness measurement HV0.2.
Experimental research was realized under cooperation of the Technical University
of Kosice, Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with a seat in Presov; The Czech
Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geonics in Ostrava, Department of Material
Research of the Slovak Academy of Science in Kosice and Technical University of
Ostrava, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Ostrava.
Austenitic stainless steel AISI 304 (Table 1) was used as experimental material. AISI
304 is most wide spread stainless steel with high corrosion resistance, good weldability
and cold formability. Mentioned steel is resistant to water, humidity, water steam and
weak organic and inorganic acids. Application field lies in engineering, nuclear,
pharmaceutics, chemical and food production industry.
Table 1. Material properties and composition of AISI 304 stainless steel.

Material properties AISI 304 stainless steel
Rm = 721 MPa; Rp0.2 = 593 MPa; A (at 100 mm) = 43%
Material composition [%]
Cr Ni Mn Cu Mo Si N P C S Ti
18.26 8.02 1.59 0.53 0.35 0.2 0.07 0.04 0.27 0.02 0.002
The experimental procedure was carried out on a technological assembly consisting

of a cutting head, circular nozzle StoneAge with equivalent diameter 1.19 mm, a
hydraulic high-pressure pump Hammelmann HDP 253, ultrasound device Ecoson
WJ-UG_630-40, and industrial robot ABB IRB 6640-180.
Experimental study is focused on disintegration efficiency evaluation for higher
traverse speed of PWJ. Jets dynamics was achieved at a traverse speed v = 100 mm.s−1
(number of impacts affecting surface was approximately 202 impacts per millimeter at
f = 20.25 kHz). Created surface (at setting of disintegration factors in Table 2) cor-
responds to the area of surface peening described in [32].
Table 2. Technological conditions of the experiment.

d [mm] p [MPa] v [mm.s−1] z [mm] f [kHz] P [W] n [imp. per mm]
1.19/circular 70 100 55 20.25 212 202
One sample of stainless steel AISI 304 was prepared, for describe of PWJ effect at
traverse speed v = 100 mm.s−1. The sample was disintegrated with technological
factors values shown in Table 2. Sample was evaluated based on surface and sub-
surface characteristics. Surface of sample was measured by the MircoProf FRT optical
profilemeter. Disintegration efficiency based on roughness parameters Ra [lm], Rz
[lm], Rp [lm] and Rv [lm] was evaluated in software SPIP. The surface of the groove
was observed using an electron microscope JEOL JSM 7000F (Fig. 3). The metallo-
graphic analysis was performed for the material structure study (Fig. 4). The sample
was transverse cut and subsequently grinded on MTH KOMPAKT 1031 and acid
etched. The sample was electrolytic etched in oxalic acid solution. Microhardness was
measured on a Vickers CV DAT 400 hardness tester (application load - 200 g, time -
10 s) (Fig. 5).
3 Results
3.1 Surface Topography Evaluation
Surface topography was evaluated with using an optical profilemeter and a scanning
electron microscope (SEM).
In area of mechanical hardening (strengthening, peening) (Fig. 2) of the surface,
there is no significant erosion. The PWJ does not have enough time and energy to
significantly disintegrate surface and only affects the surface layer. Small surface
deformation was observed and no erosion craters were created. There was a slight
change in roughness profile parameter Ra from Ra = 1.21 lm to 1.71 lm. For
parameter Rz [lm], the change was more pronounced by 3.32 lm. From the com-
parison of parameters Rp [lm] and Rv [lm], the value Rp [lm] increased by 0.74 lm
and Rv [lm] increased by 2,6 lm, which means that on the surface is mainly created
microscopic craters and depressions. There were no material extrusions above the
groove surface.
Fig. 2. AISI 304 stainless steel groove surface disintegrated at traverse speed v = 100 mm.s−1,
frequency f = 20.25 kHz and number of impacts n = 202 impacts per mm; 3D and real view.
Figure 3A–D shows a same disintegrated surface, after PWJ disintegration, at

various magnifications (200x (Fig. 3A), 500x (Fig. 3B), 1000x (Fig. 3C), 2000x
(Fig. 3D)) observed on scanning electron microscope. It is possible to observe the
mechanism of material removal, followed by exudation of the particles from the surface
caused by the pressure of the PWJ. Created craters are characterized by pitting
mechanism (Fig. 3D). Deformation on surface is less indented, prevails rift mechanism.
3.2 Evaluation of Microstructure in Transverse Cut

Figure 4. shows microstructure of groove in transverse cut after etching. Austenite
grains form the microstructure. PWJ evenly removed the grains of material from the
surface. This removal is observed at the site of the individual grains as transcrystalic,
visible on fracture area in Fig. 3, with small ratio of intercrystalic fracture extending to
lower boundary of neighbor grains (Fig. 4A1 and B1).
Fig. 3. AISI 304 stainless steel groove surface disintegrated at traverse speed v = 100 mm.s−1,
frequency f = 20.25 kHz and number of impacts n = 202 impacts per mm, observed with SEM:
A – magnification 200x; B – magnification 500x; C – magnification 1000x; D – magnification
2000x.
Fig. 4. Transverse cut thought AISI 304 stainless steel disintegrated at traverse speed
v = 100 mm.s−1, frequency f = 20.25 kHz and number of impacts n = 202 impacts per mm;
A – white light, B – polarized light
3.3 Evaluation of Microhardness in Transverse Cut

Graphical representation in Fig. 5 shows microhardness measurement under groove
disintegration with PWJ. Higher initial values of 274.3 HV0.2 (200 g of action load,
10 s of action time) confirm the deformation strengthening of the material. Compared
with the measurement in the center of the sample, 244.3 HV0.2 is 11% higher. The
deformation zone was observed up to 0.6 mm under the technological conditions
shown in Table 2.
Fig. 5. Graphical representation of microhardness measurement HV0.2 and distance of indents

under groove disintegrated with PWJ.
4 Conclusions
Traverse speed v [mm.s−1] directly affect the time effect of the pulsating water jet on
the material. This directly affects the number of impacts on the surface unit. PWJ
erosion effect on material depends on time of interaction and applied force. Works [33]
and [34] proves significance of impact count on disintegration efficiency. The erosion
efficiency of PWJ decreased with lower number of impacts. Effect of PWJ on various
types of material was described in [28–32] and confirmed findings in research [33] and
[34]. In the research [32] was assumed that there is a possibility of surface peening
using an acoustically enhanced pulsating water jet. Study in this article suggests
applicability of this assumption.
The results of the topography and surface roughness evaluation of AISI 304
stainless steel surface show slight erosion of material. Surface quality slightly changed
(Ra profile parameter was increased by only 0.5 lm). Small microscopic craters (Rv
[lm] profile parameter) were predominantly created on surface. Craters are charac-
terized with predominant pitting mechanism and prevails fracture mechanism of
material removal.
Slight deformation of the AISI304 stainless steel surface was demonstrated during
the evaluation sub-surface characteristics in area of perpendicular impact of
PWJ. AISI304 stainless steel was disintegrated with pressure 70 MPa, traverse speed
100 mm.s−1 and frequency 20,25 kHz (it represents 200 impacts per millimeter).
Deformation was observed to a depth of maximum 0.6 mm (600 lm).
Sub-surface deformation strengthening with minimal influence of material surface
(surface peening) can be assumed, based on results of this study. Stated assumptions
need to be validated by residual stress measurements in the area of PWJ effect. If strain
hardening will be considered as surface peening will be possible to introduce com-
pressive stress to surface layer. Material will gain fatigue strength and resistance to
micro cracking. Application of mentioned way of approach is significant in increasing
of utility properties in cyclic load.
PWJ regulation is possible at other settings of technology assembly and disinte-
gration factors. For this reason, area of PWJ disintegration is investigated. Research is
focused on investigation of using various types and diameters of nozzles, pressures and
ultrasonic frequencies. Optimal stand-off distance of cutting head from target material
is investigated too. The erosive effects depend on the chemical composition and
physical and mechanical properties of the selected material. For these reasons, optimal
setting of disintegration factors and study of surfaces created using PWJ is currently
intensively investigated.
Acknowledgement. This work was supported by projects: VEGA 1/0096/18, KEGA č.

036TUKE-4/2017, APVV-15-0700 and by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Czech
Republic projects No. FV 10446 and FV 30233. The experiments were conducted with the
support of the Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilization of Raw Materials for
Energy Use - Sustainability Program, reg. no. LO1406 financed by Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports of the Czech Republic, and supported by a project for the long-term conceptual
development of the research institution RVO: 68145535.
References
1. Valicek, J., Harnicarova, M., Panda, A., et al.: Mechanism of creating the topography of an
abrasive water jet cut surface. In: Machining, Joining and Modifications of Advanced
Materials, vol. 61, pp. 111–120. Springer, Singapore (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-10-1082-8_12
2. Raudensky, M., Horak, A., Horsky, J., et al.: Hydraulic descaling improvement, findings of
jet structure on water hammer effect. Rev. de Metall.-Cah. d Inf. Tech. 104(2), 84–90 (2007).
https://doi.org/10.1051/metal:2007133
3. Kirols, H.S., Kevorkov, D., Uihlein, A., Medraj, M.: The effect of initial surface roughness
on water droplet erosion behaviour. Wear 342, 198–209 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wear.2015.08.019
4. Sitek, L., Foldyna, J., Martinec, P., et al.: Use of pulsating water jet technology for removal
of concrete in repair of concrete structures. Baltic J. Road Bridge Eng. 6(4), 235–242 (2011).
https://doi.org/10.3846/bjrbe.2011.30
5. Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Martinec, P., et al.: Rock cutting by pulsing water jets. In: Eurock
2005: Impact of Human Activity on the Geological Environment, Brno, Czech Republic,
pp. 129–134. A A Belkema Publisher (2005)
6. Dehkhoda, S., Hood, M.: An experimental study of surface and sub-surface damage in
pulsed water-jet breakage of rocks. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 63, 138–147 (2013). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2013.08.013
7. Klich, J., Klichova, D., Hlavacek, P.: Effects of pulsating water jet on aluminium alloy with
variously modified surface. Tech. Gaz. 24(2), 341–345 (2017). https://doi.org/10.17559/TV-
20140219100749
8. Hnizdil, M., Raudensky, M.: Descaling by pulsating water jet. In: METAL 2010 - 19th
International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials, Roznov pod Radhostem, Czech
Republic, pp. 209–2013. Tanger LTD (2010)
9. Hloch, S., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., et al.: Disintegration of bone cement by continuous and
pulsating water jet. Tech. Gaz. 20(4), 593–598 (2013)
10. Turski, M., Clitheroe, S., Evans, A.D., et al.: Engineering the residual stress state and
microstructure of stainless steel with mechanical surface treatments. Appl. Phys. A – Mater.
Sci. Process. 99(3), 549–556 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-010-5672-6
11. He, Y., Yoo, K.B., Ma, H., Shin, K.: Study of the austenitic stainless steel with gradient
structured surface fabricated via shot peening. Mater. Lett. 215, 187–190 (2018). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.matlet.2017.12.021
12. Jayalakshmi, M., Bhat, B.R., Bhat, K.U.: Effect of shot peening coverage on surface
nanostructuring of 316L stainless steel and its influence on low temperature plasma-nitriding.
Mater. Perform. Charact. 6(4), 561–570 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1520/MPC20160079
13. Kalainathan, S., Sathyajith, S., Swaroop, S.: Effect of laser shot peening without coating on
the surface properties and corrosion behavior of 316L steel. Opt. Lasers Eng. 50(12), 1740–
1745 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2012.07.007
14. Todaka, Y., Umemoto, M., Tsuchiya, K.: Comparison of nanocrystalline surface layer in
steels formed by air blast and ultrasonic shot peening. Mater. Trans. 45(2), 376–379 (2004).
https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.45.376
15. Sun, Q.Q., Han, Q.Y., Xu, R., et al.: Localized corrosion behaviour of AA7150 after
ultrasonic shot peening: corrosion depth vs. impact energy. Corros. Sci. 130, 218–230
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2017.11.008
16. Botko, F., Hatala, M., Kormos, M.: Using edgecam for creating CNC programs in education
process. In: IEEE 13th International Symposium on Applied Machine Intelligence and
Informatics (SAMI), Herľany, Slovakia, pp. 255–259. IEEE (2015)
17. Muruganandhan, R., Mugilvalavan, M., Thirumavalavan, K., Yuvaraj, N.: Investigation of
water jet peening process parameters on AL6061-T6. Surf. Eng. 34(4), 330–340 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1080/02670844.2017.1394564
18. Jiang, W.C., Luo, Y., Wang, H., Wang, B.Y.: Effect of impact pressure on reducing the weld
residual stress by water jet peening in repair weld to 304 stainless steel clad plate. J. Press.
Vessel Technol.-Trans. ASME 137(3), 031401 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4029655
19. Azhari, A., Sulaiman, S., Rao, R.K.P.: A review on the application of peening processes for
surface treatment. In: 2nd International Manufacturing Engineering Conference and 3rd
Asia-Pacific Conference on Manufacturing Systems (IMEC-APCOMS 2015), Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia (2015). IOP Conference Series-Materials Science and Engineering, vol.
114, Article number: 012002. IOP Publishing Ltd., (2016). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-
899x/114/1/012002
20. Bai, F.S., Saalbach, K.A., Long, Y.Y., et al.: Capability evaluation of ultrasonic cavitation
peening at different standoff distances. Ultrasonics 84, 38–44 (2018). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.ultras.2017.10.013
21. Macron, A., Melkote, S.N., Castle, J., et al.: Effect of jet velocity in co-flow water cavitation
jet peening. Wear 360, 38–50 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2016.03.027
22. Bai, F.S., Saalbach, K.A., Wang, L., et al.: Impact of time on ultrasonic cavitation peening
via detection of surface plastic deformation. Ultrasonics 84, 350–355 (2018)
23. Peng, G., Oguma, Y., Shimizu, S.: Visualization observation of cavitation cloud shedding in
a submerged water jet. In: 3rd Symposium on Fluid-structure-Sound Interactions and
Control (FSSIC), Perth, Australia (2015). Fluid-Structure-Sound Interactions and Control.
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, pp. 229–234. Springer, Berlin (2016). https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-662-48868-3_37
24. Zhang, Y.N., Qian, Z.D., Wu, D.Z., et al.: Fundamentals of cavitation and bubble dynamics
with engineering applications. Adv. Mech. Eng. 9(3) (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/
1687814017698321
25. Peng, G., Oguma, Y., Shimizu, S.: Numerical analysis of cavitation cloud shedding in
a submerged water jet. In: 2nd Conference of Global Chinese Scholars on Hydrodynamics
(CCSH 2016), Wuxi, China, pp. 263–269. China Ocean Press (2016)
26. Kušnerová, M., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., et al.: Innovative approach to advanced modulated
waterjet technology. Tech. Gaz. 19(3), 475–480 (2012)
27. Ríha, Z., Foldyna, J.: Ultrasonic pulsations of pressure in a water jet cutting tool. Tech. Gaz.
19(3), 487–491 (2012)
28. Lehocka, D., Klich, J., Foldyna, J., et al.: Copper alloys disintegration using pulsating water
jet. Measurement 82, 375–383 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2016.01.014
29. Lehocká, D., Klich, J., Foldyna, J., et al.: Surface integrity evaluation of brass CW614 N
after impact of acoustically excited pulsating water jet. In: ICMEM 2016, International
Conference on Manufacturing Engineering and materials. Procedia Engineering, Nový
Smokovec, Slovakia, vol. 149, pp. 236–244. Elsevier Science BV (2016). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.proeng.2016.06.662
30. Lehocka, D., Klichova, D., Foldyna, J., et al.: Comparison of the influence of acoustically
enhanced pulsating water jet on selected surface integrity characteristics of CW004A copper
and CW614 N brass. Measurement 110, 230–238 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measure
ment.2017.07.005
31. Lehocka, D., Simkulet, V., Legutko, S.: Assessment of deformation characteristics on
CW004A copper influenced by acoustically enhanced water jet. In: MANUFACTURING
2017, 5th International Scientific-Technical Conference on Advances in Manufacturing,
Poznan, Poland, pp. 717–724. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-
68619-6_69
32. Lehocká, D., Botko, F., Simkulet, V., et al.: Study of surface topography of CW004A copper
after PWJ disintegration. In: MMS Conference, 2nd EAI International Conference on
Management of Manufacturing Systems, Starý Smokovec, Slovakia. ACM (2018). https://
doi.org/10.4108/eai.22-11-2017.2274347
33. Foldyna, J., Klich, J., Hlavacek, P., et al.: Erosion of metals by pulsating water jet. Tech.
Gaz. 19(2), 381–386 (2012)
34. Thomas, G.P., Brunton, J.H.: Drop impingement erosion of metals. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser.
A Math. Phys. Sci. 314, 549–565 (1970). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1970.0022
Non–traditional Machining
of Inconel 600 Material
Fuat Kartal1(&) and Sergej Hloch2

1
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Kastamonu University, Kastamonu, Turkey
fkartal@kastamonu.edu.tr
2
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TU of Košice with the seat in Prešov,
Prešov, Slovakia
Abstract. Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is successfully used for

various industrial applications to cut extreme ductile and brittle materials.
Thermal deterioration, high processing diversity, provide distinct advantages
with high flexibility and small cutting forces. In this study, the Taguchi design
analysis was used to determine the optimal combination of parameters for the
actual cutting conditions of the Inconel 600 material. Variance Analysis
(ANOVA) was also used to determine the most important factor. Common
parameters such as nozzle feed rate, nozzle standoff distance and abrasive flow
rate are optimized to investigate the effects of parameters on the Surface
Roughness (Ra) during cutting of the Inconel 600 material.
Keywords: Abrasive water jet machining AWJ Super alloy

Inconel 600 Surface roughness
1 Introduction
Nickel-based super alloys are of great interest to aircraft, space and nuclear industries
because of their resistance to heat and high temperature operation [1, 2]. Inconel 600 is
used in the production of a variety of aircraft bodies and engines that must withstand
the high temperatures in the aerospace industry with excellent mechanical properties,
resistance to corrosion. It is non-magnetizing and very abrasive, which is very durable
[2, 3]. Inconel 600 is a standard material for nuclear reactors and has excellent strength
even at very high temperatures.
Includes non-conventional processing such as Abrasive Water Jet, where nickel-
based super alloys are cut through abrasive impact through pressurized water-
accelerated abrasives [4]. While avoiding the effects of heating in the material, technical
requires some important features. Water jets were introduced in the US in the 1970s and
were only used for cleaning purposes. The technology has been developed to include
abrasive water jets [1–5]. The water jet process provides many unique capabilities and
advantages that can prove effective and effective in cost warfare. Learning more about
water jet technology opens the door to putting these cost-cutting capabilities to work.
Beyond cost reduction, the water jet process is considered the most versatile and fastest
growing process in the world [5–7]. Water jetting does not use toxic gases or liquids and

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_19
174 F. Kartal and S. Hloch
water jets do not create hazards or vapors. A truly versatile, productive, cold cutting
operation. Machining with abrasive water jet (AWJ) is a non-traditional cutting process
that uses high-pressure water to produce high-speed flow and allows machining from
soft to hard material [1–5]. A versatile process that can be used in many manufacturing
applications such as cutting, milling, cleaning and surface finishing, and negligible heat
in the cutting process offer unique advantages such as the affected zone, high maneu-
verability and low processing power [5–8].
This study was formulated, what is the effect of the main factors and levels of AWJ
process on surface roughness?
Some controllable parameters of the AWJM are the water jet nozzle and orifice size,
water spray pressure, abrasive grain size, abrasive material, abrasive flow rate, nozzle
feed rate, nozzle standoff distance, nozzle angle and work piece composition. In this
study, a total of 9 experiments were carried out with the Taguchi test set consisting of
nozzle standoff distance, nozzle feed speed and abrasive flow rate, each of 3 levels. The
process parameters and levels are given in Table 1. Taguchi L9 experimental setup is
shown in Table 2.
Table 1. Experimental parameters and levels.

Parameters CODE Level 1 Level 2 Level3
Standoff distance (mm) A 2 4 6
Abrasive flow rate (g/min) B 150 250 350
Transverse speed (mm/min) C 50 100 150
Table 2. Experimental parameters and order.

No Standoff distance (mm) Abrasive flow rate (g/min) Transverse speed (mm/min)
1 100 150 250
2 100 250 350
3 100 350 450
4 200 150 350
5 200 250 450
6 200 350 250
7 300 150 450
8 300 250 250
9 300 350 350
Inconel 600 is a general-purpose engineering material for applications requiring

heat and corrosion resistance. One of the distinguishing characteristics of Inconel 600 is
that it is very resistant to high temperature oxidation. Inconel 600 is also an alloy that is
highly resistant to water corrosion, has high mechanical strength. Inconel 600
Non–traditional Machining of Inconel 600 Material 175
Table 3. Chemical properties of Inconel 601.

Elements Ni Cr Fe Al C Mn Si S Cu
% Weight 58–63 21–25 8–20 1.0–1.7 0.10 max 0.5 max 0.5 max 0.015 max 1.0 max
Table 4. Mechanıcal propertıes of Inconel 601.

Strength Yield stress Elongation % Hardness Density Melting °C
N/mm2 N/mm2 HB g/cm3
760 345 30 <220 8.4 1290–1350
Fig. 1. Abrasive water jet machine.
applications are widely used in chemical processing industry aviation industry heat
treatment industry electricity production plants heat treatment radiation pipes and
catalyst support materials for nitric acid production. The mechanical properties and
chemical composition of Inconel 600 are given in Tables 3 and 4. The sample size
(60 mm 60 mm 10 mm) was used. The abrasive material used is Garnet 80 mesh
size and the pump pressure is fixed at 350 MPa. Processing of the Inconel 600 material
in an abrasive water jet cut is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The planning experimental
process was carried out and the appropriate data were collected and analyzed with
statistical methods leading to valid and objective results. The method of analysis
depends on the design of the experiments used directly. Most researchers have iden-
tified parameters of the abrasive water jet processing process that greatly affect the
response parameters. If some of these parameters are in order, the process parameters
such as Nozzle standoff distance, nozzle angle, feed rate, number of passes, abrasive
material, abrasive particle size, abrasive shape and abrasive mass flow rate, tube
diameter and focusing tube length, pressure hole diameter etc. In this study, the process
parameters were selected as the nozzle feed rate (mm/min) abrasive flow rate (g/min)
and nozzle distance (mm) to analyze the effect of the nickel based super alloy, Inconel
600, on the surface roughness.
Fig. 2. Machining of Inconel 600 specimen.
For surface roughness quality, “smaller is best” criteria are considered for optimization.
Figure 3 shows the interaction graph of surface roughness with processing parameters.
It is seen that the abrasive flow rate, nozzle traverse and nozzle standoff distance are
important influences for surface roughness. The data obtained from the experimental
studies are subjected to variance analysis (ANOVA) to determine the statistical relia-
bility of the effects of the parameters on the mean surface roughness and how the
different levels bring about variability. The significance level for ANOVA analysis was
chosen as 95%. If the P value (probability value P) is less than 0.05, the effect on the
output of the parameter is considered to be statistically significant. The total variance of
the variance rates is determined by separating each of the processing parameters and
the variability resulting from the error. The surface roughness results obtained from the
experiments based on the Taguchi methodology are given in Table 5. The ANOVA
results for average surface roughness are presented in Table 6 to determine the effect of
each resulting factor.
ANOVA is used to find the percentage of each parameter and its interactions.
ANOVA is an assessment tool that provides a perspective on the percentage contri-
bution among all the control factors and the most influential variables for the single
thought machining response. The S/N ratio for surface roughness is considered to be
“smaller and better”. The minimum surface roughness value was observed when the
nozzle feed rate was 100 mm/min, the abrasive flow rate was 500 g/min and the nozzle
Fig. 3. S/N ratio for surface roughness of Inconel 600.
Table 5. Surface roughness and S/N ratios values.

Experiment Stand-off Abrasive flow Transverse SR S/N
no distance (mm) rate (g/min) speed (mm/min) (lm) Ratio
1 100 300 2 5.10 −14.1584
2 100 400 3 5.36 −14.5786
3 100 500 4 5.48 −14.7781
4 150 300 3 4.95 −13.8974
5 150 400 4 5.15 −14.2430
6 150 500 2 5.03 −14.0282
7 200 300 4 4.89 −13.7810
8 200 400 2 4.65 −13.3573
9 200 500 3 4.82 −13.6691
Table 6. ANOVA 20 for surface roughness.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F % Contr.
Transverse speed (mm/inin) 2 1.22194 1.22194 0.61097 48.25 77%
Abrasive flow rate (g/min) 2 0.06808 0.06808 0.03404 2.69 04%
Standoff distance (mm) 2 0.26402 0.26402 0.13201 10.43 17%
Residual error 2 0.02532 0.02532 0.01266 2%
Total 8 1.57936 100%
S = 0,1125; R-Sq = 98,40%; R-Sq(adj) = 93,59%
distance was 4 mm. The optimum surface roughness was 200 mm/min, the abrasive
flow rate was 300 g/mm. It is clear that the nozzle feed rate and nozzle standoff
distance has a significant effect on the surface roughness. Accordingly, the Inconel 600
material should be in the form of A1B3C3 most suitable for the lowest surface
roughness when processed under specified conditions. The formula obtained from the
simple linear regression analysis shown in Eq. 1 is used to estimate the surface
roughness at the 95% confidence interval. An abrasive flow rate of 300 g/min may be
economically feasible.
SRðlmÞ ¼ 5:20320:005237 Transverse speed ðmm=minÞ þ 0:000654 Abrasive flow rate ðg=minÞ
ð1Þ
þ 0:1231 Standoff distance ðmmÞ
4 Conclusions
A simple linear regression analysis and Taguchi was performed to determine the
relationship between the machining parameters and surface roughness in the AWJ
machining process. Based on an experimental investigation, a study on the cutting of
nickel-based Inconel 600 with abrasive water jet was presented.
The lowest surface roughness values occurred at the lowest nozzle feed rate. The
results of the research show that the nozzle feed rate (77%) has the highest effect on the
surface roughness.
The mathematical model developed using ANOVA in this study was found to be
satisfactory, giving a R2 value of 98.48%. For this reason, this model can be used to
evaluate the measured response at the processing of Inconel 600 material under
selected optimum values. when the nozzle feed rate value was increased from
100 mm/min to 200 mm/min, the roughness value increased by 10%. in this study it
was observed that for the lowest surface roughness the nozzle feed rate was
100 mm/min, the abrasive flow rate was 500 g/min and the nozzle standoff distance
was 4 mm.
Acknowledgment. The authors wishes to thank CT cuttıng technologıes in ISTANBUL/

TURKEY for their assistance in the experimental work.
References
1. Escobar-Palafox, G.A., Gault, R.S., Ridgway, K.: Characterization of abrasive water-jet
process for pocket milling in Inconel 718. Procedia CIRP 1, 404–408 (2012)
2. Sidda Reddy, D., Seshu Kumar, A., Sreenivasa Rao, M.: Parametric optimization of abrasive
water jet machining of Inconel 800H using Taguchi methodology. Univ. J. Mech. Eng. 2(5),
158–162 (2014)
3. Ay, M., Çaydaş, U., Hasçalik, A.: Effect of traverse speed on abrasive waterjet machining of
age hardened Inconel 718 nickel-based superalloy. Mater. Manuf. Process. 25(10), 1160–
1165 (2010)
4. Kechagias, J., Petropoulos, G., Vaxevanidis, N.: Application of Taguchi design for quality
characterization of abrasive water jet machining of TRIP sheet steels. Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Technol. 62(5–8), 635–643 (2012)
5. Cárach, J., Hloch, S., Hlaváček, P., Ščučka, J., Martinec, P., Petrů, J., Zlámal, T., et al.:
Tangential turning of Inconel alloy 925 using abrasive water jet technology. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 82(9–12), 1747–1752 (2016)
6. Nair, A., Kumanan, S.: Multi-performance optimization of abrasive water jet machining of
Inconel 617 using WPCA. Mater. Manuf. Process. 32(6), 693–699 (2017)
7. Sadat, A.B., Reddy, M.Y., Wang, B.P.: Plastic deformation analysis in machining of Inconel-
718 nickel-base super alloy using both experimental and numerical methods. Int. J. Mech. Sci.
33(10), 829–842 (1991)
8. Courbon, C., Sajn, V., Kramar, D., Rech, J., Kosel, F., Kopac, J.: Investigation of machining
performance in high pressure jet assisted turning of Inconel 718: a numerical model. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 211(11), 1834–1851 (2011)
(Un)conventional Technology Session
Mapping Requirements and Roadmap
Definition for Introducing I 4.0
in SME Environment
Vladimir Modrak(&) , Zuzana Soltysova ,

and Robert Poklemba
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies, Technical University of Kosice,

080 01, Presov, Slovak Republic
vladimir.modrak@tuke.sk
Abstract. Industry 4.0 as a new manufacturing paradigm brings in a new wave

of networked manufacturers and smart factories, which will determine future
competitiveness of manufacturing companies. The aim for researchers should
thus be to generate and optimize innovative solutions for different types of
producers including SMEs in order to support them in meeting the challenges of
Industry 4.0. The paper presents the readiness self-assessment method and
roadmap model as a tools to secure a consistent implementation of technologies
and devices supporting smart logistics and smart production. Proposed method
has been applied by selected SMEs and it was proved that the model is easy to
use in real production environment.
Keywords: Self-assessment Industry 4.0 Requirements Smart production

Smart logistics Organizational models Roadmaps
1 Introduction
Production technologies are in these days mostly affected by dynamical development of

information and identification technologies. Obviously, technological changes are dri-
ven by many factors such as increasing requirements of individual customers, safety and
environmental standards, social demands, the diffusion of innovation, and so on.
Technology is changing very rapidly and the newest technological developments are
reshaping the manufacturing sector in its original form. For example, additive manu-
facturing, cloud computing, radio frequency identification, fifth-generation wireless
systems, and the Internet of Things (IoT) are only a few of the new technologies that are
driving a paradigm shift in manufacturing. The umbrella term for this new wave of
so-called smart manufacturing is Industry 4.0 [1]. The main objectives of Industry 4.0
can be in a simple way summarized as the introduction of intelligent systems in pro-
duction, logistics and e-business models. In the context of Industry 4.0 new information
and communication technology (ICT) and web technologies act as enablers of smart,
autonomous and self-learning factories. Presently, the growing number of factories is
facing the challenges of even more individualized and customized products [2]. It
induces a high manufacturing process complexity level because of various customer

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_20
184 V. Modrak et al.
requirements [3]. On the other hand, when the degree of customization is high, then
possible incompatibilities between optional component types may cause serious prob-
lems such as customer dissatisfaction [4]. One possible way to eliminate or reduce the
customer disappointment is eliminating infeasible configuration options, caused by
incompatibilities between optional component types, within a product platform [5].
A great challenge for the future lies in the transfer of Industry 4.0 expertise and
technologies in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). SMEs represent the
backbone of the economy and have an enormous importance in the development
programs of the European Union for strengthening the competitiveness of European
enterprises. Although the high potential of Industry 4.0 in SMEs, the main limit lies in
a lack of methodological frameworks for its implementation and application.
Accordingly, presented research outputs aims to help in overcoming this gap through
proposed solutions.
The next section of this paper is focused on the existing literature, which relates to
proposed method. The third section describes the methodology of proposed method, in
which three main areas of the I4.0 concept, namely, smart logistics, smart production,
and organizational and managerial models are considered. The subsequent part of the
paper shows the practical application of the requirements mapping on the experimental
group consisting of 10 selected SMEs. The next section of the paper analyses and
evaluates the obtained results from questionnaires according to the proposed
methodology. Finally, concluding remarks are summarized.
2 Related Works
As obvious, enterprises can have different maturity models to identify company

readiness, e.g., from viewpoint of new technologies, processes, organizational aspects,
etc. Therefore, many various roadmaps were created to identify maturity levels of
enterprise in diverse areas. Proposed model for enterprise self-assessment described in
the following sub-section reflected experiences from existing literature. Specification of
the five categories and the five maturity levels of smart logistics available in Table 2
was inspired from the UNITY Consulting and Innovation – via The Network Effect [6].
Leyh et al. [7], described requirements on information systems for smart production in
the context of Industry 4.0. His experiences were used for specification of category 2.5
for the area of smart production described in Table 3. Anderl [8] proposed useful
guiding principles for the implementation of Industry 4.0 in SMEs from the viewpoint
of products and production. His ideas were used in specification of categories for smart
production. The specification of the third area focused on organizational and man-
agerial models and their categories was influenced by works of Agca et al. [9], Ibarra
et al. [10], Kans et al. [11] and Ariaz-Perez et al. [12]. It would be possible to list other
references, which indirectly contributed towards the development of the subject. Some
of them, which recently presented related maturity and readiness models in terms of
Industry 4.0 are compared in the Table 1.
Mapping Requirements and Roadmap Definition for Introducing I 4.0 185
Table 1. Compared existing related maturity and readiness models.

3 Methodological Framework
The proposed readiness self-assessment method and roadmap model aims to identify
readiness status and define future targets within the three main areas, namely [23]:
– smart logistics,
– smart production,
– and organizational and managerial models.
Each of these areas is divided into 5 related categories and each category include 5
levels to select from.
Mapping of innovative requirements of small and medium-sized enterprises in the
context of the strategy Industry 4.0 consisted of the following steps:
– creation of the questionnaire;
– mapping of requirements;
– results processing.
3.1 Creation of the Questionnaire

Questionnaire method was chosen due to its advantages including increased speed of
data collection, low or no cost requirements, and higher levels of objectivity in com-
parison with many alternative methods of data collection. The proposed questionnaire
includes five categories, which were selected on the basis of maturity models and
models of preparedness in mentioned literature as well as our own experiences for each
of the three areas. Structure of questionnaire of each area and related category with
defined 5 levels (L) (where L#1 is the lowest and L#5 is the highest) are described in
Tables 2, 3 and 4.
3.2 Mapping of the Requirements

In this paper, mapping of the requirements will be demonstrated by using real infor-
mation from multi-case study. The ten selected small and medium sized enterprises
took part in mapping. Individually categories and their levels have been explained in
details at the beginning of the workshop organized for this purpose. Moreover,
descriptions of the maturity development levels of each category of the three areas were
supported by graphic pictograms. Subsequently, companies’ representatives separately
identified the current and planned or required status for each area and the specific
categories by the questionnaires described in the sub Sect. 3.1.
3.3 Results Processing

Answers in the questionnaires were processed in following way:
(a) Determination of the order of significance of categories for all the three areas.
Each of the 5 categories in the given area was assigned by a level number L (from
1 to 5) according to how each company identified the current and planned states.
These simple rules were as follows:
Table 2. Smart logistics maturity model.
Table 3. Smart production maturity model.

Table 4. Organizational and managerial maturity model.
– If the company only identified the current state without the request to change
(e.g. level in current and planned state is the same), then the Rate of the change
(R) was assigned to this category as R = 0;
– if the company identified the request to change, then R = 1. Since the change
can be expressed over the interval (1, 5) from one level change to a change of
five levels, each request has been assigned a Weighting value of W. Weighting
values based on the level of change, while change in the range of one level
equals 1, 2; of two levels equals 1, 4; of three levels equals 1, 6; of four levels
equals 1, 8 and of five levels equals 2. The resulting Value for each category
was determined by the equation:
X10
V¼ i¼1
R i Wi ð1Þ
Subsequently, the order of significance has to be compiled for each category

and for each of the three areas.
Note: If values V are significantly different from each other, it is advisable to
use Pareto analysis to select important and non-essential categories. If the
differences between the values V are minimal, then all categories have to be
taken into account and only the order of their significance is determined.
(b) Identification of requirements. The requirements to change from current state to
expected state for each category were identified (summarily for 10 SMEs) in two
phases:
1. Defining transitions from current states to required states is based on:

• Enumeration of the Average current level (CLA) for each category. The
average value is determined using the arithmetic mean from 10 values of
level numbers:
P10
Li
CLA ¼ i¼1
; ð2Þ
10
• and enumeration of the Average required level (RLA) for each category. It
is determined analogically:
P10
Li
RLA ¼ i¼1
: ð3Þ
10
Then, difference between these two states defines the summarized requirement
for a change from a current level to a required level (for example, from the
level 2 to level 4).
Fig. 1. Results of mapping of individual requirements for smart logistics, smart production, and
organizational and managerial models.
2. Content specification of transitions from current level to required level.

The output of this method is roadmap definition describing the transition specifi-
cation from the current state to required state, i.e. identifying of innovative require-
ments for SMEs in the context of strategy Industry 4. 0 as shown in Fig. 1.
4 Description of Obtained Results
Applying the self-assessment method and roadmap model from Sect. 3, results of
mapping of individual requirements of the 10 companies are graphically depicted in the
Fig. 1.
The category importance values V for the three areas were calculated in accordance
with Sub-Sect. 3 of the methodology. The results of V and cumulated values in % are
listed in the Table 5 according to their order of category of significance (OCS).
Table 5. Determination of the order of category of significance for all the areas.
Areas SMART production SMART logistics Organizational and
managerial models
OCS 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.5 2.1 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.5 3.5 3.3 3.1 3.2 3.4
V 10, 2 9, 2 7, 8 5, 4 5, 2 11, 8 11, 4 11 9, 4 8 11, 6 10, 2 9, 4 7, 6 7, 6
% 27 51 72 86 100 23 45 66 85 100 23 46 66 83 100
Differences in values V for all three areas are minimal, so it is inappropriate to use
the Pareto principle to determine important and irrelevant categories. For this reason,
values will only be used to determine the order of category significance.
In the next step, there were calculated the average current and required levels for
each category of each three areas in order to identify the requirements of small and
medium-sized enterprises in the context of the strategy Industry 4.0. The obtained
results are graphically shown in Fig. 2.
As can be seen from the Fig. 2, the most significant requirements were identified
for the area of smart production, the next important area is smart logistics and the least
significant is area of organizational and managerial models.
In order to validate obtained results from population sample represented by 10
SMEs (subjects –S) by asking the questions, the overall internal consistency of the
questionnaire can be measured by Cronbach’s alpha [24]. For this purpose, the
obtained data were arranged into Table 6.
Subsequently, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were separately calculated for the
current states and the required states by using the formula [25]:
P 2
k si Þ
a¼ 1 ; ð4Þ
ð k 1Þ s2t
Fig. 2. Spider graph of differences between current states and required states.
Table 6. Input data for calculations of Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.

where, k = number of items - questions in questionnaire (Q), Si = SD of ith item, and

St = SD of sum score.
Then, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the current states is 0.92 and the required
states equals 0.94. Based on a commonly accepted rule for describing internal con-
sistency using Cronbach’s alpha, in both cases the internal consistencies are excellent.
5 Conclusions
Summarizing the obtained results, it can be expected that effort of SMEs related with
Industry 4.0 challenges will be focused:
(a) in the production domain especially on:
• use of RFID technologies for data processing,
• using mobile user interfaces,
• using machines with internet connection,
• use of ICT to identify statuses in the production,
• introduction of IoT into the production;
(b) in the logistics domain especially on:
• implementing of automatic control into delivery processes,
• introduction of autonomous inventory management;
(c) in the organizational and managerial domain especially on:
• application of the organizational models of production for mass customized
products.
Moreover, the study presented in this paper offered possible generic Industry 4.0
maturity model as self-assessment tool to provide companies to help them understand
their current state in the field of Industry 4.0.
The given results will be in our future work used for development of technical
solutions and managerial methods for transitions from the current technical/technological
states to the required states.
Acknowledgement. This paper has been supported by the project with acronym SME 4.0 and
titled as “SME 4.0 - Smart Manufacturing and Logistics for SMEs in an X-to-order and Mass
Customization Environment” with funding received from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation program under the H2020-EU.1.3.3, Project ID: 734713 and by VEGA
project Nr. 1/0419/16 granted by the ME of the Slovak Republic.
References
1. Kagermann, H., et al.: Umsetzungsempfehlungen für das Zukunftsprojekt Industrie 4.0:
Deutschlands Zukunft als Produktionsstandort sichern; Abschlussbericht des Arbeitskreises
Industrie 4.0. Forschungsunion (2013)
2. Modrak, V., Marton, D., Bednar, S.: Modeling and determining product variety for mass-
customized manufacturing. Procedia CIRP 23, 258–263 (2014)
3. Modrak, V., Soltysova, Z.: Novel complexity indicator of manufacturing process chains and
its relations to indirect complexity indicators. Complexity 2017, 15 (2017)
4. Modrak, V., Soltysova, Z., Modrak, J., Behunova, A.: Reducing impact of negative
complexity on sustainability of mass customization. Sustainability 9(11), 2014 (2017)
5. Dima, I.C., Gabrara, J., Modrak, V., Piotr, P., Popescu, C.: Using the expert systems in the
operational management of production. In: 11th WSEAS International Conference on
Mathematics and Computers in Business and Economics, pp. 307–312 (2010)
6. UNITY Consulting and Innovation – via The Network Effect. https://www.slideshare.net/
MarketingUNITY/supply-chain-management-71050225
7. Leyh, C., Bley, K., Schäffer, T., Forstenhäusler, S.: SIMMI 4.0 - a maturity model for
classifying the enterprise-wide it and software landscape focusing on Industry 4.0. In:
Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems (FedCSIS), Gdansk,
pp. 1297–1302 (2016)
8. Anderl, R.: Industrie 4.0–Digital transformation in product engineering and production. In:
21st International Seminar on High Technology-Smart Products and Smart Production. At
Piracicaba (SP), Brazil (2016)
9. Agca, O., Gibson, J., Godsell, J., Ignatius, J., Wyn Davies, C., Xu, O.: An Industry 4
readiness assessment tool. WMG International Institute for Product and Service Innovation
University of Warwick (2017). https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/wmg/research/scip/
industry4report/final_version_of_i4_report_for_use_on_websites.pdf
10. Ibarra, D., Ganzarain, J., Igartua, J.I.: Business model innovation through Industry 4.0: a
review. Procedia Manuf. 22, 4–10 (2018)
11. Kans, M., Ingwald, A.: Business model development towards service management 4.0.
Procedia CIRP 47, 489–494 (2016)
12. Arias-Perez, J.E., Durango-Yepes, C.M.: Exploring knowledge management maturity from
funcionalist and interpretivist perspectives. Entramado 11(1), 94–104 (2015)
13. Geissbauer, R.; Vedso, J.; Schrauf, S.; Industry 4.0: Building the digital enterprise. Retrieved
from PwC Website (2016). https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/industries-4.0/landing-
page/industry-4.0-building-your-digital-enterprise-april-2016.pdf
14. Stock, T., Seliger, G.: Opportunities of sustainable manufacturing in industry 4.0.
Procedia CIRP 40, 536–541 (2016)
15. Ganzarain, J., Errasti, N.: Three stage maturity model in SME’s toward industry 4.0.
J. Industr. Eng. Manag. 9(5), 1119 (2016)
16. Ivanov, D., Sokolov, B., Ivanova, M.: Schedule coordination in cyber-physical supply
networks Industry 4.0. IFAC-Papers Online 49(12), 839–844 (2016)
17. Chromjakova, F.: Flexible man-man motivation performance management system for
Industry 4.0. Int. J. Manag. Excell. 7(2), 829–840 (2016)
18. Zhong, R.Y., et al.: Intelligent manufacturing in the context of industry 4.0: a review.
Engineering 3(5), 616–630 (2017)
19. Singh, P.M., Van Sinderen, M.J., Wieringa, R.J.: Smart logistics: an enterprise architecture
perspective. In: 29th CAiSE Conference CAiSE Forum, pp. 9–16 (2017)
20. Chavarría-Barrientos, D., et al.: A methodology to create a sensing, smart and sustainable
manufacturing enterprise. Int. J. Prod. Res. 56(1-2), 584–603 (2018)
21. Making Industry 4.0 Real – using the acatech I4.0 Maturity Index. https://www.infosys.com/
engineering-services/white-papers/Documents/industry-4.0-real.pdf
22. Hofmann, E., Rüsch, M.: Industry 4.0 and the current status as well as future prospects on
logistics. Comput. Ind. 89, 23–34 (2017)
23. Rauch, E., Dallasega, P., Matt, D.: Critical factors for introducing lean product development
to small and medium sized enterprises in Italy. Procedia CIRP 60, 362–367 (2017)
24. Cortina, J.M.: What is coefficient alpha? an examination of theory and applications. J. Appl.
Psychol. 78(1), 98 (1993)
25. Machin, D., Campbell, M.J., Walters, S.J.: Reliability and method comparison studies. In:
Medical Statistics, 4th edn., 209 p. Wiley, England (2007)
Dimensional Characterization of Prosthesis
Bearings for Tribological Modelling
Roberto D’Amato1(&), Roque Calvo1, Massimiliano Merola2,3,

Petr Valášek4, and Miroslav Müller4
1
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Industrial Design Engineering,
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
{r.damato,roque.calvo}@upm.es
2
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
mmerola@unisa.it
3
Medical Technology Laboratory, IRCCS - Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute,
Bologna, Italy
4
Department of Material Science and Manufacturing Technology,
Faculty of Engineering, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague,
Prague, Czech Republic
muller@tf.czu.cz
Abstract. Prosthesis bearings are precision mechanical systems from which

performance improvement represents a direct contribution to patient’s wellbe-
ing. Spherical shape of hip prosthesis bearing approaches natural ones, but their
performance become degraded in service, and the lubrication and wear mech-
anisms are outstanding fields of research. Because tribological phenomena are
complex, attempts of modelling the bearing requires precise consideration of the
boundary conditions that the real prosthesis have. Detailed experimental char-
acterization of two ceramic hip prostheses is accomplished. Shape and rough-
ness are measured by accurate point coordinate metrology with proper
methodology through contact probing by a coordinate measuring machine, and
optical measuring through confocal microscopy. The results quantify the devi-
ation from the ideal shape and significant roughness parameters of bearing
surfaces. Their influence is discussed in the spotlight of their relationship with
the tribological behavior of the prosthesis. Future works direction are envisioned
so geometrical boundary conditions can play an important role in prosthesis
performance understanding and improvement.
Keywords: Form tolerance Sphericity error Surface roughness

Lubrication regime
1 Introduction
Total hip replacement (THR) is one of the most common orthopedic surgical proce-
dures performed worldwide involving applications of biomaterials, with 1.5 million
estimated operations per-formed annually. In this total joint replacement, three com-
ponents are present: a femoral stem with a spherical head mounted on top and a
spherical cup inserted in the pelvic bone. The spherical head articulates against the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_21
196 R. D’Amato et al.
spherical cup ensuring joint mobility during the gait [1]. It is estimated that the joint
replacements surgical implants degrade after 10–15 years of use [2]. In the last year, the
increase in life expectancy and in activity levels lead to a continuous request for
improvement of their performance to offer longer term improved quality of life. In
order to understand and to evaluate the preclinical and clinical performance of the THR
many researches have been carried out [3]. One of the factors that significantly
influence the durability of hip prostheses is the contact stresses in bearing surfaces. In
fact they are critical for the progress of the wear [4]. During its useful life, a hip
prosthesis is subject to three-dimensional motions and variable loads due to human
activity (e.g. ambulation, stair climbing etc.). This means that the tribo-surfaces always
undergo varying contact stresses which over time cause wear and damage to the
bearing surfaces. Undesirable phenomena which, as a result, lead to osteolysis and
aseptic loosening [5]. For these reasons and for its importance in the performance of
these devices, in recent years, numerous authors have tried to explain the lubrication
mechanisms of normal human joints [6, 7] and the problems of friction and wear in the
case of the joint replacement [8]. Wear debris released by soft material as the ultra-high
molecular weight polyethylene UHMWPE) commonly used for the acetabula cup
reduce the life of hip implants [9], therefore the “hard-on-soft” bearing pairs (metal-on-
UHMWPE and ceramic-on-UHMWPE) [10] have been replaced by the availability of
new materials with high wear resistance. In addition, advanced surface finish and
coating techniques, recently developed, have further improved the performance of
these devices. Although, recently, hard-on-hard bearing couples are used in the THR
(metal-on-metal and ceramic-on-ceramic) in order to reduce wear debris generation
there are still many vital problems. Among these we find the osteolysis due to both
metal wear debris in the case of metal-on-metal implants and to the ceramic fracture
caused by the unexpected loading of the edge in the case of ceramic-on-ceramic
implants. These problems are mainly related to the correct knowledge and prediction of
the lubrication mechanisms of the tribo-system in terms of prosthesis design and in
terms of surface characterization of the prosthetic implants. In fact, many studies, both
theoretical (Analytical modeling [11], FEM analysis [12]) and experimental (in-vitro
and in-vivo) have shown that the initial conditions (analysis of the shape of the
prosthetic joint and of dimensional parameter) and the superficial roughness [13] (to-
pographic analysis of the surfaces in contact) are of fundamental importance for the
correct functioning and the long duration of hip implants. For this reason, the aim of
this study is to present a new methodology for the characterization of the shape of the
articular surfaces and for the topographic analysis of the contact surfaces of the hip
prosthesis. In this study, two ceramic-on-ceramic hip replacements were used for the
experimental analysis. The first step was the analysis of the shape and the measurement
of dimensional parameters. Once the coordinates of the points that define the surface
under study are obtained, they were applied fitting algorithms to allow form tolerance
deviation from the ideal geometry of substitution. The last step was the analysis of the
surfaces by using confocal microscopy.
Dimensional Characterization of Prosthesis Bearings 197
In this study two femoral spherical heads and two spherical cup were investigated (see
Fig. 1). Note that in despite the cups and heads geometry and manufacturing processes
are made independently, the conformity of the couple resides in its fit. Clearance
between cup and head governs the lubrication regime so it is a main figure of merit in
the dimensional characterization, both at macro (shape) and micro (roughness) levels.
Fig. 1. The ceramic femoral spherical heads and the spherical cups.
2.1 Shape Analysis

Dimensional characterization can be analyzed through the continuous of form, waviness
and surface roughness. Both the macroscopic and mesoscopic scales through the
measurement of point coordinates by using a CMM model O-Inspect 322 by Carl Zeiss
Industrielle Messtechnik GmbH, Oberkochen, Germany, measurement field X Y Z
of 300 mm 200 mm 200 mm, including probe head VAST XXT(LT1), and
measurement software CALYPSO 2014, see Fig. 2(a). Once the coordinates of the
points that define the surface under study are obtained, the second step was to fit them to
a substitution geometry that characterize its shape. Deviation from an ideal shape is the
form tolerance. Note that the error of the CMM and the uncertainty associated are
present in the measurement process. In consequence the experiemental technique must
take them into account, compensating error when necessary and giving the uncertainty
estimation [14]. While a perfectly spherical shape is expected in the bearing surface, real
shape deviates due to manufacturing processes. The dimensional differences in the
evaluation of size has been shown of relevant influence in the expected behavior of
prosthesis bearings [15]. The used CMM has a certified maximum laboratory uncer-
tainty (with covering factor 2, or 95% confidence level) of 0.1 µm measuring roundness,
so the result values become fully significant at micrometer level.
2.2 Topographical Analysis

The specimens were subjected to topographic surface analysis through a DCM 3D
(Leica Microsystem, Wetzlar, Germany), which combines confocal and interferometry
technology realizing measurements with a spatial resolution down to 0.1 nm, Fig. 2 (b).
The surfaces, cleaned before each acquisition, were analyzed using confocal lenses with
magnifications of 10 and 20 , acquiring respectively an area of 0.96 1.27 mm2
and 0.48 0.64 mm2. The acquisitions were performed in a controlled environment
under constant temperature of 20 ± 1 °C and under constant humidity of 55 ± 5%. The
scans provided three-dimensional images of the surfaces through the acquisition of the
heights in the analyzed area.
From every scansion they were analyzed five different areas of interest (AOI),
having a dimension equal to 41.5 41.5 µm2. On these AOI they were gained several
spatial roughness parameters, which are: Sa, Sq, Ssk, Sku, Sz, Sds, Sv, Sp, Sdq, Smr1,
Sfd and Sdc0_5. To assess these quantities, it was applied a filter with a cut-off, kc,
equal to 8 µm. The procedure was realized using the Scanning Probe Image Processing
software (Image Metrology, Hørsholm, Denmark).
Fig. 2. Measuring prosthesis bearing through (a) the CMM and (b) confocal microscope.
3 Results
The battery of measurement results under repeateatibity conditions of 20 ± 1 °C are

summarized in Table 1. Each cup or head specimen has been measured 5 times, with
a 30-point sample of each surface. Measurement items (#) are independent from each
other. In Table 1 the mean radius R is calculated through a programmed sphere fitting
algorithm following the accurate Levenberg-Marquardt least-square method. Maximum
and minimum radius values, as well as the root mean square error (R rmse) are set for
spread assessment. Sphericity of the surfaces is the difference of the maximum and
minimum radius. Mean, maximum and minimum clearances for each prosthesis are
calculated based on the difference between the cup and the head.
Table 1. Prosthesis form tolerance and bearing clearance.
100
Femoral head roughness parameters
80
10X 20X
60
40
20
0
Sa [nm] Sq [nm] Ssk Sku Sz [nm] Sv [nm] Sp [nm] Smr1 Sfd Sdc0_5
[%] [nm]
Fig. 3. Comparison across the two magnifications of the roughness parameters acquired on the
femoral head.
Acetabular cup roughness paramters

100
80
10X 20X
60
40
20
0
Sa [nm] Sq [nm] Ssk Sku Sz [nm] Sv [nm] Sp [nm] Smr1 Sfd Sdc0_5
[%] [nm]
Fig. 4. Comparison across the two magnifications of the roughness parameters acquired on the
acetabular cup.
0.04
0.03
10X 20x
0.02
0.01
0
Sds [1/μm²] Sdq
Fig. 5. Sds and Sdq parameters for femoral head.
0.035
0.03
10X 20X
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
1 2
Fig. 6. Sds and Sdq parameters for the acetabular cup.

From the topographical analysis they were gained the roughness values charac-
terizing each surface. Regarding the femoral head, the data retrieved are summarized in
Fig. 3, whereas in Fig. 4 they are shown the parameters relative to the acetabula
cup. Sds and Sdq required a different scale and are shown in separated histograms
presented in Figs. 5 and 6.
4 Discussion
Spherical shape is more accurate and less variable in prosthesis head (about 3 µm) than
cups (samples in the range of 5 to 9 µm). The sphericity of the components, but more
particularly in the case of heads, is in the order of magnitude of micrometers, is at the
typical order of magnitude of roughness. The results make sense, due to the manu-
facturing difficulty of making a precise cavity versus a convex head. The mean radius
of heads differs in the order of tens of micrometer, when the differences be-tween the
cups is at micrometer level. In the same direction, root mean square error of radius is an
order or magnitude higher in cups than in heads. Considering each different prosthesis,
the mean clearance ranges from 24 to 50 µm in the specimen, but the range of
clearance between the cup and head is of the same range, between 15 and 18 µm,
denoting the same variability in each prosthesis, made by the same manufacturing
processes. Noteworthy, the same model of prosthesis pre-sets a clearance that is double
in one specimen with respect the other. This can represent a significant influence in the
lubrication regime, because the film thickness or lambda ratio can be double for a
similar roughness. That means different lubrication transition regime with the same
prosthesis model that could become significant differences in wear, in despite of the
same conditions of patient use.
The results of the surface topography underline the difference in term of roughness
indicators derived with two different magnifications. The data obtained are useful to
identify the starting conditions of a hip implant. Roughness is, in fact, one of the main
characteristic that influence the lubrication and therefore the wear of a tribo-couple. It is
well known that the lubrication regime is strictly related to the mean heights of the
coupled surfaces in relative motion [16]. Sa, Sqa and Sz are valuable indicators of such
aspect. The first two parameters reached the values of less than 10 nm for both the
interacting surfaces, whereas the third is around 50 nm and 75 nm respectively with
10 and 20 for both the head and the cup. Ssk is almost zero in each case, indi-
cating a normal distribution of the peaks and valleys along the surfaces, namely an
almost symmetric profile. Sku has values about 4, which means that the asperity height
distribution presents wide wings and a narrow central peak. Skewness and Kurtosis are
generally suitable parameters in characterizing respectively the surface capacity of
trapping the lubricant and the geometry of the contact interface [17].
Sv and Sp are, as known, strongly influenced by the local deformity of the surface
and are less effective in describing the surface characteristic. Their values are sensibly
different head between head and cup and also between the two magnifications.
Sds, indicating the spatial density, is below 0.01 µm−2 as analyzed by the
10 magnification, but increases to around 0.03 µm−2 under the 20 lens. Sdq
maintains its values below 0.01, showing a slightly increase under the higher
magnification. Along with Sq, these parameters has been related to wear by Greenwood
and Tripp [18]. They introduced the product SqbSds, where b is the mean summit of
radius curvature of peaks in the surface topography. The plasticity index, in this form,
can be expressed as:
0
E
w¼ Sq b Sds ð1Þ
H
In the Eq. (1) E0 is the Hertzian elastic modulus, from the combination of the
elasticity of the two materials. A different expression, of the plasticity index, suggested
by Mikic takes into account the Sdq parameter:
0
E
w¼ Sdq ð2Þ
H
As stated by Blunt and Thomas [19], it is physically reasonable that such combi-
nation of parameters ought to correlate with wear behavior. Increase of the roughness,
thus of the summit density and of the wear sites, influences the wear in the direction of
rising. As verified by Blunt and Thomas, the SqbSds parameter, combined with the
material property ratio (E′/H), gives fine agreement with wear behavior, thus allowing
for a pre-screening for material combinations excluding weak combinations.
5 Conclusions
A systematic dimensional characterization of two ceramic hip prostheses has been

accomplished. Separation from ideal geometry in shape is small, but its variability has
direct influence on clearance between head and cup. The sphericity is in the order of the
roughness at micrometer level. This makes both important in the dimensional char-
acterization: sphericity and roughness are in the order of micrometers and the clearance
between cup and head in the order of tens of micrometer. The influence of the film
thickness ratio in lubrication advice considering those real dimensional parameters in
a detail analysis of lubrication regime transitions. In particular, in numerical and
analytical dynamical models where normally are set boundary conditions on perfect
cylindrical or spherical cups and heads. The independence of wear from surface
roughness is widely accepted. The complex lubrication modes in natural joints than
prosthesis try to emulate, suggests the idea that wear is not independent from the
lubrication regime. This regime is established by boundary conditions where surface
roughness and prosthesis component clearance might play a significant role. Future
works should clarify whether the experimental in-vivo and in-vitro variability in per-
formance behavior of a prosthesis under the same use conditions can have its origin in
dimensional factors together with the material properties in this complex tribological
system.
Acknowledgements. This work has been developed in the framework of the Project DPI2016-
78476-P “Collaborative development of software standards, and traceability and inter-comparison
studies for the metrological characterization of surfaces”, of the 2016 call of I+D Projects in the
Spanish National Programme of Scientific and Technical Research Excellence Promotion, sub-
programme of Knowledge Generation.
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Saverio Affatato from the Medical Technology
Laboratory of the Rizzoli Orthopedic Institute (ITALY) for providing the femoral head and
acetabular cup analyzed in this study.
References
1. Affatato, S., Ruggiero, A., Merola, M.: Advanced biomaterials in hip joint arthroplasty.
A review on polymer and ceramics composites as alternative bearings. Compos. Part B 83,
276–283 (2015)
2. Ruggiero, A., D‫׳‬Amato, R., Gómez, E., Merola, M.: Experimental comparison on
tribological pairs UHMWPE/TIAL6V4 alloy, UHMWPE/AISI316L austenitic stainless
and UHMWPE/AL2O3 ceramic, under dry and lubricated conditions. Tribol. Int. 96, 349–
360 (2016)
3. Kurth, M., Eyerer, P., Ascherl, R., Dittel, K., Holz, U.: An evaluation of retrieved
UHMWPE hip joint cups. J. Biomater. Appl. 3(1), 33–51 (1988)
4. Rieger, W.: Ceramics in orthopedics–30 years of evolution and experience. In: World
Tribology Forum in Arthroplasty, pp. 283–294 (2001)
5. Visuri, T., Pukkala, E.: Does Metal-on-Metal Total Hip Prosthesis Have Influence on
Cancer? A Long-term Follow-up Study, in World Tribology Forum in Arthroplasty,
pp. 181–188. Hans Huber, Seattle (2001)
6. Ruggiero, A., Gómez, E., D’Amato, R.: Approximate closed-form solution of the synovial
fluid film force in the human ankle joint with non-Newtonian lubricant. Tribol. Int. 57, 156–
161 (2013)
7. Ruggiero, A., Gòmez, E., D’Amato, R.: Approximate analytical model for the squeeze-film
lubrication of the human ankle joint with synovial fluid filtrated by articular cartilage. Tribol.
Lett. 41(2), 337–343 (2011)
8. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Gómez, E.: Experimental analysis of tribological behavior of
UHMWPE against AISI420C and against TiAl6V4 alloy under dry and lubricated
conditions. Tribol. Int. 92, 154–161 (2015)
9. Affatato, S., Ruggiero, A., De Mattia, J.S., Taddei, P.: Does metal transfer affect the
tribological behaviour of femoral heads? Roughness and phase transformation analyses on
retrieved zirconia and Biolox® Delta composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 92, 290–298 (2016)
10. Ruggiero, A., Merola, M., Affatato, S.: Finite element simulations of hard-on-soft hip joint
prosthesis accounting for dynamic loads calculated from a musculoskeletal model during
walking. Materials (Basel) 11(4), 574 (2018)
11. D’Amato, R., Calvo, R., Gó Mez, E.: Sensitivity study of the morphometric fitting on the
pressure field inside ankle joints. Case Stud. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 1, 8–14 (2015)
12. Ruggiero, A., Affatato, S., Merola, M., De, M.C.: FEM analysis of metal on UHMWPE total
hip prosthesis during normal walking cycle. In: Proceedings of the XXIII Conference of the
Italian Association of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics (AIMETA 2017), pp. 4–7 (2017)
13. Ruggiero, A., Merola, M., Affatato, S.: On the biotribology of total knee replacement: a new
roughness measurements protocol on in vivo condyles considering the dynamic loading from
musculoskeletal multibody model. Measurement 112, 22–28 (2017)
14. Calvo, R., D’Amato, R., Gómez, E., Domingo, R.: Integration of error compensation of
coordinate measuring machines into feature measurement: Part II—experimental imple-
mentation. Sensors 16(10), 1705 (2016)
15. Laurian, T., Tudor, A.: Tribological influence the clearance in the hip prosthesis. In: 8th
International Tribology Conference, 8–10, Belgrade, Serbia, pp. 65–70 (2003)
16. Dowson, D., McNie, C.M., Goldsmith, A.A.J.: Direct experimental evidence of lubrication
in a metal-on-metal total hip replacement tested in a joint simulator. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.
Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 214(1), 75–86 (2000)
17. Timsit, R.S.: Electrical contacts resistance: fundamental principles. In: Slade, P.G. (ed.)
Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, p. 1104. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York
(1999)
18. Greenwood, J.A., Tripp, J.H.: The contact of two nominally flat rough surfaces. Proc. Inst.
Mech. Eng. 185(1), 625–633 (1970)
19. Blunt, L., Thomas, T.R.: Wear ranking of hard on hard bearings for prosthetic hip joints.
Wear 257(12), 1208–1212 (2004)
Accelerated Method of Cutting Tool
Quality Estimation During Milling Process
of Inconel 718 Alloy
Witold Habrat1(&) , Krzystof Krupa2, and Nikolaos E. Karkalos3

1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszow University
of Technology, Al. Powstancow Warszawy 12, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
habrat@prz.edu.pl
2
Research and Development Laboratory for Aerospace Materials, Rzeszow
University of Technology, 4 Żwirki i Wigury Street, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
3
School of Mechanical Engineering, Section of Manufacturing
Technology, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Politechniou 9,
15780 Athens, Greece
Abstract. Cutting tool wear is a natural consequence of the engagement of

cutting tool and workpiece. This phenomenon can progress in a slower or
quicker rate and can be attributed to various reasons, such as abrasion, adhesion,
chemical reaction, thermal or mechanical phenomena, depending on machining
conditions and material properties of cutting tool and workpiece. As the
replacement of worn tools is directly related to the cost of machining processes,
it is important to select favorable process parameters in order to avoid high wear
rates, especially when machining hard-to-cut materials. The experimental
determination of tool wear during machining of various materials is a costly and
time-consuming process, as it requires carrying out experiments at several
cutting speeds until a tool failure criterion is reached each time. In the present
work, a novel method for conducting tool wear experiments at various cutting
speeds at a single experiment is proposed and applied to a case of milling an
Inconel 718 workpiece. Experiments were performed for three different cutting
tools and for cutting speeds in the range of 90–170 m/min, at constant feed rate,
axial and radial depth of cut values. The results indicate that the proposed
methodology can successfully provide an indication of the performance of
various cutting tool types during machining of hard-to-cut materials.
Keywords: Tool wear Milling Inconel 718 Hard-to-cut materials
1 Introduction
Machining processes, such as turning and milling are considered as one of the most
important categories of manufacturing processes in industrial practice. These processes
are long established, but everyday new challenges are arising for the machinists, as it is
required to process new materials, with complex thermophysical behavior or create
more complex shapes without increasing considerably the manufacturing costs. One of
the most important problems in cutting processes is the wear of cutting tool, directly

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_22
206 W. Habrat et al.
related to the manufacturing cost. When the wear of the cutting tool exceeds a specific
limit, it is replaced by a new cutting tool; tool wear is accelerated, when unfavorable
machining conditions are used, especially for special categories of workpiece material,
such as hardened steel, titanium or nickel alloys, composite materials and ceramics.
In particular, when machining Inconel 718, a widely used nickel superalloy for
aerospace applications special attention should be paid in order to prevent premature
tool failure. This alloy, has increased strength, is corrosion and creep resistant up to
relatively high temperatures, has low thermal conductivity and is rapidly hardening
under specific conditions [1–3]. In the relevant literature several researchers have dealt
with the prevention of tool wear during machining of Inconel 718. Li, Zeng and Chen
et al. [1] conducted experiments of up and down milling at two different cutting speed.
They concluded that mechanism of tool wear was flank wear and chipping, that during
up milling more rapid progression of tool wear was observed and that tool wear led to a
gradual increase of all forces components. Sugihara, Nishimoto, Enomoto et al. [2]
conducted high speed machining experiments on Inconel 718 workpieces. They found
that, at the early stages of tool wear, the predominant mechanism was diffusion wear
and at the later stages chipping and proposed the use of textured cutting tools for high-
speed machining of nickel superalloys. Grzesik et al. [3] conducted turning experi-
ments with three different coated cutting tool inserts at 5 different cutting speeds in the
range of 65–125 m/min. It was found that the predominant wear mechanism was notch
wear and correlations between wear, cutting forces, friction coefficient as well as
specific energy were established.
Xavior et al. [4] performed a comprehensive study of Inconel 718 machining with
three different cutting speed, depth of cut and feed values, as well as three different
insert types and cooling conditions. D’Addona, Raykar, Narke [5] employed a carbide
cutting tool at four different cutting speeds and observed cutting tool wear, cutting
forces and surface roughness. It was found that the lowest surface roughness was
obtained with 190 m/min cutting speed and that notch wear was the predominant wear
mechanism. Cantero et al. [6] investigated the effect of using different carbide tools
under dry and wet machining conditions at two different cutting speeds and were able
to detect the wear mechanism and tool life for each case. Hadi et al. [7] performed up
and down milling tests at three different cutting speeds, feeds and depths of cut. Their
findings indicated that tool wear is larger during up-milling, notch wear is the main
wear mechanism and that different chip morphology is obtained in up and down milling
(segmented and discontinuous, serrated chip, respectively). Li et al. [8] conducted end
milling experiments with cutting tools at three levels of initial wear and various
machining conditions. Apart from other findings, they showed that fatigue life of
machined parts in not significantly affected when cutting tool has VB value lower than
0.2 mm. Liao, Lin and Wang [9] investigated the tool wear during slot and side milling
of Inconel 718 workpieces with two different feed speeds with regard to cutting
temperature, plastic deformation and chip morphology.
In the present work, milling experiments of an Inconel 718 workpiece are con-
ducted with a view to validate a novel approach regarding the tool wear experiments.
More specifically, the proposed method offers a reliable way to conduct tool wear
Accelerated Method of Cutting Tool Quality Estimation During Milling Process 207
experiments at multiple cutting speeds with a single cutting tool, in order to obtain
results regarding both tool quality and recommended cutting speed range for each tool.
This method is finally applied to milling cases with three different cutting tools in order
to be verified.

2.1 Description of the Proposed Method
The basic idea behind the proposed method is that it could be possible to perform tool
wear tests under various machining speeds with a single cutting tool instead of using
one cutting tool for each test, thus increasing considerably the cost of experiments. For
this to be implemented it should be taken into consideration that wear progression is
very different for different cutting speeds and it not directly proportional to the cutting
speed. So, it is desired to conduct first the experiments at lower cutting speeds at a
longer duration and progressively perform the tests at an increased cutting speed,
paying attention not to exceed the tool wear limit, e.g. 0.3 mm flank wear. A reason-
able way to calculate the machining time for the tests under each cutting speed is to
define the machining times with a geometric progression with first value the machining
time under the lowest cutting speed and a suitable geometric progression ratio, denoted
as R. As it becomes obvious, due to the various requirements set for the calculation of
machining time for each test it is possible to formulate this problem as an optimization
problem and solve it by an appropriate optimization method, such as Genetic
Algorithms.
For the optimization problem, the design variable is the geometric progression ratio
(R). For this variable, the lower and upper bounds have been selected as 0.001 and 1,
respectively, as the value of R needs to be below 1 in order for the terms of the
geometric progression to be descending and it should not reach 0 as it is used as a
denominator. The objective function of this problem is related to the wear limit cri-
terion as the wear at the end of all tests should be marginally equal to limit value in
order to cover exactly the whole range of acceptable tool wear values. It is to be noted
that instead of flank wear (VB) values, average torque values were employed as an
indicator of cutting tool wear because it was observed that flank wear was not repre-
sentative of the tool wear to a large extent. The limit value was experimentally
determined as 1.8 Nm. after preliminary tool wear tests, so the objective function is
formulated as:
Min F ¼ ðT1:8Þ2 ð1Þ
The value of the final average torque value is computed by an appropriate algorithm
which is employed in the optimization process. This algorithm, presented also with the
flowchart in Fig. 1, requires the definition of some basic inputs such as the machining
time for the first cutting speed, the number of cutting speeds used in the tests and
machining parameters e.g. feed. Then, the average torque value at the end of the last
pass conducted at each speed is calculated using a regression formula derived from
preliminary tests and progressively the final average torque value is calculated. When
the optimum value for R, leading to a final torque value near 1.8, is determined the
optimization process is completed and details about the realization of the “accelerated”
method such as machining time for each cutting speed can be computed.
Fig. 1. Flowchart of the optimization process.
2.2 Test Stand and Experimental Conditions

In order to verify the applicability of the methodology described above and to compare
the performance of each cutting tool, experimental studies were carried out. The three
different cutting tools are denoted symbolically as A, B and C, respectively and tool B
is adopted as a reference for the development of torque model. The cutting tools were
prepared as a part of previous grinding research [10]. The study was carried out using a
DMU 80P milling machine, as presented in Fig. 2. Measurements of cutting torque and
cutting force components were made using the Kistler rotary dynamometer. Wear of
flank surface of cutting tool was determined using a digital microscope. The prelimi-
nary experiments for the determination of regression formulas for average torque were
carried out with the cutting parameters specified in Table 1 and workpiece material was
Inconel 718.
After the preliminary experiments were conducted and the regression models are
developed, the optimization approach is applied to determine the characteristics of the
“accelerated” experiment. Finally, milling experiments with three different tools are
carried out in order to verify the proposed experimental method.
Fig. 2. Experimental results of average torque for the “accelerated” experiment in the range of
cutting speed of 90–170 m/min for tool A.
Table 1. Cutting parameters for the preliminary experiments.

Cutting speed vc Feed rate Axial depth of cut ap Radial depth of cut ae
[m/min] f [mm/tooth] [mm] [mm]
90, 110, 150, 170 0.05 15 0.2
3.1 Development of Tool Wear Model

After the preliminary tests are conducted, a mathematical model for tool wear for the
reference cutting tool (B) was developed. For the model used to determine the wear of
the flank surface of the milling tool after milling of Inconel 718, the following rela-
tionship was initially assumed:
Mc ¼ 1 þ d vcc tcb ð2Þ
where: Mc is the average torque value, d is a constant that takes into account the
influence of feed and depth of cut and all other factors not included in the formula;
b and c are power exponents determining the impact of cutting speed vc and cutting
time tc. Based on experimental studies, it is assumed that the cutting torque for the new
tool is approximately 1 Nm.
Moreover, taking into account the following relationship:
a ¼ d vcc ð3Þ
the model for torque is finally formulated as follows:
Mc ¼ 1 þ a tcb ð4Þ
The coefficients of Eq. 4 were obtained by the preliminary experimental results by

non linear regression. Since all values for parameter b are almost equal to 1, the model
described by Eq. 4 was simplified to a linear model as follows:
Mc ¼ 1 þ a tc ð5Þ
Further analysis was conducted to obtain the values for parameter a for each cutting
speed. According to this analysis, a correlation between a and vc was obtained:
a ¼ 4:400 106 v2:26

c ð6Þ
Finally, the formula for average torque is formulated as follows:
Mc ¼ 1 þ 4:400 106 v2:26

c tc ð7Þ
3.2 Results of Optimization Process and Comparison of Tool Quality

Between the Three Different Cutting Tools
Using the values for the milling experiment, the optimization run was completed after
51 iterations and the value of R which led to minimization of the objective function was
equal to 0.541. Consequently, the machining period for each cutting speed could be
determined. Afterwards, based on the developed methodology of testing the wear of
cutting tools, tests for verification of this methodology, as well as comparing the quality
of three different types of cutting tools were carried out. In Figs. 2, 3 and 4, the results
of the measurements of torque and images of the surface of worn cutting tools are
depicted for the full cutting speed range for tools A, B and C. These results are
important not only for the determination of tool life but also to investigate the possi-
bility of using higher cutting speed ranges.
In the case of tool A, a favorable curve of average torque values in respect to
machining time was obtained but however for the cutting speed of 170 m/min, the
cutting edge was damaged. In the case of tool B the results were able to be compared
with the predicted values from the developed model. As it can be seen from Fig. 3, a
good compatibility with the experimental results was shown. Although the tool life
results are slightly worse than for tool A, as at the same machining time average torque
value is larger, uniform wear of cutting edge was observed in this case.
cutting speed of 90–170 m/min for tool B.
cutting speed of 90–170 m/min for tool C.
Finally, for the third cutting tool, tool life was shown to be much shorter as the
value of 1.7 Nm is reached earlier than in the cases of the previous two cutting tools, as
can be seen from Fig. 4.
4 Conclusions
In the present work, a new method for conducting tool wear experiments at multiple
cutting speeds with a single cutting tool was proposed, based on experimentally derived
regression models and an optimization approach. Milling experiments for Inconel 718
workpieces were at first conducted, in order to derive the regression models and then,
experiments with three different cutting tools were used to verify the developed model.
It was determined that a wear indicator on the flank surface is difficult to apply for
evaluation of the milling tool with complex geometry. In this case, the average cutting
torque is better.
In the case of tool B, the results of experimental studies were compared with the
predicted values from the developed model. Good compatibility with the results has
been shown.
From these results, it was found that the proposed method can successfully provide
conclusions about tool life using average torque as wear indicator, as well as indicate
the suitable range of cutting speeds for obtaining lower wear rates.
Acknowledgements. The author would like to acknowledge, that this research has been carried
out as part of a project funded by the Polish National Centre for Research and Development.
Project No. INNOLOT/I/2/2013.
References
1. Li, H.Z., Zeng, H., Chen, X.Q.: An experimental study of tool wear and cutting force
variation in the end milling of Inconel 718 with coated carbide inserts. J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 180(1–3), 296–304 (2006)
2. Sugihara, T., Nishimoto, Y., Enomoto, T.: Development of a novel cubic boron nitride
cutting tool with a textured flank face for high-speed machining of Inconel 718. Precis. Eng.
48, 75–82 (2017)
3. Grzesik, W., Nieslony, P., Habrat, W., Sieniawski, J., Laskowski, P.: Investigation of tool
wear in the turning of Inconel 718 superalloy in terms of process performance and
productivity enhancement. Tribol. Int. 118, 337–346 (2018)
4. Xavior, M.A., Manohar, M., Jeyapandiarajan, P., Madhukar, P.M.: Tool wear assessment
during machining of Inconel 718. Procedia Eng. 174, 1000–1008 (2017)
5. D’Addona, D.M., Raykar, S.J., Narke, M.M.: High speed machining of Inconel 718: tool
wear and surface roughness analysis. Procedia CIRP 62, 269–274 (2017)
6. Cantero, J.L., Diaz-Alvarez, J., Miguelez, M.H., Marin, N.C.: Analysis of tool wear patterns
in finishing turning of Inconel 718. Wear 297(1–2), 885–894 (2013)
7. Hadi, M.A., Ghani, J.A., Che Haron, C.H., Kasim, M.S.: Comparison between up-milling
and down-milling operations on tool wear in milling Inconel 718. Procedia Eng. 68, 647–
653 (2013)
8. Li, W., Guo, Y.B., Barkey, M.E., Jordon, J.B.: Effect tool wear during end milling on the
surface integrity and fatigue life of Inconel 718. Procedia CIRP 14, 546–551 (2014)
9. Liao, Y.S., Lin, H.M., Wang, J.H.: Behaviors of end milling Inconel 718 superalloy by
cemented carbide tools. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 201(1–3), 460–465 (2008)
10. Habrat, W.F.: Effect of bond type and process parameters on grinding force components in
grinding of cemented carbide. Procedia Eng. 149, 122–129 (2016)
An Investigation on Tool Flank Wear
Using Alumina/MoS2 Hybrid Nanofluid
in Turning Operation
Anuj Kumar Sharma1(&), Rabesh Kumar Singh2, Amit Rai Dixit2,

Arun Kumar Tiwari3, and Mahip Singh2
1
Centre for Advanced Studies, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Technical University, Lucknow, India
anujksharma@cas.res.in
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute
of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, India
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow 226031, India
Abstract. The present work is focused on the development of a hybrid nano-

lubricant with improved tribological properties by mixing molybdenum-
disulphide (MoS2) nanoparticles with alumina nanoparticles in oil-water emul-
sion base fluid in a fixed volumetric proportion (10:90). The tribological testing
and contact angle measurement of prepared lubricants have been performed on
pin-on-disc tribometer and goniometer, respectively. The hybrid lubricant has
shown better results compare to base fluid (oil-water emulsion) and alumina-based
monotype lubricant. Furthermore, the test results confirm the reduction in wear
and coefficient of friction with increase of nanoparticle concentration. Moreover,
the performance of hybrid nanofluid has been evaluated in terms of machining
response using minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technique on turning of
AISI 304 steel. The addition of hybrid nanoparticles significantly reduces the tool
flank wear as compared to monotype nano-lubricant and base fluid.
Keywords: Alumina Nanoparticle Tool wear MQL Turning
1 Introduction
The near dry machining (NDM) or minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) is the tech-
nique which helps in reducing the quantity of cutting fluid during machining [1].
Maruda et al. [2] observed a significant reduction in surface roughness using MQL
technique over dry machining. Moreover, Maruda et al. [3] noticed that the use of MQL
has yielded significant reduction in cutting tool wear rate. However, small quantity of
conventional fluids may not be the preferred choice to achieve lower tool wear due to its
poor thermal properties. Therefore, an alternative cutting fluid is needed with improved
thermophysical and tribological properties. To achieve the desired thermophysical
properties, the nanometre-sized particles may be added into conventional fluids, which
are called ‘nanofluids’ [4]. Vajjha and Das [5] noticed an improvement of 22.4% in
thermal conductivity at 6 vol. % of Al2O3 as compared to base fluid at room temperature.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_23
214 A. K. Sharma et al.
In other studies, Yang [6] and Choi et al. [7] recorded severe increment of approx. 200%
and 150% respectively in thermal conductivity with the addition of multi-walled carbon
nanotube (MWCNT) in base fluid. Furthermore, Tansen et al. [8] observed that the
inclusion of small fraction of MWCNT nanoparticles into alumina-mixed solution has
significantly enhanced the heat carrying capacity. Interestingly, the higher thermal
conductivity affects the tool life positively [9]. Zhang et al. [10] investigated the effect of
addition of two nanoparticles (MoS2-CNT hybrid) in base fluid during grinding process.
The experimental results showed that lower value of G ratio and surface roughness
(Ra = 0.328 lm) was recorded with the application of MoS2-CNTs hybrid nanofluid as
compare to monotype nanoparticles (MoS2 or CNTs) mixed nanofluids. This may be
attributed to the synergistic behaviour of MoS2 and CNT nanoparticles mixed cutting
fluid. Furthermore, Singh et al. [11] investigated alumina/graphene hybrid nano-
lubricant during machining of AISI 304 steel and observed a significant reduction in
surface roughness and machining forces. Interestingly, the lower machining forces result
in obtaining good quality machined surface [12].
From the review of available literature it is evident that the hybridization of two
different types of nanoparticles enhances the machining performances of the cutting
fluids. Few researchers have reported some work on the hybrid nanoparticles enriched
cutting fluids. However, to the best of author’s knowledge, their investigations are
restricted to few machining processes such as grinding, milling and drilling. Moreover,
their application as a cutting fluids during turning operation for improved tool life is not
reported so far. This motivated the authors to investigate the effect of hybridization of
alumina (Al2O3) and molybdenum-disulphide (MoS2) on tool flank wear.
In present study, the attempt has been made to investigate the effect of mixing of
two different types of nanoparticles such as alumina and molybdenum disulphide in
base fluid. The mixing ratio of both nanoparticles is fixed in a volumetric proportion of
90:10 (Al2O3:MoS2). The tribological and spreadability of different nanoparticle
fractions (0.25, 0.75 and 1.25 vol. %) is measured on pin-on-disc tribometer and
goniometer, respectively [13]. Thereafter, tool flank wear (VB) is measured under the
application of alumina and its hybrid nanofluid using MQL technique on turning
operation of AISI 304 steel.
In the present study, the base fluid was prepared by mixing 5 vol. % vegetable oil in
distilled water. The water based nanofluid containing 25% of Al2O3 nanoparticles
(Dia. = 45 nm), was purchased from Alfa Aesar® and a water-based nanofluid having
MoS2 (30 nm in size) was procured from Sigma-Aldrich. The prepared hybrid nano-
fluid was the mixture of 90% of Al2O3 and 10% of MoS2 in volumetric ratio same base
fluid in three volumetric fractions (0.25%, 0.75% and 1.25% vol.). The NH22 lathe
(Make – HMT, NH 22/1500) machine tool was used to machine the AISI 304 steel
using mist of Al2O3 nanofluid and its hybrid nanofluid using MQL technique as
explained in [13]. The machining variables are tabulated in Table 1.
An Investigation on Tool Flank Wear Using Alumina/MoS2 Hybrid Nanofluid 215
Table 1. Machining variables and their levels

Machining variables Symbol Levels
1 2 3
Cutting speed (m/min) V 60 90 120
Feed rate (mm/rev) f 0.08 0.12 0.16
Depth of cut (mm) d 0.6 0.9 1.2
Nanoparticle volumetric fraction (vol. %) / 0.25 0.75 1.25
3.1 Tribological Testing of Nanofluids

The tribological test shows that lowest coefficient of friction is recorded with the
application of Al-MoS2 hybrid nanofluid followed by the alumina based nanofluid
(Fig. 1). The reduction in the coefficient of friction leads to the reduction of frictional
forces, which lowers the machining forces [14]. Moreover, it establishes that mixing of
two nanoparticles in base fluid (hybrid nanofluid) exhibits the superior lubrication
properties over monotype nanoparticles (alumina nanofluid) in the base fluid.
Base fluid
0.7 Nanoparticle Al-MoS2 hybrid
volumetric fraction 1.25 vol.% Al2O3 nanofluid
0.6
Dry
Coefficient of friction
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (sec)
Fig. 1. Variation of coefficient of friction with time.
This may be attributed to the formation of nano-film between the sliding surfaces
due to its superior spreadability over mono type nanofluid. The maximum spreadability
was recorded with Al-MoS2 hybrid nanofluid as 38.6° at 0.25 vol. % followed by
Al2O3 nanofluid as 41.9º at 1.0 vol. %, as shown in Fig. 2. The minimum contact angle
represents a maximum wetting area per unit liquid volume.
Al-MoS2 hybrid nanofluid

Al2O3 nanofluid
60
base fluid
Contact angle (Deg)
40
20
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
Nanopartcile concentration (vol.%)
Fig. 2. Wettability of different nanofluids as a function of nanoparticle fraction [14].
3.2 Machining with Nanofluids

Tables 2 shows the results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for tool wear (VB). This
analysis was carried out at a significance level of 5% (i.e. 95% confidence level). The
table also shows the effect of input variables (significant or non-significant) on response
(tool flank wear). It is found that nanoparticle volumetric fraction (/) and combination
of / and V has a significant effect on the tool flank wear (VB).
The regression model of VB with a coefficient of determination (R2) and adjusted
2
R equal to 96.5 and 92.41 respectively, are given below in Eq. (1).
VB ¼ 155:695 4:59178 V þ 1650:99 f þ 212:268 d 240:89 /

þ 6:4875 V f þ 1:29806 V d þ 1:70033 V / 130:208 f d þ 24:875
f / þ 30:5167 d / þ 0:00885231 V 2 6186:98 f 2 111:088 d 2
þ 28:8133 /2
ð1Þ
The influence of nanoparticle concentration and machining parameters were

investigated on VB. Figure 3 shows the surface plots of tool flank wear. The lowest
value of VB was observed with the combination of highest / and lowest cutting speed
(Fig. 3(a)) and at highest / and lowest feed rate (Fig. 3(b)).
The application of Al-MoS2 hybrid nanofluid recorded the lowest value of tool
wear followed by the alumina nanofluids (Table 3). This reduction in the tool wear was
observed due to the better tribological properties of hybrid nanofluid and better pen-
etration of the nanofluid mist into the machining zone. In the case of Al-MoS2 hybrid
Table 2. ANOVA table for VB using Alumina/MoS2 nanofluid.

Source Sum of squares DF Mean square F-value Prob.
Model 35346.87 14 2524.78 23.61 <0.0001
V 540.16 1 540.16 5.05 0.0442
f 8148.44 1 8148.44 76.19 <0.0001
d 20092.54 1 20092.54 187.87 <0.0001
/ 604.07 1 604.07 5.65 0.0350
Vf 242.42 1 242.42 2.27 0.1580
Vd 545.92 1 545.92 5.10 0.0433
V/ 2602.02 1 2602.02 24.33 0.0003
fd 9.77 1 9.77 0.091 0.7677
f/ 0.99 1 0.99 9.257E-003 0.9249
d/ 83.81 1 83.81 0.78 0.3934
V2 338.53 1 338.53 3.17 0.1005
f2 522.63 1 522.63 4.89 0.0472
d2 533.11 1 533.11 4.98 0.0454
/2 276.74 1 276.74 2.59 0.1337
Residual 1283.41 12 106.95
Lack of fit 1238.27 10 123.83 5.49 0.1639
Pure error 45.14 2 22.57
Cor. total 36630.28 26
Table 3. Performance comparison of single (alumina) and hybrid (Al-MoS2) nanofluid.

Nano-cutting fluid Trial No. Tool wear (VB) Average Tool wear (VB)
Al2O3 1 71.88 68.39
2 65.43
3 67.86
Al2O3/MoS2 1 59.96 60.16
2 58.69
3 61.83
nano-cutting fluid, due to its lubricity (Fig. 1) and better wettability (Fig. 2) compared
to the conventional fluid, the tool could retain its original hardness for longer
machining time. Furthermore, the reduction in the tool wear could be achieved due to
the ball bearing effect of nanoparticles between the machining interfaces. The lower
contact angle also helped in reducing the cutting temperature, which lead to reduced
tool wear as well. Because of its superior tribological properties and spreadability
(Figs. 1 and 2) over tool surface, Al-MoS2 hybrid nanofluid maintained the cutting
tool’s temperature at lower values, as a result of which, the tool sustained its sharpness
of the cutting edge and resulted in lower tool wear (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. The response surfaces for Al-MoS2 nanoparticle volumetric fraction (/) versus V and f.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. Tool flank wear using (a) alumina (b) Alumina/MoS2 nanofluid.
4 Conclusion
• The hybridization of alumina and molybdenum disulphide reduces the coefficient of
friction. The lowest value (*0.14) is recorded at 1.25 vol. % Al-MoS2 hybrid
nanofluid.
• A significant variation in contact angle (wettability) with increase of nanoparticle
concentration is observed. Al-MoS2 hybrid exhibits minimum contact angle at
0.25 vol. % and alumina based nanofluid yields minimum value at 1.0 vol. %.
• The mixing of alumina and molybdenum disulphide reduces the tool flank wear as
compare to monotype nanofluids. The lowest value of tool flank wear (60.16 lm)
was observed with the use of Al-MoS2 hybrid nanofluid.
The mixing of alumina and MoS2 in a fixed volumetric ratio (90:10) has enhanced
its tribological and machining performances. Moreover, the investigation can be
extended to optimize the nanoparticle mixing proportion, and effect of shape and size
of nanoparticles on their tribological and machining performances. Furthermore, the
hybridization of nanoparticles may be investigated in other applications like heat
exchangers, and lubricants under extreme pressure conditions.
References
1. Singh, R.K., Dixit, A.R., Mandal, A., Sharma, A.K.: Emerging application of nanoparticle-
enriched cutting fluid in metal removal processes: a review. J. Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng. 39
(11), 4677–4717 (2017)
2. Maruda, R., Feldshtein, E., Legutko, S., Królczyk, G.M.: Improving the efficiency of
running-in for a bronze–stainless steel friction pair. J. Fric. Wear 36(6), 548–553 (2015)
3. Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, G.M., Feldshtein, E., Nieslony, P., Tyliszczak, B., Pusavec, F.:
Tool wear characterizations in finish turning of AISI 1045 carbon steel for MQCL
conditions. Wear 372–373, 54–67 (2017)
4. Sharma, A.K., Singh, R.K., Tiwari, A.K., Dixit, A.R.: Characterization and experimental
investigation of Al2O3 nanoparticle based cutting fluid in turning of AISI 1040 steel under
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). Mater. Today Proc. 3, 1899–1906 (2015)
5. Vajjha, R.S., Das, D.K.: A review and analysis on influence of temperature and
concentration of nanofluids on thermophysical properties, heat transfer and pumping power.
Int. J. Heat Mass Trans. 55, 4063–4078 (2012)
6. Yang, Y.: Carbon nanofluids for lubricant application; Ph.D. thesis. University of Kentucky,
United States (2006)
7. Choi, S.U.S., Zhang, Z.G., Yu, W., Lockwood, F.E., Grulke, E.A.: Anomalous thermal
conductivity enhancement in nanotube suspensions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 79(14), 2252–2254
(2001)
8. Tanshen, M.R., Lee, S., Kim, J., Kang, D., Noh, J., Chung, H., Jeong, H., Huh, S.: Pressure
distribution inside oscillating heat pipe charged with aqueous Al2O3 nanoparticles,
MWCNTs and their hybrid. J. Cent. South Univ. 21, 2341–2348 (2014)
9. Twardowski, P., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M., Hloch, S.: Investigation of wear and tool life
of coated carbide and cubic boron nitride cutting tools in high speed milling. Adv. Mech.
Eng. 7(6), 1–9 (2015)
10. Zhang, Y., Li, C., Jia, D., Li, B., Wang, Y., Yang, M., Hou, Y., Zhang, X.: Experimental
study on the effect of nanoparticle concentration on the lubricating property of nanofluids for
MQL grinding of Ni-based alloy. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 232, 100–115 (2016)
11. Singh, R.K., Sharma, A.K., Dixit, A.R., Tiwari, A.K., Pramanik, A.: Performance evaluation
of alumina-graphene hybrid nano-cutting fluid in hard turning. J. Clean Prod. 162, 830–845
(2017)
12. Nieslony, P., Cichosz, P., Krolczyk, G.M., Legutko, S., Smyczek, D., Kolodziej, M.:
Experimental studies of the cutting force and surface morphology of explosively clad Ti –
steel plates. Measurement 78, 129–137 (2016)
13. Sharma, A.K., Tiwari, A.K., Dixit, A.R., Singh, R.K.: Novel uses of alumina-MoS2 hybrid
nanoparticle enriched cutting fluid in hard turning of AISI 304 steel. J. Manuf. Process. 30,
467–482 (2017)
14. Sharma, A.K., Tiwari, A.K., Dixit, A.R.: Mechanism of nanoparticles functioning and effects
in machining processes: a review. Mater. Today Proc. 2(4–5), 3539–3544 (2015)
Additive Printing of Gold Nanoparticles
on Paper Substrate Through
Office Ink-Jet Printer
Mohammed Shariq1,2(&) , Amit Rai Dixit2, Rupert Kargl3,4,

Somnath Chattopadhyaya2, Meduri Venkata Sridutt2,
Pasagada Venkata Keerti Vardhan2, and Rebeka Rudolf1,5
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
mohdshariq.03@hotmail.com
2
Indian Institute of Technology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004,
Jharkhand, India
3
Laboratory for Characterization and Processing of Polymer, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
4
Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of
Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria
5
Zlatarna Celje d.o.o., 3000 Celje, Slovenia
Abstract. The article reports the synthesis of the concentrated Gold

Nanoparticles (AuNPs) ink and its printing on the paper substrate through Office
Ink Jet printer. Initially, AuNPs were synthesized from the precursor Gold
(III) Acetate through Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis. Ellipsoidal shaped AuNPs with
a size distribution of below 50 nm were confirmed through TEM and DLS
measurement. Maximum absorbance wavelength of AuNPs measured through
UV-vis spectroscopy was 532 nm. Further, the AuNPs ink was prepared
through the rotavapour and filtered upto the Au concentration of 600 ppm
determined through ICP-OES. The AuNPs printed patterns on the photo paper
substrate were successfully printed and further analyzed with SEM.
Keywords: Gold Nanoparticles Synthesis Printing Office ink jet printer

Paper substrate
Abbreviations
AuNPs Gold Nanoparticles
LED Light Emitting Diodes
TFT Thin Film Transistors
USP Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
DLS Dynamic Light Scattering
UV-vis Ultra-violet visible spectroscopy
ICP-OES Inductively Coupled Plasma with Mass Optical Emission Spectroscopy
AFM Atomic Force Microscopy
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_24
Additive Printing of Gold Nanoparticles on Paper Substrate 221
PVP40 Polyvinylpyrrolidone
D.I. De-ionized water
1 Introduction
Ink jet printing of the metal nanoparticles specifically Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) [1]
had recently become a successful viable alternative to the conventional approaches
(such as vapor deposition, photolithography) [2] due to its easiness in operation,
economical in cost and its flexibility as well as versatility [3]. Various application of
printed AuNPs in integrated circuits in LED displays [4], sensing [5], thin film tran-
sistors (TFT) [6], ceramics [7], bio-materials for tissue engineering [8] as well as in
different bio-medical applications [9] had made them as a promising technology in
different areas.
A bottom-up synthesis method, Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis (USP) is relatively
simple in construction [10], economically viable [11], and flexible in synthesizing
various types of metal nanoparticles (NPs) with desirable characteristics in the form of
colloidal suspension as well as in dry powder form [12]. It is one of the most suited
method for the large scale as well as up-scaled production for AuNPs that can be
utilized as a raw material for preparing conductive AuNPs ink [13]. Our previous
works in the synthesis [14] and characterization of AuNPs through USP [15] from
different precursors [16] had helped in choosing the optimum parameters for obtaining
the target properties of AuNPs for further use.
The article presents the synthesis of AuNPs from the Gold (III) Acetate precursor
through USP in the form of colloidal suspension. Initially, the synthesized AuNPs were
characterized through ICP-OES analysis (concentration), TEM (shape), DLS (size
distribution) and UV-vis (maximum absorbance wavelength). Subsequently, AuNPs
were concentrated for preparing the ink and was analyzed through AFM. The feasi-
bility analysis of printing on the photo paper substrate through a low cost office ink jet
printer was tested. The printed pattern were further investigated through SEM for
analyzing the distribution of AuNPs on the substrate.
Gold (III) Acetate (Au(CH3COO)3, Alfa Aesar, Germany, 99.9%), Hydrochloric acid
(HCl, 30% concentrated, Honeywell Fluka GmbH, Germany), Sodium Hydroxide
(NaOH, concentration of 40 g/mol in pellets, Panreac AppliChem GmbH, Germany),
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP40, Sigma Aldrich, Merck KGaA, Germany), Nitrogen (N2,
99.9%, Westfalen AG, Germany), Hydrogen gas (H2, 99.9%, Westfalen AG,
Germany), De-ionized water (purified with the Millipore system), Premium Photo
glossy Paper (A4 size, mass - 200 g/m2 with 5760 DPI, Kodak, India).
222 M. Shariq et al.
2.1 USP Synthesis of AuNPs

AuNPs were synthesized on the re-designed modular horizontal type USP located at
the PRIZMA d.o.o., Serbia. The equipment had the following main parts: Ultrasonic
Generator, Separated Evaporation and Reaction zone, final Collection Bottles and
Quartz Transport tubes. It was re-designed to separate the heating zones into two
maintained at T1 °C and T2 °C respectively. The ultrasonic aerosol generator
(PRIZMA d.o.o., Serbia) with piezoelectric transducer membrane having a frequency
of 2.5 MHz was used for the generation of aerosol droplets of the precursor. These
aerosol droplets were then transported through a quartz tube to the evaporation and
then reaction zone. Dry Nitrogen (N2) was used as the carrier gas while Hydrogen gas
(H2) for the reduction into final AuNPs. The collection bottles contained PVP40 dis-
solved in D.I. water as a solvent. The parameters used for synthesizing the AuNPs in
the USP from the Gold Acetate precursor had been mentioned in Table 1.
Table 1. USP synthesis of AuNPs from Gold (III) Acetate precursor with the following
parameters: Initial Concentration [Au], Evaporation (T1) and reaction zone temperature (T2), Gas
flow rate – Carrier (N2) and Reducing gas (H2) and Running time (in hour) as mentioned.
Exp. No. Precursor [Au] T1 (°C) T2 (°C) N2 (l/min) H2 (l/min) Running Collection
(g/l) Time (h) medium
1 Gold 1 120– 200– 1–1.5 1–1.5 3–4 0.1 weight
(III) Acetate 150 250 % PVP40 in
D.I. water
2.2 Characterization of AuNPs

ICP-OES Measurements. An ICP-OES was used for the Au3+ quantification (i.e.
concentration of Au in AuNPs). Prior to the analysis, samples were diluted 10-fold with
de-ionized Milli-Q water (purity 18 MX cm) and acidified with aqua regia (5% v/v).
For calibration, single element standard solutions (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) were
used. Analysis was carried out using an ICP MS spectrometer (Agilent, 7500 ce,
equipped with collision cell) under the operating conditions: RF power - 1.5 kW,
Sample depth 8 mm, Nebulizer - Meinhard, Plasma gas flow (L/min) – 15, Nebulizer
gas flow (L/min) - 0.85, Make up gas flow (L/min) - 0.28, Reaction gas flow (mL/min)
- 4.0. AuNPs synthesized from USP with Au concentration of 150 ppm determined
through ICP-OES was used further for TEM, DLS and UV-vis measurements.
TEM. Morphology with the crystal structure of the AuNPs synthesized from USP was
investigated by Conventional Transmission Electron Microscopy (CTEM; JEOL
2100), High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM; JEOL 2100),
Electron Diffraction (ED/TEM; JEOL 2100), Electron Dispersive Spectroscopy
(EDS/TEM; JED 2300). A drop of colloidal suspension of AuNPs with PVP40 was
pipetted onto a formvar film coated with a layer of carbon, or a lacey formvar film
coated with a layer of carbon, or a lacey formvar film enforced by a heavy coating of
carbon TEM copper grid of 200 mesh and dried at room temperature. The grid was then
observed directly in a TEM once the medium evaporated.
Measurement of Circularity Through TEM. The circularity measurements of

AuNPs were done with the help of TEM images in the following mentioned procedure.
A minimum of 200 discrete AuNPs were measured from each of widely separated
regions of the two samples to measure the circularity of the AuNPs from TEM images
according to Standard ISO 13322-1:2004. An ImageJ software tool was used for the
data analysis algorithm.
DLS Measurements. The AuNPs size and zeta-potential were obtained using a Mal-
vern (Multipurpose Titrator) Zetasizer Nano ZS. During the automatic measurements
(10–30 runs), the initial parameters for absorption (0.010), refractive index (1.59),
dispersant properties (water), temperature (25 °C), equilibration time (25 s), measure-
ment angle (173° backscatter), and cell type (Disposable cuvettes for size measurement
and Dip Cell for zeta potential) were set for size and zeta-potential measurements.
UV-Vis Spectrometry. It was measured in a colloidal solution of AuNPs by using
quartz cells, with a Varian Cary 100 Scan – UV-Vis spectrophotometer.
Preparation of the Concentrated Ink. Initially, 400 ml of the synthesized AuNPs
through USP were rotavaporized to the final volume of 40 ml. (Specifications: RC 600
Rotavapor, made by KNF Neuberger GmbH, Freiburg, Germany). It is equipped with a
heating bath suitable for evaporating flasks up to 1 L. Rotation speed range: 25–
250 rpm. The parameters used in the rotavapour are: Vacuum pressure = 20 millibar,
Bath temperature = 50 °C, Initial [Au] of the AuNPs solution = 400 ppm.
The concentrated AuNPs after rotavaporization were further centrifuged (Hettich
Zentrifugen Mikro 200R, Maker: Hettich Centrifuge Co. Ltd., U.K., Max. Capacity: 30
X 1.5/2.0 ml, Max. RPM: 15000 rpm, Running time: 1 s–99 min) and filtered with the
help of syringe filters to the final volume of 20 ml having [Au] of 600 ppm.
AFM. XE-100 Park System, Completely XY-100 µm, decoupled: Z-12 µm, closed
loop scanners, open loop scanner: XY-5 µm, Optical microscope: 780X
(480X360 µm), Resolution <1.5 nm (Closed loop), Resolution <0.01 nm (Open loop).
A drop of AuNPs ink was dropped on Silicon wafer and left to dry out at room
temperature AFM was performed in Contact mode.
Ink Jet Printing on Paper Substrates. The ink jet printers used in the printing of
AuNPs: Epson L210 printer, Printing Method-Piezo electric based inkjet, Nozzle
Configuration-180 Nozzles Black, 59 Nozzles per Color Minimum Droplet Size -3 pl,
Cleaning agents - Distilled water, isopropanol.
The printer consists of the four reservoirs for AuNPs ink storage integrated to the
body of the printer, one each for Magenta, Black, Cyan and Yellow. The AuNPs ink in
the reservoir was transported to the cartridge that had been fitted inside the body with the
help of flexible tubes. The ink was initially poured into the external ink reservoir. It had to
be made sure that the level of ink poured must be above the minimum level indicated on
the reservoir to avoid malfunctioning of the printer. This ink is sucked into the cartridge
due to the pressure head. The cartridge is directly connected to the print head which
carries out the printing process. It was left idle for a few hours opening the valve to permit
flow into the cartridge. After printing for one time, the printed pattern were observed to
be prominent. It was made thicker by repeating multiple prints on the pattern.
SEM. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Sirion 400NC (FEI, USA) was used
for the analysis. A small sample of the unprinted and printed pattern paper was sticked
onto the carbon film holders for the analysis. It was done in ESEM mode due to non-
conductive paper substrate.
Statistics and Diagrams. Data were presented as a representative experiment or as a
mean ± standard deviation (SD) of at least 3 independent experiments. The differences
between control experimental samples were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test
with Bonferoni post test and values at p < 0.05 or less were considered to be statis-
tically significant. Microsoft Office Tools was used for plotting the graphs and figures.
AuNPs from the precursor Gold (III) Acetate having initial [Au] of 1 g/l were suc-
cessfully synthesized through USP. A heavy thick cloud of the aerosol were generated
with the help of ultrasonic generator operating at the highest intensity. These aerosol
droplets were transported to the evaporation zone maintained in the temperature range
of 120 °C–150 °C in order to completely evaporate the water content. While the
reaction zone temperature was maintained at 200 °C–250 °C for the thermal decom-
position of the precursor into the final AuNPs. The optimum gas flow rates of 1–
1.5 l/min was used for the carrier and reducing gases during the process. AuNPs were
finally collected in the solution of 0.1% weight of PVP40 and D.I water in the col-
lection bottles. The violet color of the solution gave an indication for the successful
experimentation.
Further, the presence of AuNPs were confirmed by the TEM investigation as shown
in Fig. 1(a). They were largely ellipsoidal in shape with a calculated circularity of 0.53
while a small percentage were agglomerated forming the potato shape. This agglom-
eration can be mainly attributed due to the phenomenon of uneven sintering of AuNPs
in the reaction zone. The surface of the AuNPs were seemed to be free from visible
defects such as cracks, porosity and pinholes etc.
The hydrodynamic size distribution of the AuNPs was measured by DLS as shown
in Fig. 1(b). It can be divided into three groups with respect to AuNPs diameter: 14–
28 nm having 77% of AuNPs, 28–56 nm having 22.6% and above 56 nm having
0.4%. The AuNPs height was below 50 nm. The zeta potential measured was
32.8 ± 1.6 mV indicating the sufficient stability without agglomeration. The maxi-
mum UV-vis absorbance wavelength of the AuNPs was measured at 532 nm as shown
in Fig. 1(c).
Fig. 1. Characterization of the AuNPs synthesized from Gold (III) Acetate through
USP. (a) TEM, (b) Size Distribution through DLS measurement, (c) UV-vis spectroscopy.
The obtained AuNPs from the USP were subsequently concentrated and filtered
through syringe filters for preparation of concentrated AuNPs ink as shown in Fig. 2(a)
and its AFM image at Fig. 2(b). These post processes were done in order to avoid the
clogging problems in the cartridge nozzle of office ink jet printer (Fig. 2(c)) with the
increased concentration. The SEM image (Fig. 2(d)) of the surface topography of the
photo paper before printing revealed micro fibers which will act as macro as well as
micro pores for the absorption of the AuNPs ink The AuNPs printed pattern on the
paper substrate were observed to be prominent even after one print. It was made thicker
by allowing multiple prints as shown in Fig. 2(f). The AuNPs ink filled these pores
after the printing process providing a better adhesion and absorption properties for the
paper substrate. Thus, sufficient stability of AuNPs had been achieved on the surface of
the printed patterns. The ellipsoidal morphology of the AuNPs under the size range of
below 50 nm were appropriate enough for the smooth flow behavior through the
nozzles. Though the AuNPs printed pattern looked continuous to the naked eye, when
observed under SEM microscopy, the density of the AuNPs were low and discontin-
uous. AuNPs in the image as shown in Fig. 2(g) were clearly visible in the white micro
regions. These AuNPs appeared in this color due to the interaction of electron beam
with printed AuNPs on paper. In order to use these printed patterns for high end
applications, the concentration of AuNPs should be increased further above 1500 ppm.
Fig. 2. Ink-jet printing of the AuNPs on paper substrate. (a) Concentrated AuNPs ink, (b) AFM
characterization of the prepared ink, (c) EPSON L210 Office ink jet printer, (d) Photo paper used
as substrate, (e) SEM image of the Photo paper, (f) Printed pattern on the paper, (g) SEM image
of the printed pattern on the paper.
4 Conclusions
AuNPs were successfully synthesized from the precursor Gold (III) Acetate under the
chosen parameters of evaporation and reaction zone temperature, gas flow rates of
carrier and reducing agents through USP. AuNPs had the following properties: Mostly,
non-agglomerated in nature and ellipsoidal shaped with a circularity of 0.53 with three
size distributions: 14–28 nm having 77% of AuNPs, 28–56 nm having 22.6% and
above 56 nm having 0.4%. Moreover, the AuNPs with height below 50 nm having zeta
potential value of 32.8 ± 1.6 mV and maximum absorbance wavelength of 532 nm.
The customized ink comprising of concentrated and stable AuNPs was successfully
prepared. It is clearly reflected in the ink jet printing capability of AuNPs ink used in
low cost EPSON L210 office printer on the photo paper substrate. Ellipsoidal shaped
under the mentioned size range of AuNPs were appropriate for printing with this printer
due to its smooth flow behavior through the nozzle. These printed patterns showed the
possibility of printing with higher concentrations of AuNPs in future for flexible
electronics and bio-medical applications.
Acknowledgement. The study was supported by the European Union – Erasmus Mundus
Action 2 Lot 13 Euphrates Program and Slovenian Research Agency ARRS Slovenia (P2-120,
Martina Program and OP20.00369).
References
1. Cui, W., Lu, W., Zhang, Y., Lin, G., Wei, T., Jiang, L.: Gold nanoparticle ink suitable for
electric-conductive pattern fabrication using in ink-jet printing technology. Colloids Surf.
A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 358(1–3), 35–41 (2010)
2. Khan, Y., Pavinatto, F.J., Lin, M.C., Liao, A., Swisher, S.L., Mann, K., Subramanian, V.,
Maharbiz, M.M., Arias, A.C.: Inkjet-printed flexible gold electrode arrays for bioelectronic
interfaces. Adv. Funct. Mater. 26, 1004–1013 (2016)
3. Määttänen, A., Ihalainen, P., Pulkkinen, P., Wang, S., Tenhu, H., Peltonen, J.: Inkjet-printed
gold electrodes on paper: characterization and functionalization. ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces. 4(2), 955–964 (2012)
4. Yoshioka, Y., Jabbour, G.: Inkjet printing of oxidants for patterning of nanometer-thick
conducting polymer electrodes. Adv. Mater. 18, 1307–1312 (2006)
5. Bietsch, A., Zhang, J., Hegner, M., Lang, H.P., Gerber, C.: Rapid functionalization of
cantilever array sensors by inkjet printing. Nanotechnology 15, 873 (2004)
6. Jang, J.: Displays develop a new flexibility. Mater. Today 9(4), 46 (2006)
7. Derby, B.: Inkjet printing ceramics: from drops to solid. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 31, 2543–2550
(2011)
8. Boland, T., Xu, T., Damon, B., Cui, X.: Application of inkjet printing to tissue engineering.
Biotechnol. J. 1, 910–917 (2006)
9. Rudolf, R., Majerić, P., Tomić, S., Shariq, M., Fercec, U., Friedrich, B., Vučevićc, D.:
Morphology, aggregation properties, cytocompatibility & anti-inflammatory potential of
citrate-stabilized AuNPs prepared by modular ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. J. Nanomater.
2017, 9365012 (2017)
10. Majerič, P., Rudolf, R., Anžel, I., Bogović, J., Stopić, S., Friedrich, B.: Synthesis of NiTi/Ni-
TiO2 composite nanoparticles via ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. Mater. Technol. 49(1), 75–80
(2015)
11. Htay, M.T., Hashimoto, Y., Momose, N., Ito, K.: Position-selective growth of ZnO
nanowires by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. J. Cryst. Growth 311(20), 4499–4504 (2009)
12. Montero, M.A., Chialvo, M.R.G., Chialvo, A.C.: Preparation of gold nanoparticles
supported on glassy carbon by direct spray pyrolysis. J. Mater. Chem. 19(20), 3276–3280
(2009)
13. Bogović, J.: Synthesis of the oxide and metal/oxide nanoparticles by the Ultrasonic Spray
Pyrolysis. Ph.D. Dissertation, Faculty of the Georesources & Materials Engineering, RWTH
Aachen University, Aachen (2015)
14. Majerič, P., Jenko, D., Friedrich, B., Rudolf, R.: Formation mechanisms for gold
nanoparticles in a redesigned ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. Adv. Powder Technol. 28(3),
876–883 (2017)
15. Majerič, P., Jenko, D., Budič, B., Colić, M., Friedrich, B., Rudolf, R.: Formation of non-
toxic Au nanoparticles with bimodal size distribution by a modular redesign of ultrasonic
spray pyrolysis. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. Lett. 7(11), 1–10 (2015)
16. Shariq, M., Majerič, P., Friedrich, B., Budic, B., Dixit, A.R., Rudolf, R.: Application of Gold
(III) Acetate as a new precursor for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles in PEG through
ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. J. Clust. Sci. 28(3), 1647–1665 (2017)
Preliminary Study on Staggered Herringbone
Micromixer Design Suitable
for Micro EDM Milling
Izidor Sabotin1(&), Gianluca Tristo2, Andrej Lebar1,3,

Marko Jerman1, Miha Prijatelj1, Pavel Drešar1,
and Joško Valentinčič1
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
izidor.sabotin@fs.uni-lj.si
2
Department of Industrial Engineering,
University of Padua, Via Venezia 1, Padua, Italy
3
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract. This paper discusses interplay between the design of a Staggered

Herringbone Micromixer (SHM) and micro Electrical Discharge Machining
(EDM) milling technology. SHM consists of a main channel and many her-
ringbone lookalike grooves at the bottom, which enhance mixing. Firstly, a brief
overview on how the technological model of micro EDM milling was con-
structed is presented. Anticorrosive stainless steel was used as a workpiece
material on the basis of which the database for the technological model was
established. In the second part the technological model was used for micromixer
design optimization. Different SHM designs that can be machined in the same
amount of time, were compered via their mixing efficiency. Mixing efficiency
was estimated by performing Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simula-
tions. The results show, that smaller and shallower grooves are not efficient in
the terms of mixing. An important design parameter is also the orientation of the
grooves. In the end, a favorable SHM design is presented.
Keywords: Micromixer Micro EDM milling CFD
1 Introduction
Miniaturization is a recent trend in analytical chemistry and life sciences [1] as well as
in non-silicon micromachining technologies [2]. In the past two decades, miniatur-
ization of fluid handling and fluid analysis has emerged in the interdisciplinary field of
microfluidics. Advantages of the microfluidic systems derive from significantly larger
specific surface-to-volume ratios and consequently in superior heat exchange properties
compared to conventional scale technology, permitting very fast heating and cooling of
reaction mixtures. Due to the small amount of chemicals needed and high rate of heat
and mass transfer, these systems are an extremely efficient tool for organic synthesis as
well as for process intensification [3].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_25
230 I. Sabotin et al.
Microfluidic systems are commonly produced by applying Microsystem tech-

nologies (MST) with one of the main representative being soft lithography [1]. MST
stem from manufacturing advancements in microelectronics and the most common
workpiece material is Silicon. On the other hand Microengineering technologies
(MET) are derived from miniaturization of machining processes such as conventional
milling, electrical discharge machining and laser machining. MET enable machining of
various materials and in some cases wider variety of geometries e.g. high aspect ratio
structures.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of the machining process on the
optimal micromixer design.
Micromixers are a crucial part of microreactor systems and their main function is to
rapidly mix the reactants. Rapid mixing is essential in many of the microfluidic systems
used in biochemistry analysis, drug delivery, sequencing of synthesis of nucleic acids
as well as in microreactor systems [4]. A well known passive micromixer geometry is
so called staggered herringbone micromixer (SHM) [5]. The oblique grooves at the
bottom of the microchannel transport fluid from the apex of the groove structure to the
downstream edges of the microchannel, causing chaotic mixing. SHM geometry is
readily fabricated using standard soft lithographic methods which are limited to pro-
duction of low aspect ratio structures. The preferred workpiece material is Silicon.
Thus, literature reports on optimal SHM design with narrow and shallow grooves. For
instance, Stroock et al. report on groove dimensions of 50 µm wide and 30 µm deep
[5], Williams et al. report on groove width of 90 µm and groove depth of 36 µm [6]
and Du et al. report on groove width of 12.5 µm and depth of 7 µm [7].
In some cases stainless steel is material of choice due to its robustness, for example
its compatibility with organic solvents and operability under elevated temperature and
pressure [8].
Micro electrical discharge milling (micro EDM milling) is a flexible and stable
micromachining technology that can produce complex shapes in metals. Micro EDM
milling is a thermal process for contactless material removal of electrically conductive
materials. The machining is performed by a sequence of electrical discharges occurring
in an electrically insulated gap between a tool electrode and a workpiece. During the
discharge pulses, a high-temperature plasma channel is formed in the gap, causing local
melting and evaporation of workpiece and electrode material. To date generally valid
physical model of EDM material removal does not exist, thus empirical models are
utilized in order to control the machining process.
Despite numerus literature reports on the SHM geometry, the optimum design for a
specific application has yet to be discovered, preferably through numerical simulations
[7]. For a successful micromixer design, it is also important to consider the fabrication
methods. Thus, the motivation for this research was to study the interplay between the
micro EDM milling technology and the design of a SHM.
In this paper the influence of micro EDM milling technology on favorable SHM
design in the context of design for manufacturing is investigated. To describe the
influence of micro EDM milling a technological model is used. The mixing perfor-
mance of a particular SHM design is evaluated by applying computational fluid
dynamics simulation. The aim of this work is to provide the researchers in the field of
Preliminary Study on Staggered Herringbone Micromixer Design 231
micromixers an outline for efficient SHM design which is compatible with MET,
especially micro EDM milling technology.
2.1 SHM Geometry

The basic SHM geometry is presented in Fig. 1a. The oblique grooves are determined
by their depth d, width a and distance between two consecutive grooves b. Each groove
has an apex at 1/3 of the channel width w. The sequences of grooves are divided into
half-cycles which are determined by the alternating change of the apex position.
Fig. 1. (a) Typical geometry of a staggered herringbone micromixer (SHM) and schematic
representation of the helical motion of fluid above the grooves. (b) Sample of the machined
geometries. (left) A straight groove (width 90 µm, depth 70 µm) and (right) staggered
herringbone groove (width 70 µm, depth 40 µm).
The working principal of the SHM is as follows: the fluid enters the grooves which
guide it to the edges of the main channel where it re-enters the main stream again. This
lateral displacement causes helical motion of the fluid and precipitates mixing.
In our case we limited the cross-section of the main channel to w = 0.2 mm and
h = 0.05 mm.
2.2 Micro EDM Milling

In micro EDM milling, micro electrodes are cylindrical rods with diameters down to
10 µm, which are driven along defined paths while rotating, in a way similar to
conventional 3 and 5 axis milling. In this configuration the material is removed layer by
layer, with layer thickness ranging from a 0.1 µm to a few microns, depending on the
diameter of the electrode and on the discharge energy.
The experiments needed to set-up the technological model were performed on Sarix
SX-200 micro EDM milling machine. The machine was equipped with a wire dress
unit and a laser scan micrometer Mitutoyo LSM-500 s. The laser scan micrometer was
used for controlling the diameter of the on the machine dressed electrodes.
The tool electrode used was a tungsten carbide cylindrical rod with a nominal
diameter of 0.3 mm. Hydrocarbon oil was used as dielectric. All experiments were
performed using corrosive resistant steel X2CrNiMo17-12-2 as a workpiece.
The experiments performed for the construction of the technological model are
more thoroughly described in [9]. Only brief description is given here. Small grooves
(widths between 40 µm to 120 µm) of different depths (up to 100 µm) were machined
in order collect the experimental data on material removal rate (MRR), electrode
dressing times and electrode wear. The range of sizes of grooves was selected around
optimal dimensions suitable for micromixing. A sample groove scans are presented in
Fig. 1b.
The process parameters applied were suggested by the machine CAD/CAM suit-
able for finishing operations. The process parameters for electrode diameters of dE
0.05 mm were set as follows: energy index E to 13, negative polarity of the electrode,
width of discharge pulse tp to index 2, discharge frequency fp to 180 kHz, discharge
current index ip to 100, ignition voltage u to 90 V, gain index to 100, gap index gi to
74, machining layer depth z1l to 0.7 µm and the number of controls of electrode axial
wear nCON to every 10 µm of machined depth. For dE = 0.04 mm system suggests finer
settings with lower pulse current iP (index 80) and voltage u (77 V) values.
2.3 Technological Model of Micro EDM Milling

Input to the technological model is the geometry of the part in our case micromixer to
be machined. The output is the overall machining time which comprises of a sequence
of 3 machining operations:
1. op1: grinding of the electrode (electrode dressing) using on the machine integrated
wire dressing unit. Time needed for this operation is tED and is a function of tED =
f(dE, lWL(hf, regime)), where lWL denotes working length of the electrode, hf linear
wear of the electrode and regime denotes machining parameters set on the machine;
2. op2: pure machining time tER = f(dE, regime, strategy, MRR, volume of geometry);
3. op3: time for electrode wear control tCON = f(depth of the geometry, hf).
To keep the desired tolerances of the machined geometries all three operations are
executed every time when a new feature (e.g. SHM groove) is being machined. Thus,
the overall machining time of the part geometry can be determined by summing up all
the individual feature machining times which comprise of all three machining
operations.
The input to the technological model, as it was constructed in MATLAB, is the
parametrical description of micromixer geometry (e.g. groove width a, depth d, channel
width w). Then the part geometry is parsed to individual geometry units of which
machining is simulated separately. In this paper we only address the features that are
machined with wireframe strategy.
Main regression models that are crucial for calculation of the overall machining
time are determined by following equations [9]:
• at fixed machining parameters (see Sect. 2.2) and wireframe strategy the MMR
(mm3/min) is defined by:
MRR ¼ 0:0211 dE þ 0:0008; ð1Þ
• electrode dressing time crucially depends on the electrode working length (lWL) thus
tED was modelled as:
tED ¼ 145:1 lWL þ 160; ð2Þ
• duration of electrode wear control is defined by the set layer control depth (every
10 µm) and the depth of the machined groove:
tCON ¼ ðdepth of structure=0:01 mmÞ 22:6 s; ð3Þ
After setting up the technological model we verified it by test machining of grooves

with varying depths and widths and measured machining time was within 5% of the
model prediction.
2.4 Simulation of SHM Mixing Performance

CFD modelling was performed using Comsol Multiphysics software, which imple-
ments finite element method (FEM) for solving incompressible Navier-Stokes equa-
tions and convection-diffusion equations at steady state. Meshing of the simulated
geometries was implemented by the software and was adapted to obtain required
convergence at a reasonable time scale while maintaining the required accuracy. Water
at 20 °C was used as working fluid and one half of the channel was set to have a
concentration of a solute of 1 mol/m3 (color coded red) and the other half of 0 mol/m3
(colour coded blue). The inlet flow velocity was set to 37.8 mm/s corresponding to
Reynolds number Re = 3. Diffusion coefficient was set to 10−9 m2/s, corresponding to
Peclet number Pe = 3670 which defines the ratio of diffusive mixing with respect to
convection of material along the channel. The Pe number is defined as v∙l/D where
v corresponds to mean velocity of the fluid, l is a characteristic length of the
microsystem and D is the diffusion coefficient. The boundary condition for the outflow
was set to zero pressure and no-slip condition at the channel walls was considered.
Mixing performance of each SHM design was evaluated applying coefficient of
variance CoV criterion which is commonly applied to static mixers [10]
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P ffi
1=N Nn¼1 ðcxn cÞ2
CoVx ¼ ð4Þ
c
where CoVx denotes the coefficient of variance in yz-cross section plane (for clarity see
Fig. 1a at the channel length x, cxn denotes the concentration at a point in the cross
section plane, N denotes the number of concentration points considered in the plane
(N = 1600) and c denotes complete mixing, which corresponds to 0.5 mol/m3 in our
case. A value of CoVx closer to 0 corresponds to better mixing performance.
2.5 SHM Design Optimization Methodology

Mixing simulations were performed considering two SHM groove widths a, namely
0.07 mm and 0.1 mm. From the literature [11] it is known that higher groove depth
d has a favorable influence on mixing. On the other hand making a single groove too
deep can cause dead volumes and entrapment of the air bubbles within the grooves.
Thus we limited the aspect ratio of the grooves to d/a = 0.6. The distance between two
consecutive grooves was kept constant at b = 0.1 mm. For defined width and depth of
the grooves we also varied the number of grooves NG within the half-cycle and the
number of half-cycles NHC (see Fig. 1).
Since we are investigating the SHM design from the micro EDM milling point of
view the main criterion for a candidate design was, that it must be machined in
approximately the same time. Overall machining time TTOT was set to approximately
104 s, which translates roughly to 2.8 h of machining.
Corresponding SHM designs are parametrically denoted in Table 1. There, also mixing
performances (CoV) are presented. Eight different SHM designs were simulated and
compared in the view of their mixing performance.
Table 1. Performance of different SHM designs. a – groove width, d – groove depth, NG –

grooves in a half-cycle, NHC – number of half-cycles, TTOT – machining time, CoV – mixing
performance at the end of particular SHM design.
Design a [mm] d [mm] NG NHC TTOT [s] CoV
SHM 0.07 0.04 2 6 9927 0.32
SHM 0.07 0.04 3 4 9857 0.37
SHM 0.07 0.04 4 3 9822 0.47
SHM 0.07 0.04 6 2 9787 0.47
SHM 0.1 0.04 3 5 10024 0.15
SHM 0.1 0.04 5 3 9953 0.25
SHM 0.1 0.06 3 4 9561 0.19
SHM 0.1 0.06 6 2 9491 0.28
Among tested designs it can be noted, that for the groove geometry with
a = 0.1 mm and d = 0.4 mm the highest number of grooves can be machined within
the TTOT, i.e. 15 (NG x NHC, see Fig. 2#3). This is due to higher MRR which linearly
rises with the electrode diameter, thus more grooves can be machine in TTOT. For
deeper grooves (d = 0.6 mm) at the same width (a = 0.1 mm) 3 grooves less can be
machined (see Fig. 2#4).
By same reasoning, despite removing a significantly less amount of workpiece
volume, when machining the smallest dimensions of grooves (a = 0.07 mm,
d = 0.4 mm), only 12 grooves are machined in TTOT (see Fig. 2#1 and #2).
Fig. 2. Mixing performance of different SHM designs. Green color denotes complete mixing
(CoV = 0.5 mol/m3). #1: a = 0.07 mm, d = 0.04 mm, NG = 2, NHC = 6, CoV = 0.32; #2:
a = 0.07 mm, d = 0.04 mm, NG = 6, NHC = 2, CoV = 0.47; #3: a = 0.1 mm, d = 0.04 mm,
NG = 3, NHC = 5, CoV = 0.15; #4: a = 0.1 mm, d = 0.06 mm, NG = 3, NHC = 4, CoV = 0.19.
Operation conditions are defined by Re = 3 and Pe = 3670.
From Fig. 2 and Table 1 it can be deduced that the number of grooves in the half-
cycle plays a crucial role in the mixing performance of the design. The results show,
that more alternations of groove apex position in a particular design, denoted by higher
number of half-cycles, favor mixing performance. This is due to introduction of higher
flow disorder by the grooves, resulting in a more complex flow pattern.
The influence of groove depth on mixing can be inferred from the comparison of
the designs #3 (d = 0.4 mm) and #4 (d = 0.6 mm). Despite having 3 grooves less, the
#4 design performs similarly well. Thus, deeper grooves have favorable influence on
the mixing process.
When comparing our favorable designs with the ones reported in the literature [5–
7] it can be deduced that with wider and deeper grooves efficient mixing can be
achieved. Furthermore, narrow and shallow grooves render weaker mixing. Probable
cause for reported SHM realizations with smaller grooves lies in used microfabrication
method, namely soft lithography, which is suited for low aspect ratio groove
fabrication.
4 Conclusions
In this paper the influence of the micro EDM milling technology on the favorable SHM
design was studied. In the first part, the construction of the technological model of the
micro EDM milling is briefly presented. The technological model is suitable for various
groove like geometries, as are present in the SHM designs.
In the second part the technological model was used for the SHM design opti-
mization via CFD simulations. From the obtained results it can be concluded that micro
EDM milling is suitable technology for machining custom design SHM micromixers.
Due to EDM milling characteristics wider groove widths are machined faster, thus
making the micromixer machining cheaper. It was shown, that also wider grooves in
comparison to dimensions reported in literature, enhance mixing. Simulations show
that overall mixing performance crucially dependent on the orientation of the apex of
the grooves, thus the number of grooves in a half-cycle. Simultaneously, groove depth
is an influential factor, where deeper grooves have positive effect on mixing.
In the future work the research will be directed in detailed analysis of mentioned
influential factors (i.e. number of grooves in a half-cycle and groove depth as well as
different main channel cross-sections). Furthermore, analysis using additional mixing
quantification identifiers (e.g. helicity of the flow, entropic measures, striation thick-
ness, etc.) should be performed in order to better understand the favorable influence of
wider and deeper grooves on mixing.
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank to the Slovenian Research Agency for
supporting the work in the frame of Research programme Innovative production systems and
processes P2-0248 (B). A special thanks goes to the Department of Industrial Engineering,
University of Padua, for support and enabling the access to the state of the art micro EDM milling
machine.
References
1. Hessel, V., Löwe, H., Schönfeld, F.: Micromixers—a review on passive and active mixing
principles. Chem. Eng. Sci. 60, 2479–2501 (2005)
2. Alting, L., Kimura, F., Hansen, H.N., Bissacco, G.: Micro engineering. CIRP Ann. -Manuf.
Technol. 52, 635–657 (2003)
3. Cvjetko, M., Nidari-Plazl, P.: Ionic liquids within microfluidic devices. In: Ionic Liquids:
Theory, Properties, New Approaches. InTech (2011)
4. Nguyen, N.T., Wu, Z.: Micromixers—a review. J. Micromech. Microeng. 15, R1–R16
(2005)
5. Stroock, A.D., Dertinger, S.K.W., Ajdari, A., Mezic, I., Stone, H.A., Whitesides, G.M.:
Chaotic mixer for microchannels. Science (80) 295, 647–651 (2002)
6. Williams, M.S., Longmuir, K.J., Yager, P.: A practical guide to the staggered herringbone
mixer. Lab Chip 8, 1121 (2008)
7. Du, Y., Zhang, Z., Yim, C., Lin, M., Cao, X.: A simplified design of the staggered
herringbone micromixer for practical applications. Biomicrofluidics 4, 024105 (2010)
8. Gjuraj, E., Kongoli, R., Shore, G.: Combination of flow reactors with microwave-assisted
synthesis: smart engineering concept for steering synthetic chemistry on the “fast lane”.
Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 26, 285–307 (2012)
9. Sabotin, I., Tristo, G., Valentincic, J.: Approach to technological modeling of micro EDM
milling. In: Proceedings of the 4 M/ICOMM2015 Conference, Milan, Italy, pp 71–74 (2015)
10. Kukuková, A., Noël, B., Kresta, S.M., Aubin, J.: Impact of sampling method and scale on
the measurement of mixing and the coefficient of variance. AIChE J. 54, 3068–3083 (2008)
11. Sabotin, I., Tristo, G., Junkar, M., Valentinčič, J.: Two-step design protocol for patterned
groove micromixers. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 91, 778–788 (2013)
Experimental Analysis of the Cutting Force
Components in Laser-Assisted Turning
of Ti6Al4V
Witold Habrat1(&) , Krzysztof Krupa2, Piotr Laskowski2,

and Jan Sieniawski2
1
habrat@prz.edu.pl
2
Research and Development Laboratory for Aerospace Materials,
Rzeszow University of Technology, 4 Żwirki i Wigury Street,
35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
Abstract. In this paper, the experimental analysis of the turning of Ti-6Al-4V

titanium alloy with the laser-assisted machining was described. For the tests,
a cemented carbide tool was used. The influence of the laser heating and cutting
parameters on the tangential and thrust forces was determined. The beneficial
effect of laser-assisted machining on components of the cutting force was
established. Cutting force models were developed. The significant influence of
interaction of cutting speed and laser power on tangential force components was
observed. The microstructure of laser-scanned surface and the roughness
parameters after turning as the process indicators connected with cutting force
were analyzed.
Keywords: Laser-assisted machining Cutting force Titanium alloys

RSM
1 Introduction
Titanium and its alloys are widely used in many branches of industry. Machinability of
the titanium alloys due to their physical properties is limited. These alloys are classified
as difficult-to-cut materials because of their low thermal conductivity, high chemical
reactivity and low modulus of elasticity [1]. Four main areas of research and devel-
opment of machining of titanium alloys can be indicated – machining with high
pressure [2] and cryogenic cooling [3], ultrasonic-assisted machining [4] and laser-
assisted machining (LAM).
LAM is a hybrid cutting process (e.g. turning, milling) with the assisted of laser
beam as the heat source which heats the workpiece in front of the cutting region (see
Fig. 1). At higher temperature, the specific cutting energy is lower, what improves
workability. One of the principles of the LAM process is reduce the cutting force
necessary to machine. Moreover, Anderson et al. [5] confirmed large economic benefits
of LAM, in case of machining Inconel 718 alloy. In case of the nickel alloys, there are

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_26
many research in the field of LAM [6, 7] where the beneficial effect of laser-assisted
machining of Inconel 718 alloy on cutting force were presented [8].
Fig. 1. Laser-assisted turning configuration.
Research of the effects of laser-assisted cutting on machinability of titanium alloys

was also carried out [9]. Rashid et al. [10] observed that the laser power had a sig-
nificant influence on the cutting forces over the entire range of investigated cutting
speeds. The higher the laser power, the higher the reduction in cutting forces when
compared to conventional (unassisted) machining, with the exception of low cutting
speeds when machining Ti-6Cr-5Mo-5V-4Al beta titanium alloy. Xi et al. [11] pro-
posed numerical model of laser assisted machining of a beta titanium alloy. Basing on
this model, the comparison of simulation and experiment showed that the main cutting
force dropped during machining with the assistance of the laser. Ayed et al. [12]
obtained significant reduction in the cutting force during laser-assisted machining of
Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. The amplitude of this reduction depended mainly on the
cutting conditions and the laser characteristics. Higher cutting parameters required an
increase of the power of the laser source. It was concluded that changing cutting
conditions and keeping the efficiency of assistance allows a significant increase in
productivity. However, the machining of titanium alloys is risky due to the possibility
of ignition especially in dry machining conditions with an additional source of the heat
as in the case of LAM. Therefore, it is important to specify process models for
optimization.
The aim of the study was to determine the influence and the significance of the
impact of laser power and cutting parameters, and the interaction between them, on
tangential and thrust cutting forces in laser-assisted turning.
Experimental Analysis of the Cutting Force Components 239
2 Experiment Details
2.1 The Test Stand
The research on turning center MAG VDF 220 CD adapted for laser-assisted
machining were performed. The source of the laser beam was TRUMPF TruDiode
3006 diode laser (laser power - 3 kW). The measurements of the cutting force com-
ponents using a Kistler dynamometer type 9257B were made (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. CNC turning center MAG VDF 220 CD adopted for laser-assisted machining.
2.2 Research Condition

Workpiece Material. The research was carried out with the use of 50 mm diameter
cylindrical rod. For the experiments, Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy was utilized (Table 1).
Table 1. Chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy.

Element Ti C max. Fe max. N max. Al O max. V H max. Y max. Other
% bal 0.08 0.03 0.05 5.50 0.20 3.5 0.015 0.005 0.40
wt. 6.75 4.5
Cutting Tools and Process Parameters. For the tests, cutting tools with C geometry
inserts CNMG 120412-UP made of submicron cemented carbides (KC5010) were
applied (holder: PCLNR 2525 M12). The established process parameters range took
industrial recommendations and preliminary research results into consideration
(Table 2). Laser lens distance was set up for laser spot diameter 1 mm and the laser
beam was bring forwarded 0.5 mm relative to the cutting tool.
Table 2. Process parameters.

Name Units Coded low Coded high Mean
Cutting speed vc m/min 90.00 150 120
Feed rate f mm/rev 0.10 0.30 0.20
Power P W 500 1500 1000
Depth of cut ap mm 0.25 0.25 0.25
Design of Experiment. For the design of experiment the RSM method was used –
rotatable central composite design (CCD). The analysis of the results was performed
using the Design-Expert 11 software.
The results of test of the components of cutting force for the various adjustable
parameters of the LAM process are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The results of tangential Fc and thrust Fp components of cutting force for each run.
Std Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Response 1 Response 2
Cutting speed vc Feed rate f Power P Force Fc Force Fp
(m/min) (mm/rev) (W) (N) (N)
1 90 0.1 500 102.9 124.7
2 150 0.1 500 83.5 122.0
3 90 0.3 500 175.5 165.8
4 150 0.3 500 164.8 163.
5 90 0.1 1500 67.0 96.9
6 150 0.1 1500 74.3 101.2
7 90 0.3 1500 139.8 130.40
8 150 0.3 1500 149.7 138.30
9 80.5 0.2 1000 122.3 123.50
10 159.4 0.2 1000 122.3 130.20
11 120 0.068 1000 63.3 92.60
12 120 0.33 1000 169.4 154.70
13 120 0.2 342 131.0 158.00
14 120 0.2 1658 112.8 132.20
15 120 0.2 1000 125.9 131.20
16 120 0.2 1000 121.4 132.20
17 120 0.2 1000 123.1 133.30
18 120 0.2 1000 123.0 133.40
19 120 0.2 1000 122.7 133.50
20 120 0.2 1000 124.3 132.10
To evaluate if the model fits the experimental data, the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) for the adopted the modified quadratic model was conducted. The analysis
showed a significant influence of laser power P and feed rate f and interaction between
laser power and cutting speed on the tangential cutting force Fc.
For coded low cutting speed vc = 90 m/min and coded high feed rate f = 0.3
mm/rev the reduction of tangential cutting force was over 24% for changes of laser
power P in range 500–1500 W (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. The effect of the laser power P and feed rate f on the tangential cutting force Fc for
cutting speed vc = 90 m/min.
For coded high cutting speed vc = 150 m/min and coded high feed rate f = 0.3
mm/rev the reduction of tangential cutting force Fc was only about 10% for changes of
laser power P in the same range (see Fig. 4).
The decrease effect of tangential cutting force for the laser-assisted turning results
from the reduction of plasticizing stress value for higher temperatures and the
microstructure changes. The impact of the laser beam changes the proportional share of
the alpha and beta phases of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. Figure 5 shows exemplary
microstructures obtained after laser heating of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy with the laser
scanning speed corresponding with cutting speed and the same kinematic of the pro-
cess. On the microstructures a melted zone and a temperature-impact border could be
observed.
Effect of laser beam power density on the tangential cutting force is observed as an
interaction between laser power and cutting speed in the elaborated model (1).
Fig. 4. The effect of the laser power P and feed rate f on the tangential cutting force Fc for
cutting speed vc = 150 m/min.
Fig. 5. The microstructures of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy after laser scanning with the power
P = 1200 W and scanning speed (a) 80 m/min and (b) 160 m/min.
The depth of melted zone significantly depends on laser scanning speed corresponding
to the cutting speed.
Fc ¼ 104:58 0:43 vc þ 525:51 f 0:068 P þ 0:00039 vc P 350:462 f 2 ð1Þ
Also in case of thrust force Fp the modified quadratic model was conducted. The
significance of the impact of the model terms was determined. The analysis showed
lack of significance interaction between the parameters on the thrust forces Fp.
For coded low cutting speed vc = 90 m/min and coded high feed rate f = 0.3
mm/rev the reduction of tangential cutting force was over 27% for changes of laser
power P in range 500–1500 W (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. The effect of the laser power P and feed rate f on the thrust force Fp for cutting speed
vc = 90 m/min.
The mathematical model of the thrust force Fp was obtained. The fitted model is
expressed as Eq. (2):
Fp ¼ 58:38 þ 1:02vc þ 424:77f 0:080P þ 350:462v2c 549:395f 2

ð2Þ
þ 0:000028P2
Lack of interaction in model (2) indicates other phenomena then for tangential force
that affect the reduction of the thrust forces Fp. The influence of reduction of plasti-
cizing stress value for higher temperatures is indisputable but changes the morphology
of microstructure after laser heating probably does not affect the thrust force.
In order to determine the factors influencing changes of the thrust force during
laser-assisted turning, surface roughness were analyzed. The quality indicators of
surface layer condition depends on machinability indicators, and it is particularly
important in the case of titanium alloys utilized in aerospace technology. In this
application area, additional quality requirements are defined.
Figure 7 shows examples of surface images obtained for constant cutting param-
eters and various laser heating powers for laser assisted turning. Roughness parameters
were also determined. The obtained results show the dependence of the surface mor-
phology after LAM on the laser power. The phenomenon can result from the changes
of cutting conditions after heating and it can be related to a change of thrust force.
However, this requires confirmation in further studies.
Fig. 7. Surface images and roughness parameters obtained for cutting speed vc = 120 m/min,
f = 0.2 mm, depth of cut ap = 0.25 mm and various laser power P after laser-assisted turning.
4 Conclusions
In the research, the effect of laser power and process parameters on tangential and
thrust forces in the laser-assisted turning of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy has been studied
using RSM method. The mathematical models were effectively established to predict
and optimize the cutting force components. Furthermore, the ANOVA analysis
revealed that the models can be successfully applied.
The analysis showed a significant influence of laser power and feed rate and
interaction between laser power and cutting speed on the tangential cutting force. In
case of thrust force, lack of significance influence of interaction between the parameters
was recognized.
For coded low cutting speed, maximum reduction of tangential and thrust forces
was observed for a feed rate 0.3 mm/rev. The reduction of tangential cutting force was
over 24% and reduction of thrust force was over 27%, for the increase of laser power
from 500 to 1500 W.
The laser beam power density influences on the depth of melted zone and changes
of tangential force. The density depends on laser scanning speed corresponding to the
cutting speed.
Analysis of changes in cutting conditions after heating and its relation with thrust
force requires further studies.
Acknowledgements. This scientific research work is supported by National Centre for Research
and Development (NCBiR) of Poland grant No. PBS3/B5/36/2015 “Laser-assisted machining of
super alloys and titanium alloys used in aircraft engine structures”.
References
1. Sun, S., Brandt, M., Dargusch, M.S.: Characteristics of cutting forces and chip formation in
machining of titanium alloys. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49, 561–568 (2009)
2. Habrat, W.F., Laskowski, P., Markopoulos, A.P.: Machining with high-pressure cooling. In:
Davim, J.P. (ed.) Metal Cutting Technologies. De Gruyter, Berlin (2016)
3. Trabelsi, S., Morel, A., Germain, G., Bouaziz, Z.: Tool wear and cutting forces under cryogenic
machining of titanium alloy (Ti17). Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 91, 1493–1505 (2017)
4. Roy, A., Silberschmidt, V.: Ultrasonically assisted machining of Titanium alloys. In:
Machining of Titanium Alloys, pp. 131–147 (2014)
5. Anderson, M., Patwa, R., Shin, Y.C.: Laser-assisted machining of Inconel 718 with an
economic analysis. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 46, 1879–1891 (2006)
6. Balbaa, M.A., Nasr, M.N.A.: Prediction of residual stresses after laser-assisted machining of
Inconel 718 using SPH. Procedia CIRP 31, 19–23 (2015)
7. Wojciechowski, S., Przestacki, D., Chwalczuk, T.: The evaluation of surface integrity during
machining of Inconel 718 with various laser assistance strategies. In: MATEC Web
Conference, vol. 136, p. 1006 (2017)
8. Woo, W., Lee, C.: A study of the machining characteristics of AISI 1045 steel and Inconel
718 with a cylindrical shape in laser-assisted milling. Appl. Therm. Eng. 91, 33–42 (2015)
9. Habrat, W.F.: Experimental investigation of effect of the laser-assisted finish turning of ti-
6al-4v alloy on machinability indicators (2017)
10. Rashid, R.A.R., Sun, S., Wang, G., Dargusch, M.S.: The effect of laser power on the
machinability of the Ti-6Cr-5Mo-5V-4Al beta titanium alloy during laser assisted
machining. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 63, 41–43 (2012)
11. Xi, Y., Zhan, H., Rashid, R.A.R., Wang, G., Sun, S., Dargusch, M.: Numerical modeling of
laser assisted machining of a beta titanium alloy. Comput. Mater. Sci. 92, 149–156 (2014)
12. Ayed, Y., Germain, G., Salem, W., Ben Hamdi, H.: Experimental and numerical study of
laser-assisted machining of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. Finite Elem. Anal. Des. 92, 72–79
(2014)
Critical Failure Analysis of Lower Grinding
Ring of Ball and Race Mill
Gagan Kumar Guptaa(&) and Somnath Chattopadhyayab
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology

(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, India
gagan_k_gupta@rediffmail.com
Abstract. This paper highlights a methodology for failure analysis of cast

grinding ring of a ball and race mill. It investigates the root cause of premature
failure of cast grinding ring. The grinding ring was made of Ni Hard IV.
Grinding ring of ball and race mill failed after giving the life only 2861 running
hours. It was premature failure against the required useful life of 6500 running
hours. The process of critical investigation of failure analysis includes visual
observation, chemical analysis, microstructure analysis, and evaluation of
hardness, analysis of erection process and operational analysis. The cast ring
was failed with the indication of direct separation of surface from the outer
periphery of ring. No evidence of faulty chemical composition, microstructure
and erection procedure were observed. Hardness was found around 400 BHN
and inadequate spring pressure on ring was also observed during operation of
ball and race mill which had caused the radial movement of the ball in ball track
of the lower ring, resulting radial thrust on the collar of the ring and it failed
from that area.
Keywords: Ball and race mill EDS Fractographic analysis

Hardness Optical microscope
1 Introduction
Ball and race mill is a mechanical device used for pulverizing the coal for combustion
in boilers of thermal power plants. The ball and race mill consists of a lower grinding
ring connected to the drive assembly through a mechanical part yoke and stationary
upper grinding ring with the application of pressure from set of springs situated on the
thrust ring. 10 nos. of hollow steel balls are carried between these two grinding rings.
The lower grinding ring receiving the raw coal at the centre rotates and in turn rotates
the balls. In this process the coal trapped in between the grinding rings gets pulverized
and moves toward the outer edge of the lower grinding ring. This pulverized fuel is
then entrained in the high velocity flow of primary air, which enters the mill through
the air ports between the nozzle gap and the lower grinding ring. The coal air mixture is
carried up to the classifier, where the coarser particles are returned for further grinding
and finer ones go into the mill outlet pipes for distribution to boiler burners. The Fig. 1
shows the ball and race mill. One of the critical components of ball and race mill is
lower grinding ring, the failure of which leads to the forced outage of the working of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_27
Critical Failure Analysis of Lower Grinding Ring of Ball and Race Mill 247
ball and race mill, resulting in huge losses. Therefore, it is highly necessary to
investigate the root cause of failure of critical component of ball and race mill and to
take remedial actions to prevent technical as well as economic losses. Such case was
observed in BPSCL (A Joint Venture Company of SAIL & DVC) on 19 June 2017.
Therefore, need arises to carry out the complete failure analysis of this failed lower
ring. Some research works have also been carried out in this area. Dennies [1], Wulpi
[2] and Brooks and Choudhury [3] have presented guidelines and methods of failure
analysis. Graham [4] has described the several strategies for failure analysis of any
equipment. Similarly, Ryder et al. [5] has elaborated the general practice in failure
analysis and prevention. Vander Voort [6] has presented failure analysis practices.
Particular rock conditions such as hard carbonates with chert inclusions [7] and con-
glomerates [8], and Interblended formations [9] have led to recurring failures and other
drilling difficulties. Gupta et al. [10] has carried out the failure analysis of tubes
consisting of several steps for analysing the failure. The present study has developed
a generalized methodology for investigation of failed crushing ring by considering
feasible influential factors with suggestions for remedial actions.
Fig. 1. Ball and race mill.

248 G. K. Guptaa and S. Chattopadhyayab
2 Description of Lower Crushing Ring
The lower crushing ring is made of material through casing as listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of crushing ring.

C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo
2.6–3.3 0.5–1 1.5–2.2 0.05 (max) 0.05 (max) 5–6.5 7–11 0.4 (max)
Figure 2 shows the new lower grinding ring & broken grinding ring. This ring is
3250 mm in outer circumference with 90 mm core thickness and 130 mm race depth
for holding balls. The hardness of ring should be 550 BHN as required. Figure 3 shows
the arrangement of grinding rings inside a ball and race mill. It shows the position of set
of springs (04 nos. of set of springs), thrust ring and lower grinding ring.
Fig. 2. Broken & new lower ring.
Fig. 3. Arrangement of Grinding Rings, Balls and springs inside of Ball & Race Mill.
3 Summary of Failures and Methodology
The failed cast crushing ring was made of cast steel. After installation in ball and race
mill, it gave life only 2861 running hours against 6500 running hours useful life.
Considering all aspects of operational and influential parameters, a generalized
methodology is developed. It is illustrated as a graphical set up in Fig. 4. A flow
diagram consisting of all steps of methodology of failed lower crushing ring is shown
in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4. Setup for methodology (1) Broken ring (2) EDS analysis, (3) hardness measurement,
(4) Microscope, (5) Erection process, (6) Operational parameters
Fig. 5. Methodology for failure analysis of crushing ring.
The broken part of lower grinding ring was visually inspected and found direct sep-
aration of particles with evidence of surface cracks. The broken part has been shown in
Figs. 6 and 7. The ring was broken from the outer periphery after giving 2861 h against
useful life of 8000 h. Core thickness of ring was found 67 mm against 90 mm of core
thickness of new ring and race depth was 130 mm against 115 mm of new ring.
Fig. 6. Images of broken part of lower grinding ring.
Fig. 7. Microstructures of broken part of lower grinding ring.
4.1 Chemical Composition

Details of the concentration of alloying elements of broken part have been tabulated in
Table 2. The chemical composition of the bulk specimen can be observed as required
composition of lower grinding ring. No remarkable variation can be observed in the
chemical composition of the failed part.
Table 2. Chemical composition.

C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo
Broken part
3.23 0.58 1.94 0.041 0.021 5.01 7.85′ 0.3
As required
2.6–3.3 0.5–1 1.5–2.2 0.05 (max) 0.05 (max) 5–6.5 7–11′ 0.4 (max)
4.2 Microstructure Examination

The microstructure of broken part of lower grinding ring consists of rod and blade like
eutectic (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbide in the matrix of martensite and bainite, which is highly
desirable of such materials. It provides the good bonding strength for bearing
compressive load.
4.3 Evaluation of Hardness

The measurement of bulk hardness at different locations of the broken part of lower
grinding ring with respect to desired hardness of ring is given in Table 3. Bulk
hardness near the fracture in the failed part is found very low as compared to the
required value.
Table 3. Hardness of broken part and as desired.

Hardness (BHN)
Broken part As required
400, 398, 405 & 410 (At four different locations) 550
4.4 Analysis of Erection Process

There was no evidence of any cracks on the bottom surface of lower grinding ring
observed which indicates that lower grinding ring was very well fitted on the upper
surface of yoke. Apart from this, blue matching was also carried out with the yoke and
obtained impression was more than 85% which is desirable.
4.5 Analysis of Operational Parameters

The mill was running at desired speed as 39 rpm with the load of coal 20 ton/hour
which is well within the limit. The maximum load capacity of mill is 24 ton/hour.
Spring length was observed 580 mm to 590 mm instead of 535 mm. This set of springs
consists of 03 nos. of coaxial springs and inner one makes free at 560 mm. It indicates
that spring length more than 560 mm does not apply sufficient thrust pressure on the
balls and will cause the radial movement of the ball in ball track of the lower ring,
resulting in radial thrust on the collar of the lower ring.
5 Conclusions
Ring Chemistry was found well within specified range. Microstructure study revealed
that Microstructure consists of Eutectic carbide in the matrix of Martensite & Bainite,
which was desired microstructure for Ni hard material. Hardness was not well within
the limit. The breakage of bottom ring occurred from the outer periphery of the ring,
which was an indication of radial load on the ring due to external thrust by the balls. It
was very much undesirable, as this type of ball and race mill can withstand only axial
load. There was no spring load on thrust ring which had caused the radial movement of
the ball in ball track of the lower grinding ring. It finally produces radial thrust on the
collar of the ring and lower ring had failed from that area.
References
1. Dennies, D.P.: How to Organize a Failure Investigation. ASM International, Ohio (2005)
2. Wulpi, D.J.: Techniques of failure analysis. In: Miller, B. (ed.) Understanding How
Components Fail. ASM International, Ohio (2000)
3. Brooks, C.R., Choudhury, A.: Metallurgical Failure Analysis. McGraw-Hill, New York
(1993)
4. Graham, R.: Strategies for failure analysis. ASM Adv. Mater. Process. 172(11), 45–50
(2004)
5. Ryder, D.A., Davies, T.J., Brough, I., Hutchings, F.R.: General practice in failure analysis.
Failure analysis and prevention. Metals handbook, American Society for Metal, Ohio (1986)
6. Vander Voort, G.F.: Conducting the Failure Examination Practice. ASM Handbook. ASM
International, Ohio (2002)
7. German, V., et al.: Conical diamond element bit sets new performance benchmarks drilling
extremely hard carbonate/chert formations. In: Perm Region Russia SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference and Exhibition, pp. 1905–1920 (2015)
8. Xu, Z., et al.: Hybrid drill bit combining fixed-cutter and roller-cone elements exceeds
expectations in challenging application in Tarim Basin China. In: IADC/SPE Asia Pacific
Drilling Technology Conference, Thailand, pp. 348–354 (2014)
9. Al-Enezi, D., et al.: Focused engineering initiative produces new 16-in roller cone TCI
design to solve carbonate. In: Drilling challenges in Northern Kuwait 19th SPE Middle East
Oil and Gas Show and Conference, Bahrain, pp. 441–449 (2015)
10. Gupta, G.K., Chattopadhyaya, S.: Critical failure analysis of superheater tubes of coal based
boiler. Strojniški vestnik - J. Mech. Eng. 63(5), 287–299 (2017)
The Influence of the Application of EP Additive
in the Minimum Quantity Cooling Lubrication
Method on the Tool Wear and Surface
Roughness in the Process of Turning
316L Steel
Radoslaw W. Maruda1(&), Stanislaw Legutko2, Jolanta B. Krolczyk3,

Szymon Wojciechowski2, and Wlodzimierz Kot1
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zielona Gora, 4 Prof.
Z. Szafrana Street, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
r.maruda@ibem.uz.zgora.pl
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Management, Poznan University of
Technology, 3 Piotrowo Street, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
3
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology, 76
Proszkowska Street, 45-758 Opole, Poland
Abstract. The paper presents the influence of the application of the EP additive
based on pure phosphor in minimum quantity cooling lubrication. During
investigation, three methods of cooling the cutting zone have been applied in the
process of turning 316L steel: dry machining, MQCL, MQCL + EP. The wear
of the tool depending on the cooling method has been monitored, as well as its
influence on the machined surface roughness. Scanning analysis has shown
formation of a tribofilm as result of the application of the EP additive on the
surface of a plate with (Ti, Al) N coating deposited by the PVD method.
Experimental evidence suggests that the application of the MQCL + EP method
results in reduction of the VBB parameter as compared to dry machining and
cooling with emulsion mist up to the moment of the tool coating damage. It has
been found that, as result of the application of the EP additive in the MQCL
method, after damage of the (Ti, Al) N coating rapid increase of the tool wear
takes place and, consequently, increase of the machined surface, which is due to
the reaction with the base material (sintered carbide). This is caused by the
chemical action of pure phosphor without the carbon matrix on the exposed area
of the tool made of sintered carbide; the latter appears as result of adhesive wear
of the coating
Keywords: Additives EP Tool wear Surface roughness MQCL

Dry cuting

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_28
The Influence of the Application of EP Additive 255
1 Introduction
Ecological awareness is a very important factor affecting the improvement of manu-

factured products in connection with the minimization of waste processes [1–3]. In
machining due to environmental awareness, the selection of an appropriate method of
cooling and lubrication becomes a very important issue. In order to eliminate detri-
mental influences on the environment and human health due to the pouring method,
many works defining new trends of cooling in machining have arisen [1, 4–13].
In machining of 316L steel, the application of a cooling liquid is recommended due
to the formation of accretion and resulting instable conditions in the chip formation
zone, tool vibration and inhomogeneity of the machined surface [14]. That is why, in
machining stainless steels, in addition to the cutting zone cooling by the cryogenic
method [14, 15], the methods of minimum quantity lubrication, MQL [5, 16, 17] and
minimum quantity cooling lubrication, MQCL [9, 13, 18–20], have found very wide
application. Those methods consist in supplying the cutting zone with very small
quantity of the cooling and lubricating liquid with compressed air in the form of an oil
mist or an emulsion mist. In most cases, the supply of the active medium in the MQL
and MQCL methods is 10 to 500 ml/h [21] and is several dozen times smaller as
compared to the pouring method where the average intensity of the cooling and
lubricating liquid amounts 1200 l/h [5]. The active medium is supplied to the cutting
zone by two main methods: through the tool channels [22] or through an outer nozzle
[11, 22].
The MQL method, due to the lubricating properties of the oil used as the active
medium causes reduction of friction in the tool – machined material contact zone and,
consequently, reduces the cutting force and temperature in the cutting zone [24].
Itoigawa et al. [25] have made another contribution to the development of methods
based on very small quantities of cooling and lubrication examining the combination of
lubricating agent and water as a cooling agent. It has been found that oil alone provides
good lubrication in machining but weak cooling. The authors have improved the
process of lubrication in the cutting zone by forming an excellent boundary layer as
result of applying water with an adequate synthetic ester as a lubricating agent.
When testing the tool wear, Maruda et al. [4] have introduced EP/AW additive,
based on phosphorate ester, to the MQCL method. It has been proved that, as result of
the application of adequate parameters of forming the emulsion mist, in the
MQCL + EP/AW method, tribofilm is formed on the flank face and the rake face; the
film has caused reduction of the monitored wear parameters, VBmax and KB by about
40% as compared to dry machining and by about 25% as compared to the MQCL
method. In scanning analysis of each cutting edge, the authors have found that the
active compounds contained in the EP/AW additive have also caused reduction of the
adhesive and diffusion wear mechanisms taking place in the cutting zone on the sur-
faces of the tool in the process of turning carbon steel, AISI 1045.
Jalay and Balaji [26], when testing the wear o tool with coatings deposited by the
PCD and CVD method, have applied sulphur based EP additive in the MQL method
and compared it to the MQL method, pouring method and dry machining. The
application of the MQL + EP method has resulted in bigger wear of the tool. The
256 R. W. Maruda et al.
authors explain it with a break of the coating due to a crater formation on the rake face
and chemical reaction of the active molecules contained in the EP additive with the
exposed material of the tool. The least wear has been found with the application of the
pouring method. The researchers say that, in the case of one-layer tools coated by the
PVD method, this is caused by the reduced temperature of the tool, which ultimately
leads to later wear in the form of a crate. In the case of multilayer tools with CVD
coating, the degree of plastic deformation suffered by the tool and, consequently,
convexity appearing on the flank face, has also been reduced due to lower temperatures
of the tool.
In many works, the influence various extreme pressure [27], nanoparticles [22, 28]
is still investigated, as well as evolution of the supply of the active medium, e.g. due to
synergism between electrostatic spraying (ES) and machining with minimized lubri-
cation (MQL) [19]. The present paper discusses the influence of the EP additive applied
in the environment friendly cooling method, MQCL, on the tool wear and the machined
surface roughness when machining the 316L steel which is a commonly used material
for dental and orthopedic implants in the medical industry.
The tests have been performed with the use of a universal centre lathe designated
CU502. The tool made of sintered carbide has been covered with (Ti, Al) N coating
with the thickness of 3 µm, with the symbol SNUN120408-PF and fixed in the tool
holder, CSRNR2525, with the wedge geometry: main tool angle: Kr = 75°, auxiliary
tool angle, Kr’ = 15o, tool inclination angle, ks = −6°; rake angle, co = −6°; corner
radius, re = 0.8 mm. The following machining parameters have been applied: vc =
210 m/min; f = 0.1 mm/rev; ap = 0.5 mm. The machined material was stainless steel,
316L, with the following chemical composition: Cmax – 0.03%; Simax – 0.1%; Smax –
0.015%; Pmax – 0.045%; Mnmax – 2%; Cr – 16.5–18.5%; Mo – 2–2.5%; Ni – 10–13%;
Nmax – 0.11%.
Formation of the active medium in the MQCL and MQCL + EP method has been
effected with the use the Micronizer Lenox 1LN whose diagram can be seen in Fig. 1a.
The device is provided with three spraying nozzles with the diameter of 1.2 mm for
maximum intensity of compressed air. In the tests, the following parameters of the
active medium formation have been used: compressed air flow intensity, P = 5.8 l/min;
active medium mass flow intensity, E = 26.4 g/h; nozzle distance from the cutting
zone, l = 0.3 m [2]. The pressure of compressed air was 0.48 MPa.
The active medium in the MQCL method was the emulsion concentrate, Emul-
gol S, based on highly refined mineral oil which is used in machining of stainless steels.
It contains, among others, such additives as: ionic and non-ionic emulsifiers, corrosion
inhibitors and enriching substances. In the MQCL method, concentration of 8% has
been applied in accordance with the producer’s recommendation for stainless steel
turning. The extreme pressure additive, EP, has been added to the active medium in the
concentration of 5% in the MQCL + EP method.
In the tests of the tool wear, the average width of the abrasive wear band on the
flank face in zone B VBB has been chosen for monitoring. The tool wear has been
Fig. 1. Micronizer Lenox LN1: (a) general diagram, (b) location of the device nozzles.
measured with the use of a universal microscope, Dino Lite AM7013MZT which is
provided with a 5-megapixel sensor for performing images with measurement accuracy
of up to 0.001 mm. The tests have been performed till the value if index VBB 0.3 mm
has been achieved in accordance with the standard, PN-ISO 3685. The total working
time for the plates used in various cooling methods has been determined on the basis of
the initial tests.
Scanning analysis of the tools has been performed on the microscope, JEOL JSM-
5600LV coupled to an X-ray microanalyzer, EDS, which makes it possible assess the
quantitative, qualitative and chemical condition of the surface under examination.
Roughness of the machined surface has been examined by means of the profilo-
graphometer, PM – 02C monitoring parameter Ra. It is a contact device projecting the
surface after machining basing on roughness models. The design of the PM -02C has
allowed for measurements directly on the detail fixed in the lathe grip.
3 Experimental Results and Discussion
Determination of the wear of the tool in the process of turning 316L stainless steel is an
important issue in respect of productivity in machining hard-to-machine materials.
Monitoring of the tool wear always plays an important role in order to reduce unde-
sirable influence on the machining process and quality of the machined surface. The
dominating factors influencing the tool wear are cutting parameters (cutting speed,
feed), cooling method, tool geometry, tool properties (chemical, physical and
mechanical ones), etc. For the effective conditions of lubricating the zone of the tool-
machined material contact, the role of the active medium as a cooling and lubricating
agent has been considered in the paper. The influence of the cutting zone cooling in the
process of turning 316L stainless steel on the wear index, VBB, can be seen in Fig. 2.
In the case of the MQCL + EP cooling method, (Fig. 2c) small wears of the flank
face have been observed up to 42 min. Compared to dry machining (Fig. 2a), the VBB
Fig. 2. The average width of the abrasive wear band on the flank face, VBB, of the tool in
turning of the 316L steel depending on the method of cooling: (a) dry machining; (b) MQCL
method; (c) MQCL + EP method; (d) comparative assembly.
values are by about 64% smaller; compared to the MQCL method (Fig. 2b) by about
40% in the considered time. Emulsion mist cooling clearly reduces the disadvantageous
thermal effects influencing the process of cutting by lowering the temperature in the
cutting zone. Previous tests prove that the application of emulsion mist, where water
constitutes about 90%, during the process of turning stainless steels, lowers the tem-
perature and this, in turn, increases productivity of the manufacturing process by
reducing the tool wear in time [29, 30]. However, after 42 min rapid increase of the
tool wear takes place in the MQCL + EP cooling conditions. This is due to the abrasion
of the coating and the chemical reactions between the EP additive molecules and the
sintered carbide, P25. Initially, the tool wear (t < 42 min – MQCL + EP) takes place as
result of the mechanisms of adhesive wear. Additionally, phosphor sets on the tool
coating forming a thin layer of tribofilm [4] and, consequently reduces the influence of
the adhesive wear, which causes the difference between the wedge wear when cooled
with emulsion mist with the additive (MQCL + EP) and with the emulsion mist alone
(MQCL). However, after the tool coating is broken, mechanism of rapid wedge
material loss arises because the application of pure phosphor as the EP additive
accelerates precipitation of the tungsten carbide grains from the bonding cobalt
material. The phosphor molecules are stopped between the tool and the moving
chip. Then the molecules start functioning as a grinding wheel and accelerate the loss
of the basic material of the tool. Analysis of the tool wear after 60 min of work
(Fig. 2c) indicates clear loss of the wedge material, particularly on the main cutting
edge, which is proved by the results of scanning analysis (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. The results of scanning analysis of the flank face in the conditions of cooling by the
MQCL + EP method: (a) selected area for linear analysis; (b) SEM of the linear analysis;
(c) intensity of elements distribution in linear analysis.
For the scanning analysis of the flank face (Fig. 3) five elements have been chosen:
phosphor as the major component of the EP additive, aluminium and titanium as the
major components of the coating, iron and chromium as the major components of the
stainless steel, 316L. On the flank face, three zones of variable conditions of forming
phosphor based tribofilm have been observed. In zone I, where the biggest losses of the
wedge material occur, small quantities of phosphor have been found, which proves that
phosphor negatively influences the compounds of sintered carbide, P25. As result of
high temperatures occurring in the cutting zone, phosphor reacts with the tungsten
carbides causing more loss of the tool material as compared to cooling with the emulsion
mist alone. In zone II, where the wedge is still with the coat (as evidenced by the content
of its major components, aluminium and titanium) phosphor sets on the tool surface
forming so called safeguard layer in the form of tribofilm. Farther from the cutting zone
(zone III) the value of phosphor decreases. This is due to the fact that temperature drops
and, consequently, not all the droplets supplied to the cutting zone evaporate in 1 s [9].
The roughness of the 316L steel surface machined after turning, depending on the
cooling method, can be seen in Fig. 4. Examination of the surface roughness after
turning the 316L stainless steel presented together with statistics (for each measurement
the median, as well as the lower and upper quartile have been marked) has shown that
the influence of the cooling method depends to a large extent on the wear of the tool.
The lowest values of the Ra parameter have been found up to the 48th min in the case of
MQCL + EP cooling method and beyond 48 min for the MQCL method. The reason is
rapid increase of the tool wear after 42th min of work for cooling by emulsion mist with
the EP additive. Then torn off particles the sintered carbide of the tool can make micro
damages of the machined surface of the 3126L stainless steel. This is also proved by
the results of the Ra parameter after 60 min of work, where wide measurement range
has been recorded (from 1.41 µm to 2.20 µm. Reduction of roughness up to the 42nd
min in the case of MQCL + EP method can be related to the reduction of friction in the
contact between the tool and the machined object, particularly between the flank face
and the newly formed surface layer.
Fig. 4. Roughness parameter, Ra, after turning 316L stainless steel, depending on the cooling
method: (a) dry machining; (b) MQCL method; (c) MQCL + EP method; (d) collective assembly.
4 Conclusion
The investigation has shown that the roughness of machined 316L stainless steel
surface depends on the wear of the tool and on the method of the cutting zone cooling.
In the present paper, the following conclusions have been drawn:
1. When applying the MQCL method with the EP additive, strong interaction between
the tool – coating material and the presence of phosphor as the EP additive has been
observed. Scanning analysis of the tool for the MQCL + EP method shows for-
mation of a tribofilm on the (Ti, Al) N coating which causes reduction of the tool
wear and, consequently, prevents the mechanisms of adhesive wear as long as the
coating is not broken. However, damage of the coating exposes the substrate of the
tool, which leads to chemical reactions between phosphor and the sintered carbide
substrate. The result is a rapid leap of the VBB value in the MQCL + EP method.
2. The application of MQCL cooling by emulsion mist alone causes reduction of the
average width of the abrasive wear band on the flank face in zone B by 5% to 30%
as compared to dry machining.
3. The lowest values of the Ra parameter have been observed up to the moment of the
(Ti, Al) N coating wear in the conditions of MQCL + EP cooling and after the
coating damage for the MQCL method. The effect of reduction of the machined
surface roughness is a result of the cooling properties of water which is 90% of the
active medium in the MQCL method, which reduces the quantity of heat dissipated
to the machined material.
References
1. Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, G.M., Feldshtein, E., Pusavec, F., Szydlowski, M., Legutko, S.,
Sobczak-Kupiec, A.: A study on droplets sizes, their distribution and heat exchange for
minimum quantity cooling lubrication (MQCL). Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 100, 81–92
(2016)
2. Kujawinska, A., Diering, M., Rogalewicz, M., Żywicki, K., Hetman, Ł.: Soft modelling-
based methodology of raw material waste estimation. In: Burduk, A., Mazurkiewicz, D.
(eds.) Intelligent Systems in Production Engineering and Maintenance – ISPEM 2017.
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 637. Springer, Cham (2018)
3. Kujawinska, A., Diering, M., Zywicki, K., Rogalewicz, M., Hamrol, A., Hoffmann, P.,
Konstanczak, M.: Methodology supporting the planning of machining allowances in the
wood industry. In: SOCO. Springer, Leon (2017)
4. Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, G.M., Feldshtein, E., Nieslony, P., Tyliszczak, B., Pusavec, F.:
Tool wear characterizations in finish turning of AISI 1045 carbon steel for MQCL
conditions. Wear 372–373, 54–67 (2017)
5. Tai, B.L., Stephenson, D.A., Furness, R.J., Shih, A.J.: Minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) in automotive powertrain machining. Procedia CIRP 14, 523–528 (2014)
6. Bustillo, A., Pimenov, DYu., Matuszewski, M., Mikolajczyk, T.: Using artificial intelli-
gence models for the prediction of surface wear based on surface isotropy levels. Robot.
Comput. Integr. Manuf. 53, 215–227 (2018)
7. Matuszewski, M., Mikolajczyk, T., Pimenov, DYu., Styp-Rekowski, M.: Influence of the
structure of the isotropy of the machined surface on the wear process. Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Technol. 88(9), 2477–2483 (2017)
8. Su, G.S., Guo, Y.K., Song, X.L., Tao, H.: Effects of high-pressure cutting fluid with different
jetting paths on tool wear in cutting compacted graphite iron. Tribol. Int. 103, 289–297
(2016)
9. Maruda, R.W., Feldshtein, E., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M.: Research emulsion mist
generation in the conditions of minimum quantity cooling lubrication (MQCL). Teh. Vjesn. –
Tech. Gaz. 22(5), 1213–1218 (2015)
10. Li, B., Li, C., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., Yang, M., Jia, D., Zhang, N., Wu, Q.: Effect of the
physical properties of different vegetable oil-based nanofluids on MQLC grinding
temperature of Ni-based alloy. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 89(9–12), 3459–3474 (2017)
11. Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, G.M., Michalski, M., Nieslony, P., Wojciechowski, S.: Structural
and microhardness changes after turning of the AISI 1045 steel for minimum quantity
cooling lubrication. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 26(1), 431–438 (2017)
12. Stachurski, W., Sawicki, J., Wójcik, R., Nadolny, K.: Influence of application of hybrid
MQL-CCA method of applying coolant during hob cutter sharpening on cutting blade
surface condition. J. Clean. Prod. 171, 892–910 (2018)
13. Maruda, R.W., Feldshtein, E., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M.: Analysis of contact phenomena
and heat exchange in the cutting zone under minimum quantity cooling lubrication
conditions. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 41(2), 661–668 (2016)
14. Outeiro, J.C., Umbrello, D., Saoubi, R.M.: Experimental and numerical modelling of the
residual stresses induced in orthogonal cutting of AISI 316L steel. Int. J. Mach. Tools
Manuf. 46(14), 1786–1794 (2006)
15. Manimaran, G., Pradeep Kumar, M., Venkatasamy, R.: Influence of cryogenic cooling on
surface grinding of stainless steel 316. Cryogenics 59, 76–83 (2014)
16. Evans, C., Bryan, J.B.: Cryogenic diamond turning of stainless steel. CIRP Ann. 40(1), 571–
575 (1991)
17. Okada, M., Hosokawa, A., Asakawa, N., Ueda, T.: End milling of stainless steel and
titanium alloy in an oil mist environment. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 74(9–12), 1255–1266
(2014)
18. Chuangwen, X., Ting, X., Huaiyuan, L., Zhicheng, S., Hongbing, J., Mandong, L.: Friction,
wear, and cutting tests on 022Cr17Ni12Mo2 stainless steel under minimum quantity
lubrication conditions. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 90(1–4), 677–689 (2017)
19. Xu, X., Huang, S., Wang, M., Yao, W.: A study on process parameters in end milling of
AISI-304 stainless steel under electrostatic minimum quantity lubrication conditions. Int.
J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 90(1–4), 979–989 (2017)
20. Krolczyk, G.M., Maruda, R.W., Nieslony, P., Wieczorowski, M.: Surface morphology
analysis of Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) in clean production using the power spectral
density. Measurement 94, 464–470 (2016)
21. Weinert, K., Inasaki, I., Sutherland, J.W., Wakabayashi, T.: Dry machining and minimum
quantity lubrication. CIRP Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 53(2), 511–537 (2004)
22. Duchosal, A., Werda, S., Serra, R., Courbon, C., Leroy, R.: Experimental method to analyze
the oil mist impingement over an insert used in MQL milling process. Measurement 86,
283–292 (2016)
23. Zhang, Y., Li, C., Jia, D., Li, B., Wang, Y., Yang, M., Hou, Y., Zhang, X.: Experimental
study on the effect of nanoparticle concentration on the lubricating property of nanofluids for
MQL grinding of Ni-based alloy. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 232, 100–115 (2016)
24. Dhar, N.R., Islam, M.W., Islam, S., Mithu, M.A.H.: The influence of minimum quantity of
lubrication (MQL) on cutting temperature, chip and dimensional accuracy in turning AISI-
1040 steel. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 171(1), 93–99 (2006)
25. Itoigawa, F., Childs, T.H.C., Nakamura, T., Belluco, W.: Effects and mechanisms in minimal
quantity lubrication machining of an aluminum alloy. Wear 260(3), 339–344 (2006)
26. Jayal, A.D., Balaji, A.K.: Effects of cutting fluid application on tool wear in machining:
Interactions with tool-coatings and tool surface features. Wear 267(9–10), 1723–1730 (2009)
27. Maruda, R.W., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M., Lukianowicz, C., Stoic, A.: Effect of anti-wear
additive on cutting tool and surface layer of workpiece state under MQCL conditions. Teh.
Vjesn. – Tech. Gaz. 22(5), 1219–1223 (2015)
28. Su, Y., Gong, L., Li, B., Liu, Z., Chen, D.: Performance evaluation of nanofluid MQL with
vegetable-based oil and ester oil as base fluids in turning. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 83(9–
12), 2083–2089 (2016)
29. Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, G.M., Nieslony, P., Wojciechowski, S., Michalski, M., Legutko,
S.: The influence of the cooling conditions on the cutting tool wear and the chip formation
mechanism. J. Manuf. Process. 24, 107–115 (2016)
30. Vieira, J.M., Machado, A.R., Ezugwu, E.O.: Performance of cutting fluids during face
milling of steels. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 116(2–3), 244–251 (2001)
Time-Dependent Feed Force Modelling
to Apply Feed Rate Strategies in the Drilling
of Unsupported CFRP-Structures
Fabian Lissek1(&), Sergej Hloch2, and Michael Kaufeld1

1
Institute of Production Engineering and Materials Testing,
Ulm University of Applied Sciences, Prittwitzstraße 10, 89075 Ulm, Germany
lissek@hs-ulm.de
2
Department of Manufacturing Technologies, Faculty of Manufacturing
Technologies TU of Košice, Bayerova 1, 080 01 Prešov, Slovak Republic
Abstract. In the drilling of flexible work pieces, the work piece movement
makes the prediction of the machining time more difficult. This is due to the
variance between the defined machining parameters and the effective machining
conditions at the cutting edges. Consequently, feed rate strategies cannot be
applied on the basis of the machining parameters. Therefore, a mechanistic
modelling approach will be presented, which allows to calculate the feed forces
in an unsteady drilling process. Thereby, the relative position between work
piece and drilling tool can be known at any time. The model allows the con-
sideration of the tool geometry, whereby drilling processes with state of the art
step drills can be simulated. In the end, the prediction of characteristic drilling
phases can be used to determine the timing to apply feed rate strategies to reduce
push-out delamination. The practicability of the simulation and the efficiency of
two different feed rate strategies will be shown for unsupported drilling pro-
cesses with the typical aeronautics composite material M21/T800S.
Keywords: CFRP M21/T800S Aeronautics Drilling Step drill

Feed rate strategies Unsupported Flexible Mechanistic modeling
Time-dependent Specific feed force Delamination
1 Introduction
1.1 Customized Feed Rate Strategies with Regard to the Clamping

Situation
The great potential of carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) for lightweight
applications still effects growing interest for this material in diverse fields of industry.
Especially the sectors of aircraft, defense, energy and automotive benefit from the
excellent ratio of stiffness and density. In spite of the near-net-shape manufacturing of
CFRP-structures, edge-trimming and the preparation of connection elements due to
drilling cannot be prevented. In this regard, machining with defined cutting edge is the
major step before final assembly of the individual parts. For example, in an aircraft
fuselage there have to be drilled tens of thousands boreholes for the completion of the
structure [1, 2].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_29
Time-Dependent Feed Force Modelling to Apply Feed Rate Strategies 265
The clamping devices for large two-dimensional work pieces require a lot of space
during the machining process as well as in the storage time. While machining, the focus
is mainly on realizing little overhangs of the work pieces as well as on the application
of the clamping force near the machining location [3]. Additionally, complex three-
dimensional CFRP-geometries are very cost-intensive, which reduces profitability at
small quantities [4]. The usage of local hold-down devices solves the problem only
partially, because in the consequence, interfering work piece edges and post processing
arise [3]. Overall, there is still a need of action to optimize the processing technology in
the area of CFRP-machining. Tolerating work piece flexibility during drilling can be an
alternative. But this method may require customized feed rate strategies to reduce push-
out delamination, as they are used for conventional drilling operations in CFRP.
1.2 State of the Art in the Drilling of Flexible Composite Structures

With respect to the stresses at the cutting edges during the machining of CFRP,
clamping systems basically can be constructed in a more flexible way. This is because
CFRP comes with better damping properties and a lower hardness in comparison to
metals. Nevertheless, at the current state of research little attention has been given to
the systematic investigation of the machining of thin walled or rather flexible com-
posite structures. Furthermore, there are only a few publications which treat the
required clamping systems for the machining of composites.
In the year 2004, Capello carried out the first investigations concerning the drilling
of thin walled composites [5]. He analyzed supported and unsupported drilling pro-
cesses for glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP). In his publication the used material
has not been specified in detail and thus the characteristic material values are the
material thickness of 2.2 mm and a single layer surface weight of 200 g/m2. The
diameter of the used twist drill is 5.0 mm. Based on his series of experiments some
characteristic relations can be observed for unsupported drilling processes. First of all,
the deformation of the work piece leads to a higher processing time and a distinctive
spring back when the drilling tool exits the material. In doing so, the effective feed rate
does not correspond to the machining parameters. Depending on the relative position
between cutting tool and work piece, the effective feed rate varies constantly. This is
why unsupported drilling can be called an unsteady machining process. Additionally,
the formation of delamination in unsupported drilling is higher when compared to the
supported drilling of composites. Concerning this matter, Capello considers the force
redistribution at the main cutting edges during the work piece spring back as the main
cause. Consequently he developed a damping device to decrease the extent of
delamination for unsupported drilling processes.
Heberger et al. [6] extended the experiments according to Capello in several
aspects. The authors use a quasi-isotropic CFRP fabric with a thickness of 2.1 to
2.3 mm. The clamping setup consists of two pre-drilled supporting plates on the top
and the bottom side of the CFRP specimen. A spring mechanism allows the clamping
force to be adjusted between 319 N and 6377 N. Furthermore, the hardness of the
material of the lower supporting plate was varied to prevent potential chip extraction
into the borehole. Therefore steel, aluminum, poly vinyl chloride (PVC) and poly-
urethane (PU) was used.
266 F. Lissek et al.
Their investigations confirm the reduction of push-out delamination by a pre-drilled

support plate. Therefore, the evaluation was carried out using a common delamination
factor. With regard to the bottom side of the clamping system, supporting plates with
pilot holes according to the drill diameter and supporting plates without pilot holes
result in a comparable borehole quality. Thereby, the delamination increases with an
increasing diameter of the pilot holes. An influence of the clamping force on the
machining results could not be proven. In contrast to the untreated supporting plates
made of steel and aluminum, PVC and PU prevented chips from becoming embedded
in the inner wall of the bore hole. The disadvantages in this case are higher diameter
deviations with regard to the nominal drilling diameter. This is caused by the higher
flexibility of the supporting material. A classification of the deviations of the diameters
using general tolerances has not been made.
In the field of micro-drilling of CFRP, the positive effects of a complete support of
the specimens could not be clearly demonstrated. Dogrusadik and Kentli [7] used a
phenolic resin and wood as supporting material for a 2.0 mm thick CFRP fabric. Due to
the low machining forces, the machining parameters, the tool wear and the size effects
in micro machining have a higher influence on the formation of delamination than the
applied clamping conditions.
In the specific case of the drilling of flexible CFRP structures, there are some
investigations that confirm the core statements of Capello and formulate new
approaches in this area. In [8, 9] it is argued that there is a critical work piece flexibility
up to which drilling with minimal delamination formation is possible. Exceeding a
specific threshold value results in a strong increase of push-out delamination. For this
purpose drilling experiments on different drilling positions on a single-sided clamped
bending beam were carried out. At this point it has to be mentioned that the critical feed
force known by the investigations of König et al. [10] has no validity for the machining
of unsupported work pieces [5]. Eisseler also presents an approach for optimizing
workpiece clamping in general [9]. A modal FEM-analyses was performed on a CFRP
plate in various clamping situations. As expected, a symmetrical support provides the
highest rigidity and thus the best drilling quality.
Klotz et al. [4] have observed the phenomena of a critical threshold value as well.
In their investigations the drilling experiments were carried out on four- and three-point
fixtures for a CFRP plate. In contrast to [11] the achievable borehole quality is sepa-
rated into three sections depending on the clamping point distances to the drilling
position. In the first section, the delamination factor remains constant. After that, the
damage increases slightly in section two and sharply in section three. The authors also
focus on modelling the deformation behavior of flexible CFRP plates applying point
loads [12]. Therefore the theories of flexible plates according to Marcus [13] and Stiglat
and Wippel [14] are used. Depending on the clamping situation, an empirical factor is
determined which is calculated with the stiffness of the plate, the experimentally
determined force curve of the drilling process and the plate dimensions. In doing so the
deformation curve of the plate can be described.
Luo et al. [15] presented a first approach for the time-dependent modelling of
machining forces in the drilling of unsupported CFRP structures. The authors use a
linear differential equation including a function of the specific cutting force according
to Lazar and Xirouchakis [16], the chip thickness and the angular geometries of the
drilling tool. They also utilize the relative feed rate, which has already been introduced
in [11]. The calculation is performed in the phases of the tool entry, the full engage-
ment of the main cutting edges and the tool exit. Thereby, the cutting process is
assumed for an ideal cutting edge without any wear features. Because of the high
number of geometric characteristics like the angle of inclination, the rake angle, the
point angle, the spiral angle and the chisel edge length, the model requires a numerical
solution using the Runge-Kutta-method. The applicability is therefore complex.
Overall, the accuracy of the model is good with deviations of <10%. For the verifi-
cation of the model, drilling experiments were carried out with a double-sided clamping
of 2.0 mm CFRP plates with varying clamping distances and feed rates.
1.3 Research Concept for the Application of Customized Feed Rate

Strategies
The machining quality in drilling of unsupported CFRP structures can generally be
improved by increasing the stiffness of the work piece. However, in view of the fact
that an increased delamination only occurs for higher local flexibilities, a different
approach can also be pursued. Tolerating a specific flexibility may significantly reduce
the complexity of the clamping devices, if sufficient borehole qualities can be pro-
duced. Additionally, up to now, feed rate strategies have not been applied for the
drilling of unsupported CFRP structures. In supported drilling of CFRP, feed rate
strategies like the feed speed reduction during the tool exit are a common method to
improve the quality of the borehole or rather reduce push-out delamination. In this case
an examination of the machining parameters is sufficient. In order to apply similar
strategies for an unsteady drilling process, it is essential to predict the course of the
process in dependence of time. Therefore, a practical applicable simulation model has
to be developed.
2.1 Summary of Materials, Tools and Measurement Equipment

For the experimental part in this study a 24 layer multiply laminate with a stacking
sequence of [0/45/90/-45]2s is used. The corresponding UD-prepreg M21/T800S is
manufactured by the company Hexcel and has a weight per unit area of 196 g/m2 with a
resin content of 35% by weight. Applying an autoclave manufacturing process this leads
to a total material thickness of 4.3 to 4.5 mm. For the drilling, state of the art step drills
with a maximum diameter of 5.9 mm are used. In the study, they are available with point
angles of 70°, 100° and 130°, each having a spiral angle of 35°. The tool geometry is
patented by the company Klenk according to DE 10 2010 012 963 [17] including a Fiber
Cracker to remove overhanging fibers pointing to the inside of the borehole. The drilling
tools are made of solid carbide, whereby for each drilling process the actual cutting edge
radius is taken into account. For this purpose a MicroCAD microscope by the company
LMI Technologies is used. The drilling tools are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Representation of the applied step drill geometry with variable point angle and the
associated projected lengths of the main cutting edges. The schematic sketch shows the reference
points for the feed force model with a step drill. Other geometric features are: d/D = 3.9/5.9 mm,
Lstep = 2.0 mm, spiral angle = 35° and clearance angle = 13.5° ± 1.5°.
Unless otherwise specified, a feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev and a cutting speed of
100 m/min is applied. The measurement of the feed force and the monitoring of the
process duration is done with the load cell Kistler type 9257B and the cutting force
dynamometer Kistler type 9125A11. The measurement data evaluation is carried out
with the software FlexPro of the company Weisang. On top of the load cell a clamping
system is used, which allows supported drilling processes as well as the drilling of
flexible work pieces in different clamping conditions (see Fig. 2) the presented
investigations unsupported drilling is done exclusively on single-sided clamped
bending beams on the right side of the figure with a specimen width of 20 mm and a
maximum length of 100 mm. The drilling position is described by the actual local work
piece flexibility in 8 different positions between 0 and 52.4 µm/N. Each drilling
sequence starts at the end of the bending beam and progresses towards the clamping.
Fig. 2. Clamping device for the experimental drilling series of flexible CFRP-structures as one-
sided clamped bending beams and the determination of the specific feed forces.
2.2 Description of the Mechanistic Modelling Approach

The aim of the model is to calculate the feed forces and thus the deformation of the
work piece at any point of time by using a modified feed force equation similar to the
equations introduced by Victor and Kienzle [18, 19]. As the cutting depth ap or rather
the chipping width b has to be calculated as reference value, for this purpose the
drilling process is separated into three individual drilling phases. The used equations
are shown in Fig. 3 For a better understanding, a twist drill is assumed here and for the
time being the work piece is defined to be fully supported.
Fig. 3. Algorithm for modeling the cutting depth at any point of time during a conventional
drilling process with a twist drill.
To calculate the phase-dependent cutting depth and the resulting cutting section A,
additional designations on the drilling tool are introduced. The reference points P1 and
P2 are illustrated in Fig. 3 as well as the three drilling phases named as cutting start,
full engagement and tool exit. These phases are shown for two different work piece
thicknesses. The feed distance of the drilling tool starts from P1 at the tip of the drill
and is referred to by the symbol s. The zero point of s is defined at the moment of the
first contact between drilling tool and work piece. It is continued in positive counting
mode as the feed distance progresses. Since a constant feed rate can be assumed for the
drilling tool movement, s is known exactly at any time and therefore the chipping
thickness h.
The projected cutting edge length Lce is an important decision criterion, which has
to be compared with the workpiece height hwp in the first instance. If hwp exceeds Lce , a
full engagement can take place. In this case the left path of the flow chart in Fig. 3 is
used for calculation. If this condition is not fulfilled, the main cutting edges will not be
engaged over the complete tool diameter at any point of time. This leads to the right
path of the flow chart, in which the maximum cutting depth is limited. As a result, the
occurring forces are directly affected by the reduced maximum cutting section.
Throughout the algorithm, P1 and P2 are needed to distinguish the process phases
constantly. The algorithm in Fig. 3 can also be applied for the modeling of the unsteady
drilling process. This is done by using a control loop, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Control loop for modeling unsteady drilling processes with varying relative feed rates.
If the effective feed force is known, the caused deflection can be determined by the
material specific local flexibility. Since the deformation is oriented in the feed direction,
a relative movement between tool and work piece takes place. This movement can be
described by subtracting the deflection from the feed distance of the drilling tool. To
distinguish between the feed distance of the drilling tool and the feed distance calcu-
lated after deduction of the work piece deformation, this can be named as relative feed
distance or the relative feed speed. A reduced feed speed results in a smaller cutting
section and lower feed forces, which in turn influences the work piece deformation.
The calculation of the cutting depth is done by the specifications in Fig. 3.
Simultaneously the relative feed rate is determined as a function of the relative
movement between tool and work piece in the control loop in Fig. 4. In doing so, the
cutting section and the adapted process forces can be described. With this approach the
needed chipping values can be calculated as a function of the actual feed force at any
time. The feed force itself is calculated by using a feed force model, which will be
described in the following Sect. 2.3.
To include the step tool geometry in the simulation, the definition of the reference
point P2 must be changed and additionally P3 and P4 must be introduced. The adjusted
reference points are illustrated by Fig. 1. The basic algorithm for calculating the cutting
depth does not change. However, the comparison with the workpiece height and thus
the distinction between partial engagement and full engagement must be made for both
of the projected main cutting edge lengths Lce1 and Lce2 . Finally, the total cutting depth
results from the sum of the cutting depths of the primary and the secondary drilling
stage of the step drill. All the described algorithms are implemented with the Matlab
Simulink software of the company MathWorks in version 16.4a.
2.3 Determination of the Specific Feed Forces

With regard to the determination of the specific feed forces, firstly the focus has to be
on the effective rake angle ceff during the machining process. The calculation of ceff as
a function of the chip thickness and the cutting edge radius according to Eq. 1 is known
from micro-drilling [20]. Since the formula only allows the calculation of values with
respect to a single point on the cutting edge, an average rake angle ceff is more suitable
to reflect the actual cutting conditions in CFRP. Therefore Eq. 2 can be used.

h
ceff ¼ sin1 1 ð1Þ
rb
0 ceff ðhÞdh
Rh
ceff ¼ ð2Þ
h
Considering the actual cutting edge radius, the point angle and the standard machining
parameters of this study (see Fig. 2), a numerical calculation of the average effective
rake angle yields to the values listed in Table 1. However, to obtain the displayed
results a case differentiation must be made according to Eq. 3. This takes into account
the transition from the cutting edge radius to the manufactured rake angle c.
(
sin1 rhb 1Þ if ceff \c
ceff ðhÞ ¼ ð3Þ
c ¼ const if ceff c
As the manufactured rake angle changes depending on the tool radius, c = 5° has been
assumed in the center of the drill nearby the chisel edge and c = 35° corresponds to the
rake angle at the maximum tool radius. In consequence, the manufactured rake angle of
the drilling tools is only slightly involved in the machining process. In contrast, the
major part of the cutting work is done directly at the cutting edge radius. Because of the
strongly negative values of ceff in Table 1, it can be assumed that ploughing effects
dominate in the applied cutting conditions. Furthermore, the chip thickness is reduced
due to the evasive movement of the work piece, which leads to even smaller rake
angles for unsteady drilling processes.
Table 1. Calculation of the average effective rake angle for the supported drilling of CFRP with
regard to the cutting edge radius and the point angle. The applied machining parameters are
f = 0.06 mm/rev and vf = 100 m/min.
Point angle r Manufactured rake Assumed cutting edge radius rb
angle c 5 µm 15 µm 25 µm 35 µm
Average effective rake angle ceff
70° 5° −6° −28° −44° −51°
35° 12° −28° −44° −51°
130° 5° −2° −8° −30° −40°
35° 20° −16° −30° −40°
The determination of the specific feed force can therefore be done in relation to the
quotient h=rb [21]. In line with standard usage and by the reason of the ploughing-
dominated drilling, for the presented study a simplified approach was chosen, ignoring
the influence of the chisel edge (see Fig. 5). In this regard the specific feed force is
measured directly in the drilling process under constant cutting conditions at four
different chip thicknesses and a varying cutting edge radius. Figure 5a shows the
evaluation method for the point angles of 70° and 130°. For both of the exemplary
measurements, the material was doubled. The basic values of the specific feed force
kf :r1 and the corresponding exponents mf :r1 can be seen in Fig. 5b. The shown values
are determined at h=rb = 1. If the quotient h=rb is integrated into the original Kienzle-
equation, the following modified equation results for the calculation of the feed force.
ð1mf :r1 Þ
h
Fz ¼ kf :r1 rb b ð4Þ
rb
This equation is used in the control loop according to Fig. 4 to calculate the time
dependent feed forces for an unsteady drilling process.
Fig. 5. Simplified determination of the basic values of the specific feed forces and the
corresponding exponents in a ploughing-dominated drilling process in CFRP. (a) Exemplary
determination of the feed force at full engagement of the cutting edges. The chip thickness is
0.04 mm at a point angle of 70° and 130°. (b) Summary of the basic values of the specific feed
force and the corresponding exponents. Measurements have been done for chip thicknesses of
0.01, 0.04, 0.08 and 0.12 mm. The cutting edge radius is between 10 and 50 µm.
3.1 Representation of the Threshold Area for Unsupported Drilling

with M21/T800S
At this point, the threshold area of the unsupported drilling process with M21/T800S
shall be briefly described in accordance with the state of the art. In Fig. 6, the area-
weighted delamination factor Fa [22] at the tool exit side is shown as a function of the
local flexibility at each drilling position. Each measuring point represents a total of four
boreholes. Furthermore, the measurements were carried out at three different states of
tool wear. Microscopic images of the push-out delamination are shown as an example
for the used point angle of 130°.
The figure shows rising delamination factors between 6.9 and 19.4 µm/N. In this
regard, the position of the threshold area is independent of the tool wear or rather the
cutting edge radius. However, starting from the lowest radius of the cutting edge,
higher tool wear leads to increasing offsets of the delamination factors. In addition, an
approximately constant damage level can be assumed before and after the threshold
area. The absolute increase in delamination for the three different states of tool wear
ranges between 14.7 and 48.4%. The causes of the increase in damage can be found in
the introduction section of this study or the corresponding publications and should not
be discussed here any further.
Fig. 6. Development of the push-out delamination in the threshold area for the drilling of
flexible work pieces with a point angle of 130°.
3.2 Evaluation of the Simulated Feed Forces and the Processing Time
Since the threshold area could be quantified in the previous section, the time-dependent
simulation of the feed force is now done for the local flexibilities of 0, 6.9 and
32.3 µm/N. 0 µm/N is defined to be fully supported. 6.9 and 32.3 µm/N each represent
a drilling process before and after the threshold area.
Figure 7 shows the comparison of the simulation results with the experiment for the
local flexibilities below the threshold area. The calculation was carried out for each
point angle with two cutting edge radiuses each. A material thickness of 4.3 mm was
assumed. The diagrams also show the absolute deviations DFz;max of the maximum feed
force and the deviations DtQs of the point of time of the exit of the chisel edge.
Comparing the point angle geometries, for 70° the maximum feed force is achieved
in the primary drilling stage right after the beginning of the drilling process. The total
load is then reduced in two subsequent steps. Since the exit process of the chisel edge
and the entry process of the secondary drilling stage take place simultaneously, this is
caused by a constant chip width b instead of a full engagement of the main cutting
edges. The two remaining tool geometries with 100° and 130° point angle correspond
to a characteristic force curve of a step drill and thus show a full engagement of the
main cutting edges. This is due to the reduced projected main cutting edge lengths in
comparison to a 70° point angle.
In the experiment, the increase of the cutting edge radius and the simultaneous
change in local flexibility from 0 to 6.9 µm/N primarily results in an offset of the feed
force. The total drilling duration changes only slightly, but tends to decrease. Despite
the slight loss of stiffness of the work piece, the increased feed speed during the tool
exit already takes effect at this point. The simulation takes into account the balanced
state between tool and work piece as a function of the local flexibility, even if the
drilling tool starts to exit the work piece. As a result the simulation does not reflect
changes of the feed speed due to the spring back process. Especially for the larger
cutting edge radius, larger deviations occur with respect to the total drilling time in the
experiment. In absolute terms, for the supported drilling process the simulation is 5 to
51 ms above the experimental measured values and for unsupported drilling at
Fig. 7. Comparison of the simulated feed force Fz with the experimental measurement at the
local flexibility of 0 and 6.9 µm/N and different point angles (a–c) with varying cutting edge
radius.
6.9 µm/N the deviation is between 103 and 191 ms. However, the exit of the chisel
edge can be predicted for all processes with a deviation of DtQs < 100 ms.
High movement speeds of the work piece during the spring back only occur, when
the lower limit of the threshold area at 6.9 µm/N is exceeded. This is why a local
flexibility of 32.3 µm/N was selected for the evaluation of the capabilities of the model
to simulate drilling processes with characteristic spring back movements. In this regard
Fig. 8 summarizes the simulated and the experimentally determined force curves of the
three different point angle geometries for unsupported drilling. Apart from the increase
in local flexibility, the remaining boundary conditions of the drilling operation
remained unchanged.
Considering the unsupported drilling process up to the time of the exit of the chisel
edge, the deviation of the simulated force level and the prediction of the processing
time are consistent with the simulation results described above. However, at the
beginning of the spring back processes it becomes clear that the curves no longer
correlate with each other. In addition, it must be pointed out at that ploughing-
dominated machining processes for CFRP machining can only be assumed with
Fig. 8. Comparison of the simulated feed force Fz with the experimental measurement at the
local flexibility of 32.3 µm/N and different point angles (a–c) with varying cutting edge radius.
correspondingly low chip thicknesses. Strictly speaking, a shear-dominated cutting

process takes place during the short-term spring back, for which the determined specific
feed forces are no longer valid.
If the evaluation of the simulation is limited to the maximum occurring feed force, an
average deviation of 4.4% can be stated for the presented simulations in Figs. 7 and 8.
Here it must be taken into account that the maximum feed forces become smaller with
increasing local flexibility and at the same time, the tool wear and the point angle are
strongly influencing variables for the unsupported drilling process. All these effects are
considered in the algorithms.
3.3 Application of Feed Rate Strategies for Unsupported CFRP-

Structures
In the following, the application of feed strategies for the unsupported drilling of CFRP
is presented. On the one hand, this allows different approaches to be evaluated in order
to reduce the push-out delamination for higher local flexibilities. On the other hand, the
newly developed feed force model can be assessed with regard to its suitability to
decide on the timing of feed strategies. Since the speed component during the spring
back process is decisive for the degree of push-out delamination, the relative feed per
tooth must be reduced in this phase of unsteady drilling. To achieve this goal, two feed
strategies were applied before the chisel edge exits the work piece:
• By stopping the feed of the step drill, the movement component of the drilling tool
is completely suspended. Afterwards the tool exits solely by reason of the elastic
force of the work piece. Since this feed strategy should be applied equally for all
local flexibilities, the feed rate stop is limited to a period of 3 s.
• Increasing the rotation speed at a constant feed speed of 318 mm/min reduces the
feed per tooth and the relative feed during the spring back movement. In the series
of tests the maximum usable rotation speed is limited to 15000 rev/min due to the
used machining center.
Using the feed force model, the start of the respective feed strategy in an unsteady
drilling process was set to 0.1 s before the exit of the chisel edge. The calculated
process time was then converted into the movement coordinates of the drilling tool.
The effects of the two strategies on the development of the push-out delamination as a
function of the local flexibility are finally shown in Fig. 9 this purpose, the average
area-weighted delamination factors were determined. As a point angle of 130° induces
the highest work piece deformation during drilling, this tool is shown as an example at
three different states of tool wear. Overall, the feed rate stop and the increase in
rotation speed achieve a significant reduction in push-out delamination after exceeding
the threshold area. In all cases the damage level of the lower local flexibility can be
maintained.
A final evaluation of the feed strategies can be carried out by the calculation of the
relative feed per tooth. Figure 10 shows the time-dependent relative feed values for
both of the feed strategies in comparison to the standard parameters. The start of the
feed strategy always occurs at the same time, but a time shift can be seen in the diagram
due to the normalized x-axis.
Fig. 9. Comparison of the delamination factors using feed strategies (a) and (b) based on the
feed force model. Drilling with a point angle of 130° at varying local flexibilities.
Fig. 10. Comparison of the relative feed using feed strategies (a) and (b) based on the feed force
model. Unsupported drilling with a point angle of 130° at a local flexibility of 32.3 µm/N and a
cutting edge radius between 28.8 and 32.6 µm.
After the start of the feed strategy, the feed stop causes a continuous reduction of
the calculated relative feed per tooth towards zero. At this point, this corresponds to the
gradual reduction of the work piece deformation until the chisel edge exits. In addition
the maximum relative feed is reduced by 0.41 mm. A higher reduction of the maximum
relative feed rate is achieved by the temporary increase of the rotation speed. An
absolute feed reduction of 0.56 mm can be recorded here. Thus the behavior of the
calculated relative feed rates confirms the development of the area-weighted delami-
nation factors in Fig. 9. At the same time, it is proven that the simulation accuracy of
the time-dependent feed force model is sufficient to determine the timing for the
application of feed strategies.
4 Conclusions and Future Scope
In this study a mechanistic model was developed to apply feed strategies for the drilling
of flexible CFRP work pieces. The basic findings of the machining theory according to
Victor & Kienzle are used to combine a modified feed force equation with a drilling
phase model and a control loop. Due to the ploughing-dominated cutting process at low
chip thicknesses, the tool wear can be included and the maximum feed force as well as
the timing of the exit of chisel edge can be determined. The accuracy of the time
prediction is less than 100 ms and the deviations of the feed forces are a maximum of
4.4%. Due to the design of the simulation, speed changes in the spring back process of
the work piece currently cannot be reproduced. However, this is not necessary for a
practical application of the model.
The experimental verification of the model showed that the increase of push out
delamination with increasing local flexibility can be prevented by using feed rate
strategies. In the series of drilling experiments the relative feed rate during the work
piece spring back has been reduced due to a feed stop and the increasing of the rotation
speed. In absolute values the feed rate reduction is up to 0.56 mm. The drilling tests
thus provide an excellent basis for simplifying clamping devices.
In the next step, the model can be applied to the specific cutting forces to predict the
resulting drilling torques. Due to the low machining forces in CFRP machining, this
additionally requires an examination of the friction influences on the peripheral cut-ting
edge of the drilling tool. Furthermore, it is possible to implement a distinction of cases
into the control loop to distinguish between shear-dominated and ploughing-dominated
cutting processes. Eventually this allows to simulate the cutting force during the work
piece spring back as well.
References
1. Heumer, W.: Meisterprüfung für den Bohrer. VDI-Nachr. 37, 13–14 (2014)
2. Müller-Hummel, P., Richter, J., Möller, B.: Neue Werkstoffe erfordern neue Allianzen.
Werkstatt Betr. 10, 66–67 (2008)
3. Enßle, M.: Zusammenspiel von Fertigungsmittel un Zerspanstrategie bei der Bearbeitung
von Faserverbund-Bauteilen für die Luftfahrt: Einfluss der Werkstückeinspannung. In:
Bearbeitung von Verbundwerkstoffen: Spanende Bearbeitung von CFK, Stuttgart (2013)
4. Klotz, S., Gerstenmeyer, M., Zanger, F., Schulze, V.: Influence of clamping systems during
drilling of carbon fiber reinforced plastics. Procedia CIRP 13, 208–213 (2014)
5. Capello, E.: Workpiece damping and its effect on delamination damage in drilling thin
composite laminates. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2(148), 186–195 (2004)
6. Heberger, L., Nissle, S., Gurka, M., Kirsch, B., Aurich, J.C.: Qualitätssteigerung von
Bohrugen in Faserkunststoffverbunden: Untersuchung des Einflusses verschiedener
Einspannstrategien. Werkstattstech. Online 105(7/8), 501–507 (2015)
7. Dogrusadik, A., Kentli, A.: Comparative assessment of support plates’ influences on
delamination damage in micro-drilling of CFRP-Laminates. Compos. Struct. 173, 156–167
(2017)
8. Lissek, F., Kaufeld, M.: Aufs Abstützen kommt es an: Bearbeitungskriterien für die
Zerspanung labiler CFK-Strukturen. Werkstatt Betr. 12, 36–40 (2019)
9. Eisseler, R., Jakob, P., Schaal, M., Weiland, S.: Bohren von CFK. In: Bearbeitung von
Verbundwerkstoffen: Spanende Bearbeitung von CFK, Stuttgart (2013)
10. König, W., Wulf, C., Graß, P., Willerscheid, H.: Machining of fiber reinforced plastics.
CIRP Ann. 34(2), 537–548 (1985)
11. Lissek, F., Bergmann, J.-P., Kaufeld, M.: Machining of CFRP: drilling and milling of
unstable work pieces. In: 58th Ilmenau Scientific Colloquium, Ilmenau (2014)
12. Klotz, S., Lepold, A., Zanger, F., Schulze, V.: Experimental investigation of clamping
systems and the resulting change of cutting conditions while drilling carbon fiber reinforced
plastics. Procedia CIRP 62, 15–20 (2017)
13. Marcus, H.: Die Theorie elastischer Gewebe und ihre Anwendung auf die Berechnung
biegsamer Platten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der trägerlosen Pilzdecken. Springer,
Berlin (1932)
14. Stiglat, K., Wippel, K.: Platten. Wiley Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim (1973)
15. Luo, B., Li, Y., Zhang, K., Cheng, H., Liu, S.: Effect of workpiece stiffness on thrust force
and delamination in drilling thin composite laminates. J. Compos. Mater. 5(50), 617–625
(2015)
16. Lazar, M.-B., Xirouchakis, P.: Mechanical load distribution along the main cutting edges in
drilling. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 213(2), 245–260 (2013)
17. Schmid, M., Schmid, S., Hintze, W., Clausen, R., Schütte, C.: Patentschrift Fiber Cracker.
Deutschland Patent DE 10 2010 012 963 A1 (2010)
18. Victor, H.: Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Schnittkräfte beim Drehen, Hobeln und Bohren.
Dissertation, München, Technische Hochschule Hannover (1956)
19. Kienzle, O.: Die Bestimmung von Kräften und Leistungen an spanenden Werkzeugen und
Werkzeugmaschinen. VDI-Z Integr. Prod. 94, 299–305 (1952)
20. Anand, R.S., Patra, K.: Mechanistic cutting force modelling for micro-drilling of CFRP
composite laminates. CIRP J. Manufact. Sci. Technol. 16, 55–63 (2017)
21. Anand, R.S., Patra, K.: Size effects in micro drilling of carbon fiber reinforced plastic
composite. Prod. Eng. 8(3), 301–304 (2014)
22. Faraz, A., Biermann, D., Weinert, K.: Cutting edge rounding: an innovative tool wear
criterion in drilling CFRP composite laminates. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49(15),
1185–1196 (2009)
Recognition of Assembly Parts
by Convolutional Neural Networks
Kamil Židek(&) , Alexander Hosovsky , Jan Piteľ ,

and Slavomír Bednár
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with a seat in Presov,

Department of Industrial Engineering and Informatics,
Technical University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, Presov, Slovak Republic
{kamil.zidek,alexander.hosovsky,jan.pitel,
slavomir.bednar}@tuke.sk
Abstract. The paper describes the experiments with the use of deep neural
networks (CNN) for robust identification of assembly parts (screws, nuts) and
assembly features (holes), to speed up any assembly process with augmented
reality application. The simple image processing tasks with static camera and
recognized parts can be handled by standard image processing algorithms
(threshold, Hough line/circle detection and contour detection), but the aug-
mented reality devices require dynamic recognition of features detected in
various distances and angles. The problem can be solved by deep learning CNN
which is robust to orientation, scale and in cases when element is not fully
visible. We tested two pretrained CNN models Mobilenet V1 and SSD
Fast RCNN Inception V2 SSD extension have been tested to detect exact
position. The results obtained were very promising in comparison to standard
image processing techniques.
Keywords: Deep learning Object recognition Augmented reality
1 Introduction to Augmented Reality and Deep Learning

in Industrial Tasks
Today’s consumer industry is made up of a large number of products and their possible
configurations, which is a direct response to the ever-growing demand of customers. It
is generally known that traditional assembly lines are synchronous. This means that the
flow of material and work is predefined depending on the customer’s order. The
assembly steps are continuously delegated and performed on each workstation. At the
same time all the workstations on the line are synchronized. With the arrival of the
Industry 4.0 concept and deployment of its supporting technologies (digital twin, RFID
technology, virtual and augmented reality, big data, deep learning), there is also the
necessity of changing and deploying asynchronous assembly lines. Applications of
such lines can be found in several areas of industry: consumer electronics, furniture,
clothing, and automotive production. Because of the variation in production, it is
almost unnecessary to co-operate with the machine during the assembly process. For
the Industry 4.0 concept, cooperative robots were defined as the main element suitable

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_30
282 K. Židek et al.
for co-operating with workers. Highly variable subassemblies must be manually

assembled due to unmanageable automation and its implementation. In the case of
manual assembly of highly variable parts, it is appropriate to use a virtual (augmented)
reality (AR) in combination with image processing, e.g. by deep learning to simplify
assembly process.
AR/VR is a direct and indirect view of physical environment while the view is
extended with other digital data, mostly with text or image. This additional information
must be relevant to the object we are looking at. The information is obtained from
a variety of information sources for the use in on-line or off-line applications.
Enhancement of reality usually takes place in real time and in semantic context with
parts of the environment [1]. Augmented reality then adds important data about actual
objects currently displayed or they can be combined with virtual objects embedded in a
complex scene. In order to identify objects or their parts from the real world, it is
necessary to use image processing algorithms either through a classical algorithmic
approach (edge, shape, marker or model detection) or non-semantic or neuronal system
(Deep Learning) [2]. Another advantage of the add-on reality is that it can be sent
remotely and in real-time to an expert, who can see the current situation and respond
quickly to the problems encountered [3].
Standard image processing techniques (thresholding, segmentation, edge detection,
contour detection with approximation) are suitable for static part inspection on con-
veyor belt with static position as uncertainty of view is minimalized. With manual
assembly process the uncertainty of an angle of view, size of detected object and shape
deformation significantly changes during whole assembly process. The main problem
is relevant as product needs to be replaced during assembly process. The deep learning
of neural networks (CNN) provides very fast implementation of detection of standard
assembly parts (washers, nuts, screws, shafts) or assembly features (holes, cuts,
assembly surfaces, threads). The main advantage is a robustness to detect learned
features in other similar assemblies without reprogramming whole detection process.
This approach can significantly decrease development time if the produced product is
either innovated or completely different. The main motivation is in implementation of
simple and robust detection of various assembly parts.
The paper dealing with data cleaning for automated task is referenced by [4] and
article dealing with basic image assessments in deep learning is referenced by [5]. The
significant research has been provided in industrial usability of deep learning tech-
niques in production to analyze bearing by variability [6] and extended paper with the
same topic [7]. Other sources presented usability of car damage analysis [8] and
implementation for industrial robots and manipulation [9].
2 Assembly Used for Experiments and Teaching Data
The experimental assembly is provided as a gear pump device and consists of 14 parts.
The experimental assembly can have a total of 16 variations. Variable elements are gear
shafts, gears and drive shafts. The individual elements are also distinguished in size and
color. The main elements necessary for the assembly of the gear pump assembly
Recognition of Assembly Parts by Convolutional Neural Networks 283
including the variable parts are as follows (see Fig. 1): body of pump, pump cover,
shaft sets, set of gears, drive wheel sets, screws, nuts.
Fig. 1. Components to produce multiple variable assemblies, 3D assembly model.
For the development of virtual assembly assistant one needs to detect assembly
elements (screws, washers, nuts) and assembly features (holes or cuts) by a vision
system.
3 Comparison of Standard Image Processing to CNN
The main principle of standard recognition consists of two basic tasks to be solved:
• Detection of the components based on its contour and dimension;
• Detecting the connecting element on the main assembly part.
For simple detection of mounting elements (hole position) experiments with Hough
circle transformation algorithm and parts by contour detection with approximation have
been suggested. Advanced detection of assembly part and product features have been
tested by transfer learning of deep networks.
3.1 Standard Image Processing Algorithm

Contour detection (assembly part detection) of a component itself consists of creation
of a black and white image element (thresholding) [10] and of contour acquisition and
its distribution on individual contour lines. The contour shape is then saved and makes
reference for identifying a particular component (Fig. 2) [11].
Fig. 2. Principle and example of part detection by threshold, contour and line approximation.
On the other hand, Hough circle transformation (assembly feature detection) is able
to detect incomplete circular shape to detect contours algorithm. The main disadvan-
tage of this approach is that only a circle can be detected and if angle of view is
changed the detection fails (ellipse shape of the element). Example of using the
algorithm is shown in the following Fig. 3. The standard circle Hough transformation
can be extended to ellipse detection to increase reliability of feature detection in other
angles of view [12].
Fig. 3. Principle and example of assembly element detection inside gear.
By combining these two techniques it is possible to create a link by camera and

virtual environment. The main disadvantage of this technique is low level of
robustness.
3.2 Features and Part Detection by Deep Neural Networks

Described DNN implementation process consists of the following steps:
• Creating of image database for parts and assembly elements;
• Transfer learning by Tensor Flow (SSD RCNN V2, Mobilenet V1);
• Implementation of a trained model to OpenCV.
The whole process of usability is shown in detail in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Principle of CNN implementation to industrial tasks.
Image database for training and testing consists of basic assembly part set for three
groups (hexagon nuts/screws, holes). The example set is shown on the Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Examples of image database groups used for training.
The deep learning techniques provide very robust detection with noisy images,
higher level of image deformation and detect feature in any angle of view (Fig. 6). The
trained neural network model is reliable for single part in the field of view. The
problem with detection is for example shadow on shiny surfaces and if any other part
overlaps the other.
Fig. 6. Example of classification and position for test images (nuts, screws, holes).
3.3 Comparison of Deep Neural Networks and Standard Image

Processing
The standard image processing methods (Hough transformation, contour detection)
provide information about dimension and position. It is not very robust to noise and not
usable in general problems. The method fails if element changes shape, as can be seen
in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. DNN object detection with comparison of Hough circle transformation.
4 Implementation to Experimental Device (SW/HW)
The proposed solution uses an indirect view of a physical (real) environment. The
indirect view allows the use of any device equipped with a rear view camera and
a display with a sufficient resolution and sufficient image processing power, e.g. effi-
cient tablet or smartphone. The solution uses low-cost hardware and software based on
a free open source or licenses free of charge libraries. The principle scheme shows
software interconnection to hardware device (see Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Principle of application development and used environment software.
The software solution is designed exclusively for the Android operating system.
Basic image processing and deep network model execution provides an add-on created
by Android Studio. Image processing and deep neural network model runtime is
written by NDK in C++ language and uses popular open source OpenCV image
processing library. The connection of image processing/deep learning with VR/AR is
provided by the above-mentioned Unity engine. Control logic is coded by C# language
later compiled to native code with NDK. For experimental part, a tablet with holder
(Lenovo Tab3) and smartphone (Samsung S7) for virtual reality has been used, as can
be seen in Fig. 9. The example of the software solution (see Fig. 9 right) presents the
link between the existing component with the additional information (detected hole) for
inserting the virtual component (virtual 3D model in the image).
The main factor for the CPU performance is the screen resolution of the device. AR
includes two more important factors of performance: camera sensor capturing with
Fig. 9. Example of implementation to real-devices, software implementation.
combination of image processing algorithms. The following problem is usability of

CNN models which are too performance or memory-intensive.
5 Experimental Results for Transfer Learning of Selected

Models
The experimental results of teaching process reliability have been checked for three
groups. The first transfer learning was tested for assembly part (hexagonal screw, nut).
The next for assembly feature on main assembly part (different assembly holes with
variable size). Acquired precision (reliability) is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Table of achieved precision with selected model for two tested CNN models.
Tested element Tested image Mobilenet V1 Fast RCNN Inception V2
Hole test example hole 0.99917966 9.95420396e-01
no SSD position 55%
Nut test example nut 0.9999702 9.99994874e-01
no SSD position 98%
Screw test example screw 0.9997631 9.99632955e-01
no SSD position 99%
The retrain of CNN was stopped manually after no significant improvements of the
precision. Graphical result for retrained Fast RCNN Inception V2 is shown on Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Graph of transform learning (nut class) loss: classification (left), position (right).
6 Conclusion
The article presented implementation and usability of deep neural network in industrial
area for speeding up assembly process with the use of augmented devices (smart
glasses). The identification of parts and features in assembly part can be recognized by
deep learning networks with SSD extension. Two deep learning configurations of
layers pretrained on COCO dataset have been tested. The first tested network config-
uration was “Mobilenet version 1” and the second “Faster RCNN inception version 2”.
The mobilenet was significantly faster but with lower precision and without single shot
detection (SSD). The learning process to teach new assembly feature from product is
time consuming. With a standard image processing techniques it is hard to achieve this
level of robustness and invariability. The presented methods implemented to selected
assembly product can be used for similar group of assembly tasks with some modifi-
cations. The experiments proved that CNN can replace standard image processing
techniques and can reach 95–99% reliability with untrained samples. The main prob-
lems are still with detection of parts in groups with overlapping and with shiny surfaces
with reflection. Detection of holes fails in position detection on side views (decreases to
50%). The experiments extend groups of research paper aimed to industrial use of Deep
learning NN cited in introduction. The future works in will focus on retraining other
deep network configurations for example (Mobilenet V2, Inception V3). The research
will follow with an implementation to CUDA devices (Nvidia Tegra TX2) or to devices
with specialized processing unit NPU (neural processing unit) or APU (artificial pro-
cessing unit) by NNAPI. The plan is to teach CNN to recognize more industrial parts
(different types of screws, nuts, bolts, shafts, threads, etc.).
Acknowledgement. This work was supported by the Agency for Research and Development
under the contract no. APVV-15-0602.
References
1. Agrawal, A.: Putting VR/AR to work (Editorial material). IEEE Comput. Graphics Appl.
38(1), 115–118 (2018)
2. Takaseki, A.R., Nagashima, R., Kashima, H., Okazaki, T.: Development of anchoring
support system using with AR toolkit. In: 2015 7th International Conference on Emerging
Trends in Engineering and Technology, pp. 123–127 (2015)
3. Liu, H.Y., Wang, L.H.: An AR-based worker support system for human-robot collaboration.
In: 27th International Conference on Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing,
FAIM 2017, vol. 11, pp. 22–30 (2017)
4. Chuck, C., Laskey, M., Krishnan, S., Joshi, R., Fox, R., Goldberg, K., et al:. Statistical data
cleaning for deep learning of automation tasks from demonstrations. In: 13th IEEE
Conference on Automation Science and Engineering (IEEE CASE), 20–23 August,
pp. 1142–1149. IEEE, Xian (2017)
5. Bosse, S., Maniry, D., Muller, K.R., Wiegand, T., Samek, W.: Deep neural networks for no-
reference and full-reference image quality assessment. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 27(1),
206–219 (2018)
6. Zhang, W., Li, C.H., Peng, G.L., Chen, Y.H., Zhang, Z.J.: A deep convolutional neural
network with new training methods for bearing fault diagnosis under noisy environment and
different working load. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 100, 439–453 (2018)
7. Saucedo-Espinosa, M.A., Escalante, H.J., Berrones, A.: Detection of defective embedded
bearings by sound analysis: a machine learning approach. J. Intell. Manuf. 28(2), 489–500
(2017)
8. Patil, K., Kulkarni, M., Sriraman, A., Karande, S.: Deep learning based car damage
classification. In: 2017 16th IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and
Applications (ICMLA), pp. 50–54 (2017)
9. Liang, J., Mahler, J., Laskey, M., Li, P.S., Goldberg, K.: Using dVRK teleoperation to
facilitate deep learning of automation tasks for an industrial robot. In: 13th IEEE Conference
on Automation Science and Engineering (IEEE CASE), 20–23 August, pp. 1–8. IEEE, Xian
(2017)
10. Komarov, A.S., Buehner, M.: adaptive probability thresholding in automated ice and open
water detection from RADARSAT-2 images. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 15(4),
552–556 (2018)
11. Rasche, C.: Rapid contour detection for image classification. IET Image Proc. 12(4),
532–538 (2018)
12. Manzanera, A., Nguyen, T.P., Xu, X.L.: Line and circle detection using dense one-to-one
Hough transforms on greyscale images. EURASIP J. Image Video Process. 18 (2016)
The Use of Technology Local Heating by Laser
for Turning of Difficult to Machine Materials
Jakub Mesicek(&), Jana Petru, Tomas Zlamal, Marek Pagac,

Jiri Sedivy, Ondrej Vortel, and Lukas Drabek
VSB – Technical University of Ostrava,

708 33 Ostrava - Poruba, Czech Republic
jakub.mesicek@vsb.cz
Abstract. The article deals with the use of the local laser heating during turning
of hard machined materials. The application of heating using laser technology is
applied especially to reduce the wear of cutting tools and increasing their
durability and decreasing costs associated with machining process. The aim of
the experiment was to compare the costs associated with production of a valve
seat made of CrNi 58/41. Current machine equipment was replaced by RNC 400
Laserturn hybrid lathe. The choice of the proposed solution was verified on the
basis of technical and economic evaluation.
Keywords: Laser technology Turning Time saving

Hard machined material
1 Introduction
More frequent use of high strength alloys and other hard machinable materials,
including ceramic, requires new technologies for their effective machining. Laser
technologies bring local surface strength and hardness of material. The advantage of
preheating in front of tool blade is to reduce tool wear during machining and oppor-
tunity to machine by higher cutting speed.
The experiment described in this article compares existing technology of valve seat
technological process made of CrNi58/41 with lase technology using lase preheating.
The comparison is processed on basis of the machine times of the individual operations
in the technical and economical evaluation.
2 Machining with Preheating
Technology using preheating was first used at the end of 19th century. It has been
observed that metals tend to deform more easily when they’re heated. During pre-
heating, difference of hardness of cutting tool and workpiece increases, resulting
reduced cutting forces, surface improvement and longer tool life. This is achieved by
heat applying to the workpiece before or during machining. High intensity local heat
energy input of the heat source significantly reduces strength of the material when

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_31
The Use of Technology Local Heating by Laser 291
heated above specific temperature depending on the composition of each material (see
Fig. 1). Softened metal is easily machined by conventional cutting processes then.
Fig. 1. Heat-dependent mechanical properties of high-strength metal alloys [1].
Preheating during machining increases the plasticity of material, which brings

number of advantages: reducing the intensity of fluctuation cutting forces, reducing the
vibrations, reducing the chinking of the chips, reducing the tool wear [2].
2.1 Laser-Assisted Turning

For machining technologies with regard to turning operations, many examples of
successful laser preheat are known from industry practice. One of them is hybrid RNC
4OO Laserturn, where classical machining and laser preheating can be combined.
Particularly advantageous is the use of preheating for turning parts from technical
ceramics, material such as Si3N4 or ZrO2, whose grinding is relatively expensive and
nonproductive. Surface strength and hardness decrease when preheating to temperature
between 800 and 1000 °C. Classic machining methods without emulsions and cooling
liquids can be used then. The usual depth of cut is up to 2 mm, the surface roughness
reaches 0,2 µm. This roughness is comparable with grounded surface.
Radial Laser Heating
Use of laser beam heating in turning is relatively simple due to the stationary nature of
the cutting tool. It is possible to adjust position, size, impact angle and beam distance
from the tool for a laser beam. In most cases of laser local heating during machining,
the laser beam is placed vertically to workpiece axis, as is shown in (see Fig. 2). This
arrangement is appropriate only in some cases.
292 J. Mesicek et al.
Fig. 2. Radial laser heating.
Axial Laser Heating

Alternatively, the laser beam may be vertically to cutting edge (see Fig. 3). It is
necessary that the laser beam size covers the beveled surface. This will reduce cutting
forces. However, even partial coverage of the beveled surface by laser beam close to
the machined surface can significantly reduce the tool wear [3].
Fig. 3. Axial laser heating: (a) side view, (b) front view.
Double Laser Heating

Another option is use of two laser devices (see Fig. 4). Heat occurs on the unprocessed
part and on the cutting edge of workpiece. The result is the creation of the required
temperature across the whole depth of cut, which reduces tool wear. Laser distance
between laser beam and cutting tool and the cutting speed is very important, which
determines the time interval between laser heating and machining operation. Lowering
the cutting force can be achieved by adjusting the distance between laser beam and
cutting tool. If laser beam is too close to cutting tool blade, machining problems may
occur [4].
Fig. 4. Double laser heating.
2.2 Laser-Assisted Turning of Chromium Alloy

The Purdue University Laser Production Center conducted an experiment using lase
preheating to turn the 27Cr chrome alloy. One CO2 laser with a maximum output of
1200 W was used in the experiments. Tool is fitted with blade pads from CBN
material. During the experiment the depth of chip is constantly ap = 0,76 mm and tool
travel f = 0,1 mm. The influence of laser beam temperature on the cutting forces of
machining is investigated. Tool wear tests show doubling of tool life at different cutting
speed [5].
3 Proposal to Technology of Local Lase Heating

for Machining
3.1 Describe of Existing Technological Process

Existing machining technology for heavy-duty materials is performed on the
DOOSAN LYNX 2oo LSYC lathe center. The disadvantage of machining hard
materials in turning and milling is the production of high cutting forces that lead to
rapid wear of the cutting tool cutting edge. Wear is eliminated by reducing the cutting
speed, which leads ti a prolongation of the machine time. In come cases, it is necessary
to use a coolant. In addition, great emphasis is placed on machine stiffness and tool and
workpiece clamping.
3.2 Produced Part

The produced part is a valve seat, which is part of combustion engines. The dimensions
of this valve seat are Ø 120 mm – 44 mm. Valve seat is located in the cylinder head as
the bearing surface of the functional part of the intake or exhaust valve. This is a very
heavy duty part of combustion engine, therefore it must be made of a suitable material
and suitably used heat treatment.
The valve seat is machined from casting, which is produced by centrifugal casting.
Heat treatment is in the form of annealing, heating to 700 °C, stamina at 675 °C for
14 h and cooling in air. The raw cast must not have any cracks and the surface must be
free of grooves and edges. Material for this part is CrNi 58/41. Hardness is verified on
annealed casting and ranges from 420–275 HV 30. 23 parts are made from one casting.
Characteristic of Material CrNi 58/41
It is a high alloy material of chromium-nickel steel, which can be classified as corrosion
resistant materials. Application is in chemical, food, civil and, above all, automotive
industry – mainly due to increased resistance to chemical and electrochemical corrosion
[6] (Table 1).
Table 1. Chemical composition of CrNi 58/41 [6].

Cr[%] Ni[%] Si[%] Fe[%] C[%] Mn[%]
Max 55 44,95 0,05
Min 58 39,8 0,6 1 0,1 0,5
3.3 Machines
For current technology a DOOSAN LYNX 220 LSYC lathe is used. This lathe has
a sloping bed and is designed for machining small and medium workpieces with great
precision. It is suitable for machining in serial production of shafts and flanges. The
machine is fitted with two spindles, with a maximum speed of n = 6000 min−1. Lathe
can be fitted up to 25 tools.
For laser assisted turning a RNC 400 Laserturn is designed (see Fig. 5). It combines
a classic lathe with laser processing. The machine has an integrated laser on turret, the
laser beam is guided through optical devices with VDI-40 interface, which is covered
against contact with the chip, coolant and lubricant. Laser is controlled via NC 38
system that does not require expert service.
Tools
Tool to parts production are the same for existing and prosed technology using pre-
heating. For external turning, the VBD CNMG-120412E-NM interchangeable insert is
used in the DCLNR/L 2020 K 12 knife holder. The same insert is mounted in A25T
Fig. 5. Hybrid lathe RNC 400 Laserturn [7].
DCLNR/L 12 that is used for internal turning. Another replaceable blade pad is
VBD VCGT 130302E-SF2 that is used for finishing operations. It is mounted in the
SVXCR/L 2020 K13 knife holder for external turning and in the A20S-SVQCR/L 13
knife holder for internal turning. The last replaceable blade pad is VBD LFUX
030802TN which is designed for grooving. The pad is mounted in the XLCFR/L
2016 K 03 knife holder.
3.4 Cutting Conditions

Cutting conditions for newly proposed laser preheating technology are modified to
achieve the required roughness when removing the entire machining allowance
regarding tool’s durability. The preheating temperature is T = 500 °C when removing
the material. The cutting conditions for existing and proposed technology are shown in
tables (see Table 2, 3 and 4).
Table 2. Cutting conditions for machining of external surfaces.

Existing technology Laser assisted T = 500 °C
Rough Cutting speed 70 mmin−1 80 mmin
Travel per rev 0,3 mm 0,3 mm
Cut depth 1,2 mm 3 mm
Finishing Turning Cutting speed 100 mmin−1 120 mmin−1
Cut depth 0,3 mm 1,5 mm
The technological process of proposed valve seat production technology is based

on the benefit of preheating where the machined surface shows improved quality.
Table 3. Cutting conditions for machining of external surfaces internal opening.

Existing Technology Laser assisted T = 500 °C
Rough Cutting speed 50 mmin−1 –
Travel Per Rev 0,3 mm –
Cut depth 1,2 mm –
Finishing turning Cutting speed 80 mmin−1 110 mmin−1
Cut depth 0,3 mm 1,5 mm
Table 4. Cutting conditions for cutting.

Existing technology Laser assisted T = 500 °C
Grooving Cutting speed 50 mmin−1 70 mmin−1
Roughing operations are omitted. The exception is the roughing cycle between
diameters ∅110 mm and ∅120 mm, where tool for roughing is used to accelerate the
process and then finishing turning.
4 Technical and Economical Evaluation
A comparison of existing and proposed production technology is based on individual

machine time values for specific turning operations and resulting costs. For existing
technology, the times of operations are determined y the technological process. The
times for the proposed technology are determined by simulation. For the sake of clarity,
the cost of production costs is shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Calculation of production costs.

Mark Existing Lasser
technology asissted
Input values Hourly machine rate Nh 490 CZK/hrs 700
CZK/hrs
One piece machining time t1m 0,18 h 0,11 h
Extra time for machining the t23p 0,25 h 0,25 h
cast
Consumption of tools for casting N23n 500 CZK 200 CZK
(23 pcs)
Calculated Time to produce one piece (1) t1c 0,191 h 0,121 h
values Total time consumption (2) t23c 4,393 h 2,783 h
Costs per piece (3) N1c 115 CZK 93 CZK
Total costs (4) N23c 2653 CZK 2148 CZK
Total time consumption for one piece

t
23p
t1c ¼ t1m þ ð1Þ
23
Total time consupmtion for machining series of 23 pieces
t23c ¼ ðt1m 23Þ þ t23p ð2Þ
Costs of one piece production

N23n
N1c ¼ ðt1c Nh Þ þ ð3Þ
23
Costs for a series of 23 pieces
N23c ¼ ðt23c Nh Þ þ N23n ð4Þ
The proposed laser preheater technology is better at 0,07 h agains existing tech-
nology, which is 37% reduction. The total cost per piece was reduced by 22 CZK, for
the whole series savings of 505 CZK. The cost savings for one piece is 19%. By
comparing the results, we find that by locally heating the laser we will significantly
reduce the machine time by 39% (see Table 6).
Table 6. Comparison of production costs.

Production Total time Saving time Production costs Saving costs
technologies consumption per consumption per per piece [CZK] per piece
piece [min] piece [hrs] [CZK]
LYNX 220 0,191 – 115 –
LSYC
RNC 400 0,121 0,07 (37%) 93 22 (19%)
Laserturn
5 Conclusion
New Laser-assisted turning technology includes the purchase of a machine with

an integrated laser labeled RNC 400 Laserturn. The purchase of a machine is linked to
a higher hourly rate from the original 490 CZK/hrs to 700 CZK/hrs. The advantage of
the proposed technology using laser preheating is to reduce the surface mechanical
properties of the machined material, thereby reducing the wear of the tools. Due to this
reason, tools can remain the same as the current production technology, only cutting
conditions change. This result in a reduction in tools costs from 500 CZK to 200 CZK
per 23 pcs. Decreasing machine time and omitting one roughing operation will gen-
erally reduce the time consumption of one piece by 37%. In total, costs are reduced by
19% for one piece of product.
It is clear from calculations that the proposed production technology is more

economical. The favorable results are mainly due to the lower consumption time of the
proposed technology as the hourly rate of the preheating machine was higher than of
the current technology.
Acknowledgement. Article has been done in connection with projects Education system for
personal resource of development and research in field of modern trend of surface engineering -
surface integrity, reg. no. CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0037 financed by Structural Founds of Europe
Union and from the means of state budget of the Czech Republic and by project Students Grant
Competition SP2018/150 and SP2018/136 financed by the Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sports and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering VŠB-TUO.
References
1. König, W., Zaboklicki, A.K.: Laser-assisted hot machining of ceramics and composite
materials. In: International Conference on Machining of Advanced Materials: NIST Special
Publication, Gaithersburg, vol. 847, pp. 455–463 (1993)
2. Saleem, H.: Comprehensive Materials Processing. Elsevier, Ireland (2014)
3. Sun, S.: Parametric investigation of laser-assisted machining of commercially pure titanium.
Adv. Eng. Mater. 10, 565–572 (2008)
4. Salem, W.B.: Laser assisted turning during finishing operation applied to hardened steels and
Inconel 718. In: Laser Assisted Net Shape Engineering: Proceedings of the LANE 1994,
Bamberg, vol. 1, pp. 455–464 (1994)
5. Hongtao, D.: Improving machinability of high chromium wear-resistant materials via laser–
assisted machining. Mach. Sci. Technol. 17(2), 246–269 (2013)
6. Fremut, P., Podrabsky, T.: Konstrukční oceli 1. CERM, Brno (1996)
7. RNC Hochleistungs-CNC-Drehmaschinen: http://www.monforts-wzm.de/en/produkte/lasert-
urn/rnc-400-technische-daten.html. Accessed 01 May 2018
Contributions to the Development
of an Ontology in Logistics of Manufacturing
Nicolae Stelian Ungureanu(&) , Adrian Petrovan ,

and Miorita Ungureanu
Faculty of Engineering, North University Center of Baia Mare,

Technical University of Cluj Napoca, V. Babes St. 62,
430083 Baia Mare, Romania
{nicolae.ungureanu,adrian.petrovan,
miorita.ungureanu}@cunbm.utcluj.ro
Abstract. In this paper are presented some contributions to the development of

an ontology in logistics of manufacturing. In the paper are presented the basic
conditions required by logistics of manufacturing and the main activities of
logistics of manufacturing. Also are presented the main definition of ontology,
the evolution of ontology and the ontological approach to the logistics problems
of manufacturing. Are proposes a core ontology that specifies the main concepts
used in logistics operations. In the end of paper are presented the future
directions of research for the development of an ontology in logistics of
manufacturing.
Keywords: Ontology engineering Conceptual modelling

Logistics of manufacturing Knowledge representation
1 Introduction
The scope of logistics management is very wide, starting from the military area (where
the bases of science called logistics were recorded) and in many different economic
areas. The logistic management is pervasive in all types of industrial activities. The
concept of industrial logistics has experienced an exponential development and a
crystallization as the self-sustaining science in the 50 s when the level of military
logistics experience was very high and many specialists were redirecting to civilian
domains, market demand was increasing and also the increase in service level was a
means to increase competitiveness. From a simply point of view, the problem of
logistics of manufacturing is to respond to the challenge of securing for manufacturing
activities the raw of materials and materials necessary, in the required assortments, in
the necessary quantities, in the right place and at the right time, all at an optimum price.
It is a spatial and temporal synchronization of resources with the demands of the
manufacturing system (Fig. 1).
From the theoretic point of view the management of logistics of manufacturing is
the process of planning, implementing and efficient controlling of the effective flow and
storage of materials, services and the flow of information from the point of origin to
point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_32
300 N. S. Ungureanu et al.
Fig. 1. Basic conditions for logistics of manufacturing.
Fig. 2. Activities of logistics of manufacturing.
The main activities of logistic of manufacturing are presented in Fig. 2.

Under current economic conditions, logistics of manufacturing is a tool for
increasing economic competitiveness, a means that can make a difference between
profit and loss. These aspects are recognized and highlighted in many specialized
papers [6, 18, 22]. At the same time, it is recognized that the logistics of manufacturing
is a field with a constant development in which the latest discoveries or concepts can be
applied.
Contributions to the Development of an Ontology 301
2 On the Ontology Aspects on Logistics Activities
The concept of ontology has been used in recent years, especially in many areas with
applicability in knowledge management and computer assisted cooperation. By its
peculiarities, ontology is used to share existing information in an area of interest. It is
conducive to the representation and use of data relationships and is also effective in
knowledge-based reasoning.
A broadly accepted definition for the notion of ontology is that given by Gruber [9]
namely: Ontology is a formal specification of conceptualization. Gruber [9] states that
the term conceptualization is an abstract notion, a simplified view of the world we want
to represent for a particular purpose. Regardless of the community type which will
change and share knowledge through an ontology, whether human actors or agents (in
the framework of artificial intelligence), ontologies establish a common terminology,
for this reason conceptualization requires a proper formalization. As defined by Gruber
[9] conceptualization refers to objects, concepts and other entities that are supposed to
exist in a particular area of interest, as well as the relationships that hold them together.
Regardless of the field, an ontology consists of several elements, the most important
being: concepts, relationships, attributes, instances, and axioms. In other words, a
conceptualization is an abstract and simplified vision of the world we want to represent
for a certain purpose. Formal specification involves the existence of a vocabulary of
representation in which the objects of the domain and the relations between them can
be formally represented.
An important role in product ontology has the “feature” of the product. The concept
of “feature” first appeared in the field of product engineering, where it was given the
following definition: “a representation of the shape aspects of a product that can be
made in a generic form and that is functionally significant for the phase of the life of
some products” [4]. Initially, it was closely related to the geometry of the product.
However, because product development does not only include engineering activities,
product information is not limited to geometry, it has a much richer and more complex
semantic content (functional, structural, behavioral, technological, etc.). In order to
capture this semantic content, the meaning of “feature” is extended to have a relevant
definition depending on the context in which it is used, reducing the gap between
geometry and other product information.
Several approaches to developing ontologies are known in several areas: biology
(Gene Ontology [8], Lewis [14], Myhre et al. [19]), medicine (Bickmore et al. [2],
Matei [17], design (Contraş & Pintescu [7]) and geosciences (Hu et al. [11], Jung et al.
[12]), special products like machines or industrial equipment problems are treated
briefly in Barbau et al. [1], Panetto et al. [20].
A comprehensive study on the role of knowledge management in the field of supply
chain management (SCM) was done by Marra et al. [16]. Authors reviewed more than
50 journal articles in which knowledge management approaches are proposed in supply
chain context. The main results highlighted in their study were: Knowledge manage-
ment and its role for SCM; a large interest on applying knowledge management in
supply chains projects and the missing recommendations on knowledge accumulation
and sharing their results to other projects with different scenarios of supply chain
networks. Samuel et al. [21] describe the knowledge management activity as an enabler
for SCM and suggest a more practical framework for knowledge management in
supply chains. However, the results on creating frameworks for knowledge manage-
ment are at a very low and abstract level that focuses on capturing tacit and explicit
knowledge among supply chain partners. To achieve the competitiveness of the supply
chain, Samuel et al. [21] discusses the need to take into account the concepts and
semantic relations of supply chain networks in conceptual models and ontologies.
Another review on ontologies for SCM was done by Scheuermann and Leukel [23]
and assess to extent of linkages between ontology engineering and SCM concepts. In
their research authors have identified 16 SCM ontologies, from which only a few have
adopted ontology engineering techniques. Particularly, few proposals only reuse the-
oretical conceptualizations on SCM from literature and previous works for ontology
development. Another group of them present only aspects of expressiveness of
ontology languages or demonstrate ontology’s utility by metrics or evaluation methods.
Further, in the field of logistics, the ontological engineering has been applied first
and foremost, in the area of supply chain management (SCM) (Leukel and Kirn [13];
Scheuermann and Hoxha [23] and was subsequently applied in other logistics areas
such as transportation (Taniguchi et al. [24]), storage management (Panetto, Dassisti,
and Tursi, 2012), packaging and product distribution (Lian et al. [15]). Leukel and Kirn
[13] have studied the SCM domain and proposed an ontology with the following main
concepts: process with subclasses plan, source, make, deliver, return and metrics. In
(Scheuermann and Hoxha [23]) authors presents an approach of SCM ontology with
improved characteristics of flexibility and decentralization. Main logistics resource
concepts like process, service or resource are included into a modularly organized
ontology. Possible application of the developed ontology fosters semantic annotation of
logistics services as well as semantic interoperability, information integration and
reasoning capabilities for future intelligent applications. Hendi et al. [10] extend an
ontology of logistics activities with concepts and capabilities of optimization of
logistics resources. The proposed system is intended to be part of an exhaustive
framework to support users in development of logistics applications.
3 Approach
In order to build an ontology that covers the logistics processes we have followed the
methodology presented by Uschold and Gruninger [25] that combines a top-down and
bottom-up practices for ontology engineering. The ontological approach for this domain
is fostering the modularity, extensibility and maintainability as follows (Fig. 3):
• Modularity. This allow a separation of different parts of the ontology in order to be
more flexible in the development of specific concepts. Also, this approach allows
the involved team in logistics activities to be more efficient and collaborative.
Fig. 3. The ontological approach for manufacturing area.
• Extensibility. This facilitate the further improvement of the ontology for the purpose
of other scopes on other logistics or SCM applications. For example, the core
ontology that describes main aspects of logistics processes could be extended with
new features related to other enterprise business processes.
• Maintainability. This characteristic simplifies the process of identifying and
reviewing deficiencies of the ontology, to implement new requirements in order to
satisfy the changes that could occur in ontology.
The first step in creating the Logistics Ontology was to identify relevant concepts
which describe logistics domain. In this way, top level concepts identified were
Activity, Service, Operations and Company. In the Activity class are grouped main
logistics activities (Fig. 2). For these activities a Company could make an Offer or
order a Request, these operations being grouped into Operations top class. These
operations, offered or requested by a company, refers a service which correspond for
any activity undertaken within the company. In this way, a company could perform or
can make an offer or request for services. For fully determination of specified service
one can have access to configuration parameters such as resources involved in the
service, information about the type of process or location of the logistics service. These
parameters can be accessed within the parameter class with its Resource, Process, and
Location subclasses.
A complete implementation of the proposed ontology is presented in Fig. 4.
304
N. S. Ungureanu et al.
Fig. 4. Implementation of the proposed ontology.

4 Conclusions
In this paper authors proposes a core ontology that specifies the main concepts used in
logistics operations. Further, if it is extended with other features, the ontology can be
promoted as a working tool in the logistics activity of the enterprise. The ontology has
been developed from scratch and is developed in accordance with internal work
specifications within the logistics activities. Benefiting from the background in logis-
tics, developing a specific ontology in this field is not a relatively simple task. This is
due to the complexity of the issues to be considered, and to the principles and methods
of creating ontologies. On the one hand, the theoretical and methodological knowledge
of logistics operations must be abstracted in the terms and concepts specific to onto-
logical engineering, and on the other hand, the knowledge and abilities of creating and
modeling ontologies must be applied to translating this knowledge into practice. the
approach presented in this paper is intended to be a bridge between areas of completely
distinct expertise, even if the result has not yet been validated by experts in the field.
However, the obtained result sets the foundations for the development of new
ontologies in a field where they do not excel by refinement and granularity and can also
be used to develop complex working tools specific to the collaborative environment
within a modern enterprise. Further research will be conducted in:
• extending the ontology of manufacturing to all areas of manufacturing processes
that are not touched into present work;
• the integration of the resulted ontology into industrial ontology that covers main
activities of an enterprise;
• evaluation of the ontology of manufacturing and further ones in order to validate
research results with practical case studies.
References
1. Barbau, R., Krima, S., Rachuri, S., Narayanan, A., Fiorentini, X., Foufou, S., Sriram, R.D.:
OntoSTEP: enriching product model data using ontologies. Comput. Aided Des. 44(6),
575–590 (2012)
2. Bickmore, T.W., Schulman, D., Sidner, C.L.: A reusable framework for health counseling
dialogue systems based on a behavioral medicine ontology. J. Biomed. Inform. 44(2),
183–197 (2011)
3. Bonnardel, N., Marmèche, E.: Evocation processes by novice and expert designers: Towards
stimulating analogical thinking. Creat. Innov. Manag. 13(3), 176–186 (2004)
4. Bronsvoort, W.F., Van Den Berg, E., Bidarra, R., Noort, A.: Essential developments in
feature modelling. In: Proceedings of the CAD/Graphics’2001. In: 7th International
Conference on Computer Aided Design and Computer Graphics, Kunming, China, pp. 6–15
(2001)
5. Brunetti, G., Grimm, S.: Feature ontologies for the explicit representation of shape
semantics. Int. J. Comput. Appl. Technol. 23(2), 192–202 (2005)
6. Cioca, M., Cioca, L.I., Duta, L.: Web technologies and multi-criteria analysis used in
enterprise integration. Stud. Inform. Control 20(2), 129–134 (2011)
7. Contraş, D., Pintescu, A.: Defining spatial relations in a specific ontology for automated
scene creation. Carpathian J. Electron. Comput. Eng. 6(1), 50 (2013)
8. Gene Ontology Consortium: Gene Ontology annotations and resources. Nucleic Acids Res.
41(D1), D530–D535 (2013)
9. Gruber, T.R.: A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. Knowl. Acquis.
5(2), 199–220 (1993)
10. Hendi, H., Ahmad, A., Bouneffa, M., Fonlupt, C.: Logistics optimization using ontologies.
In: The 4th International Conference on Complex Systems and Applications, ICCSA 2014
(2014)
11. Hu, Z., Tang, G., Lu, G.: A new geographical language: a perspective of GIS. J. Geog. Sci.
24(3), 560–576 (2014)
12. Jung, C.T., Sun, C.H., Yuan, M.: An ontology-enabled framework for a geospatial problem-
solving environment. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 38, 45–57 (2013)
13. Leukel, J., Kirn, S.: A supply chain management approach to logistics ontologies in
information systems. In: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Business
Information Systems (BIS08). LNBIP, pp. 95–105. Springer (2008)
14. Lewis, S.E.: Gene Ontology: looking backwards and forwards. Genome Biol. 6(1), 103
(2005)
15. Lian, P., Park, D.W., Kwon, H.C.: Design of logistics ontology for semantic representing of
situation in logistics. In: Second Workshop on Digital Media and its Application in Museum
& Heritages, pp. 432–437 (2008)
16. Marra, M., Ho, W., Edwards, J.S.: Supply chain knowledge management: a literature review.
Expert Syst. Appl. 39(5), 6103–6110 (2012)
17. Matei, O.: Defining an ontology for the radiograph images segmentation. Paper presented at
the 9th International Conference on Development and Application Systems, Suceava,
Romania (2008)
18. Monkova, K., Monka, P.: Qualitative parameters of complex part produced by additive
approach. In: 8th International Conference on Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
(ICMAE), pp. 691–694 (2017)
19. Myhre, S., Tveit, H., Mollestad, T., Lægreid, A.: Additional Gene Ontology structure for
improved biological reasoning. Bioinformatics 22(16), 2020–2027 (2006)
20. Panetto, H., Dassisti, M., Tursi, A.: ONTO-PDM: Product-driven ONTOlogy for Product
Data Management interoperability within manufacturing process environment. Adv. Eng.
Inform. 26(2), 334–348 (2012)
21. Samuel, K.E., Goury, M.L., Gunasekaran, A., Spalanzani, A.: Knowledge management in
supply chain: an empirical study from France. J. Strateg. Inf. Syst. 20(3), 283–306 (2011)
22. Kaplonek, W., Nadolny, K., Krolczyk, G.M.: The use of focus-variation microscopy for the
assessment of active surfaces of a new generation of coated abrasive tools. Meas. Sci. Rev.
16, 42–53 (2016)
23. Scheuermann, A., Hoxha, J.: Ontologies for intelligent provision of logistics services. In:
The Seventh International Conference on Internet and Web Applications and Services (2012)
24. Taniguchi, E., Thompson, R.G., Yamada, T.: New opportunities and challenges for city
logistics. Transp. Res. Procedia 12, 5–13 (2016)
25. Uschold, M., Gruninger, M.: Ontologies: principles, methods and applications. Knowl. Eng.
Rev. 11(2), 93–136 (1996)
Advanced Output Characteristics of Welding
Power Source for Pulsed GMAW
Krzysztof Makles(&), Jerzy Winczek, and Marek Gucwa
Czestochowa University of Technology, Dabrowskiego 69, 42-201

Czestochowa, Poland
krzymakles@gmail.com, winczek@imipkm.pcz.com,
mgucwa@spaw.pcz.pl
Abstract. One of relevant nonparametric parameter characterizing the welding

power source is static output characteristic. The parameter is designated by
loading the source with an adjustable resistor. However, in case pulsed gas metal
arc welding (P-GMAW) power source, the measurement of relationship between
the output voltage and the output current is dependent on several factors and
ignoring them might lead to the incorrect evaluation of the varying slope in
working point. The following work introduces some aspects of analysis pro-
grammable output characteristics of welding power source. To determine power
supply volt/amp characteristic during background current time and pulse dura-
tion, special value of arc parameters have been set in synergic control system of
welding machine. The analysis of registered images of interelectrode space with
the use of high - speed photography has been presented. It has enabled the
interpretation of the impact of change in pulse current value as change in the
length of the electrode extension on metal transfer and arc stability of the arc.
Keywords: Output characteristic Pulsed GMAW
1 Introduction
Arc metal inert gas welding is currently the predominant process of joining metals and
metal alloys. Among many variants of this process, the pulse welding process is of
particular importance [1]. The main advantage of using the pulse arc is the ability to
control the material transfer in the arc. This makes it possible to improve the process
stability, to obtain welds of better properties, to control the heat input to the welded
joint, as well as to increase the welding efficiency [2].
In the literature dealing with the problems of forces acting on liquid metal droplets,
the view prevails that it is the electromagnetic force that has the most important effect
on liquid metal droplet detachment [3]. Hence, the majority of studies are based on
investigating the influence of the pulse amplitude, Ii, on the number and the time of
detachment of liquid metal droplets [4].
In the pulse arc welding process, the proper electrode melt is obtained by setting the
descriptive parameters of the welding characteristic at specific levels. Respective
current–voltage relationships can be represented using the output static characteristic of
the power supply, which represents the dependence of the voltage measured at the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_33
308 K. Makles et al.
source output terminals as a function of current flowing in the main power (output)
circuit, with a fixed position of the source controller and with a resistance load, when
current changes are infinitely slow [5]. In a general, the output characteristic shapes the
variation of current in the working point region during welding, thus significantly
influencing the mode of base plate and electrode melt.
Output characteristic of pulsed power source had been investigated by Pan [6], as
well as Wang et al. [7] who indicated stepped output characteristic. However, voltage
and current measured as average values of duty cycle and the data don’t show dif-
ference between modern power supplies. The paper aims to proposal for the new
method for measuring the output characteristics of the power supply employed for
pulse welding.
2 Experimental Procedures
Two series of experiments were conducted. Each cycle comprised measurements of

volt/amp characteristic for two commercial power welding source. The first series of
tests was carried out according to the standard procedure operating the power source at
certain pulse parameters estimated by synergic control system of power source giving
pulse parameters with respect to the wire feed rate and arc power. The second series
was conducted according to the parameters in Table 1. To visual observation of
dynamic change of length of contact tip to work distance (CTWD) used Photron
Fastcam 1024 PCI and Mobility Electronics 2 slots MAGMA PCI expansion system
with DAQ device with 16 analog inputs. The capture frequency was set to 9000 Hz.
Table 1. Special programmable value of arc welding parameters for second series of tests.
No. Base current Pulsed frequency Pulse time Peak voltage Peak current Arc length
1.1 30 0 – – – –
1.2 30 250 4 40 – –
2.1 30 0 – – – –
2.2 30 250 4 – 450 80%
3.1 Standard Procedure to Determine Output Characteristic

Figure 1 shows the output characteristic of a welding machine in a pulsed operation
mode. A high value of open circuit voltage, Uq0, and the appropriately shaped Sect. 1
of the characteristic allow the arc to stably burn in transient states, e.g. when short
circuits occur, that is always at arc ignition, by reducing the dynamic resistance of the
arc–power supply system in the case of increasing the inter-electrode gap. The blue
broken line denotes the initial output characteristic that performs arc ignition with the
electrode wire retracting at a current Iz0 of approx. 13 A. The microprocessor controller
Advanced Output Characteristics of Welding Power Source for Pulsed GMAW 309
is responsible for the time release of a voltage-current pulse with a longer duration until
a welding puddle forms. Then the system proceeds with pulse operation in the working
region denoted with the dark lines. This method of start arc ignition (Fig. 2) allows a
spatter-free start-up of the welding process with correct fusion into the base material
(which should be utilized especially in the case of short sections, e.g. tack welds), also
at high electrode wire feed rates.
Fig. 1. Programmable output characteristic of power source for pulsed gas metal arc welding.
Uq – output voltage; Iq – output current; Uq0 – open circuit voltage; Iz0 – initial short circuit
current; Ib0- minimum base current, Ibt- actual base current; Ii min, Ii max – minimum and
maximum pulse current; I – arc start region; II – base current region and slope of base
characteristic; III – transition phase and slope of transition characteristic; IV.1 – working voltage
region of pulse phase; IV.2 – working current region of pulse phase.
Region II corresponds to the power supply’s operation in a base current phase. Due
to the rate of rise of the characteristic, the base current value will be dependent, though
negligibly, on the actual arc length. In the pulse phase, the working point either lies on
the rising voltage characteristic IV.1, or moves into the constant-current region IV.2,
e.g. when welding with a short section of the extended electrode wire.
The transition phase, as represented by region III, is a theoretical line, whose
displacement during the real process depends on the obtained maximum pulse current
and voltage in the base phase. It should be noted, however, that the rising curve in the
phase of pulse current build-up and falling depends on the pulse modulation system
employed in the control system and corresponds to the programmed current change
dynamic that assures stable arc burning, depending on the wire diameter and electrode
Fig. 2. Arc ignition scheme realized with the use of programmable static characteristic.
material used. During the actual working process, it is therefore hard to regard
explicitly such a characteristic as output.
3.2 Output Characteristics Obtained in Second Test

A different shape of the characteristic will be obtained when the power supply is loaded
with a resistor and the base current duration is taken as being equal to zero (settings 1.2
in Table 1). Such a characteristic enables the output characteristic in the pulse phase to
be determined. As the source characteristic in the base phase has a constant-current
behavior (settings 1.1 in Table 1), the obtained working region of the pulse arc has the
form of two curves: current curve II and voltage curve III (which is limited by the
maximum output current).
On the basis of such output characteristic it is easy to find that an internal feedback
occurs in the source–arc system as the arc burns in the pulse phase. This implies that
the system will be susceptible to external interference caused by change in the length of
the extended electrode length or in wire feed rate, and associated changes in pulse
current (change of the working point from A0 to A1 and A0’). At the same time,
however, a flat characteristic within large current densities allows a small time constant
to be obtained, thus enhancing the self-regulation ability and thereby stabilizing the arc,
according to the equation:

Tsqe ¼ 1= ki =Rsq þ ku Es ð1Þ
where Tsqe is time constant self-regulation of the arc (s), ki is electrode tip heating
coefficient from arc (mm(As)−1), ku is resistance heating coefficient (mm(Vs)−1), Es
is voltage gradient in arc column (Vmm−1), Rsq is dynamic resistance of power supply
– welding arc (VA−1).
In practice, the value of the resistance of the Rsq system can be estimated using the
divergence angle between the welding source output characteristic and the static arc
characteristic (a on the Fig. 3). As the static arc characteristic in welding by the
MIG/MAG method within high welding currents has a rising behaviour and the voltage
gradient in the arc column has a relatively small value (0.7 – 1.5 Vmm−1), it is
advantageous to use either a flat or slightly rising current source characteristic.
Fig. 3. Simplified output characteristic of pulsed power source OZAS SYNERMIG 400 (U-I
type of output characteristic) and moving of working point due arc length change. UqI –
programmable value of peak voltage, Ii – actual working current in operating point; ls – static arc
characteristic; II – working region of base current; III – working region of pulse phase.
Not considering the voltage drop resulting from the change in the resistance of the
active electrode wire section, the displacement of the working point from A0’ to A0
along the vertical characteristic involves a considerable change in pulse current. In
a similar manner, the occurrence of momentary changes in wire feed rate during
Fig. 4. Simplified output characteristic of pulsed power source Cloos GLC 353 Quinto Profi(I-I
type of output characteristic) with the feedback of the minimum value of the pulse current with
the welding characteristics. IV – region of pulse current and current characteristic slope, V –
region of short-term current increase.
welding should be taken into account. Reducing the pulse amplitude leads to an
incorrect pulse cycle without cutting off the drop formed at the wire tip. This is due to
the reduction in the magnetic force that detachment the drop, whose value depends
primarily on the pulse current value. This condition results in a large-volume drop that
is detached upon several pulse cycles under the effect of its own gravity, generally
causing a considerable liquid metal splatter (Fig. 5). Since such a situation is unac-
ceptable for high-alloy materials and those sensitive to disturbances in the gas shield
(stainless steel or titanium alloys), a programmed minimum pulse phase current, Ii min,
needs to be introduced to the constant-voltage system. The output characteristic is
shown in Fig. 4 (measurement with settings 2.1 and 2.2 in Table 1).
In a system of this type, the working point in the pulse phase moves between curves
IV - V, depending on the actual arc length in the pulse current phase, creating an arc
length regulation system based on the average programmed pulse current, which is
performed by an appropriate control module. For point A0 to be stable during the
Fig. 5. Explosion bubble droplet into fragments, subsequent current pulses not detached the
droplet, causes spattering.
course of shortening the arc to ls1, an excess of output voltage must exist. Because the
system’s work at point B causes a considerable reduction in arc voltage, which can be
insufficient for stable metal transport, the control system provides the capability to pass
from steep characteristic IV to flat characteristic V. Corresponding to new working
point A1 is an increase in pulse current, that is an acceleration of electrode wire fusion,
with an appropriate voltage reserve. With small arc length changes, the appropriate
slope of the characteristic dIi/dUq (about 0,25 VA−1) enables the pulse current to be
maintained without a considerable change in the declared value. So, the output char-
acteristic, which can be called multi-segment, is formed by a series of curves. The
minimum pulse current setting and the slope of the characteristic in region V provide in
this case additional parameters necessary to be defined in the arc welding characteristic.
They enable, however, a constant arc length and pulsed frequency to be retained, and
thus permanent fusion into the base material.
4 Conclusion
The analysis of the collected research material in the form of measurement data from
loading the arc power supplies with a rheostat has enabled the determination of output
characteristics of the equipment under examination. It is proposed that, when referring
to pulse sources with programmable characteristics, the term output characteristic
should be used in the case of examining the dependence of the output current on the
output voltage with fixed parameters characterizing the welding process, while the term
simplified output characteristic should be applied to current–voltage values obtained
under conditions corresponding to the working points of the welding arc.
In future work will then be tested experimentally behaviours of arc working point
and metal transfer stability with different output characteristics and arc length controller
with the use dynamic change of CTWD during welding for a different physical
properties of wire electrode materials. This will improve matching the output charac-
teristics to the welded material.
References
1. Ghosh, P.K., Dorn, L., Hubner, M., Goyal, V.K.: Arc characteristics and behaviour of metal
transfer in pulsed current GMW welding of aluminum alloy. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 194,
163–175 (2007)
2. Harwig, D.D., Dierksheide, J.E., Yapp, D., Blackman, S.: Arc behaviour and melting rate in
the VP-GMAW process. Weld. Res. Suppl. 85(10), 52–62 (2006)
3. Jones, L.A., Eagar, T.W., Lang, H.J.: Magnetic forces acting on molten drops in gas metal arc
welding. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 31, 93–108 (1998)
4. Xiao, J., Zhang, G.J., Zhang, W.J., Zhang, Y.M.: Active metal transfer control by utilizing
enhanced droplet oscillation part 1: experimental study. Weld. J. Suppl. 93(8), 282–291
(2014)
5. Kensik, R.: Exploitation of Welding Machines. Czestochowa University of Technology Press,
Czestochowa (1995)
6. Pan, J.L., Zhang, R.A., Wu, Z.Q., Chen, Q: System for weld penetration control. In:
Proceedings of the International Conference on Improved Weldment Control with Special
Reference to Computer Technology, pp. 219–222. Pergamon Press, Vienna (1988)
7. Wang, Q., Qi, B., Cong, B., Yang, M.: Output characteristic and arc length control of pulsed
gas metal arc welding process. J. Manuf. Process. 29(10), 427–437 (2017)
Investigation of the Effect of Johnson-Cook
Constitutive Model Parameters on Results
of the FEM Turning Simulation
Piotr Löschner and Krzysztof Jarosz(&)
Opole University of Technology, Prószkowska Street 78, 45-758 Opole, Poland

jarosz.krzysztof91@gmail.com
Abstract. FEM simulation are of growing importance in the research of phe-

nomena related to the machining processes. To accurately model the machining
process, an appropriate constitutive model needs to be employed. A Johnson-
Cook (J-C) material model is frequently used for numerical simulations of
various machining processes. J-C model parameters for a range of materials are
available in open literature, with substantial differences between parameter
values for the same material depending on the source. The aim of this work was
to investigate the effect of changes in values of J-C model parameters on the
results of an FEM oblique turning simulation. Impact of parameter values was
evaluated on the basis of differences in chip shape, stress distribution and cutting
force values obtained for several different parameter sets. The authors have
noted significant differences in simulation results. Depending on used parameter
values.
Keywords: Johnson-Cook model Simulation Titanium alloy
1 Introduction
In modern machining industry and scientific research related to machining processes,

numerical simulations play an increasingly important role. Thanks to computers with
large computational power becoming readily available, along with a number of FEM
software solutions, it is possible to solve complex machining-related issues and
investigate the phenomena occurring in the course of the process without the need to
perform time-consuming and expensive experimental research.
A proper preparation of an FEM numerical simulation of the machining process is a
complex issue which requires representation of the phenomena occurring in the cutting
zone, such as friction, heat transfer or the effect of strain rate on material properties.
Apart from correct representation of tool and workpiece geometries, correct meshing of
created models and proper assumption of boundary conditions, a choice of an appro-
priate constitutive model is necessary. A dependence simulation results on the choice
of constitutive model parameter values can also expected, as simulation results will
vary when the same constitutive model is used, but different model parameter values
are assumed. The aim of this paper is to present the effect of changes in Johnson-Cook
(J-C) model parameter values on results of an FEM turning simulation.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_34
316 P. Löschner and K. Jarosz
2 Johnson-Cook Constitutive Model
A constitutive model applicable for FEM simulations of machining processes should

adequately describe stress-strain relations occurring in the material, up to the point of
material decohesion upon reaching its yield strength [1]. Due to the nature of the
machining processes, an adequate constitutive model should take into account the effect
of various phenomena on material properties, amongst which the following can be
listed as most important: Strain hardening of the material, the effect of deformation and
strain rate on material properties and the effect of thermal softening.
Basing on literature research, it can be noted that the Johnson-Cook constitutive
model is most frequently used for machining simulations [1–6]. This model is repre-
sented by Eq. (1) and includes the effect of strain hardening (1.1), strain rate (1.2) and
thermal softening (1.3) on material properties.
ð1Þ
Where:
rp – Equivalent plastic stress, ep- plastic strain, έp- strain rate, έo – reference strain
rate, T- temperature, Tt- melting temperature, Tot- room temperature, A, B, C, m, n-
material-specific model parameters
Johnson-Cook model parameters for different workpiece materials can be found in
open literature. It is worth noting that parameter values for the same workpiece material
vary for different publications. Besides parameter values, available works by other
authors vary in areas such as process parameters, workpiece and tool geometry, finite
element type and mesh density, used FEM software etc. Therefore it is not possible to
definitely pinpoint the effect of changes in only J-C model parameter values on sim-
ulation results, without changes in its other aspects.
In this work, the authors have changed only the values of material-specific J-C
model parameters, while the rest of the simulation will remain unchanged. This was
done with the aim of better understanding the effect of said parameters on simulation
results.
3 Input Data
Presented FEM simulations were conducted with the use of Abaqus/CAE software.
Tool and workpiece geometries were modelled within the program. Workpiece model
was meshed with the use of C3D8R elements, a global element length of L = 5∙10−6 m
was used. The cutting tool was modelled as a rigid body, with rake and lead faces
divided into 15 elements each, while 10 elements were used for the tool nose. The
following process parameters were assumed for simulation purposes: cutting speed
vc = 60 m/min, feed f = 0.15 mm/rev, and cutting depth ap = 1 mm. Tool and work-
piece geometry along with boundary conditions are presented in Fig. 1.
Investigation of the Effect of Johnson-Cook Constitutive Model 317
Fig. 1. Tool-workpiece geometry and boundary conditions for simulations.
A Johnson-Cook ductile fracture model expressed with Eq. (2) [1] was used to
model material fracture initiation:
p
e_ b
epD ¼ ½d1 þ d2 expðd3 gÞ 1 þ d4 ln 0 1 þ d5 H ð2Þ
e_
Where:
έpD- equivalent strain at fracture, έp – strain rate, έo – reference strain rate, H ̅-
dimensionless temperature, d1d5- material-specific parameters, η- Stress triaxiality
parameter
A constant value of displacement at failure Uf was used for modelling material
failure. Its value was assumed on the basis of previous research by the authors,
regarding the effect of different Uf values on simulation results [7].
Moreover, it was necessary to specify the physical properties of the workpiece
material and ductile fracture parameters. Material properties and ductile fracture
parameters are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Material properties and ductile fracture parameters [6].

q, kg/m3 E, Pa m d1 d2 d3 d4 d5
4430 11∙109 0.33 −0.09 0.25 −0.5 0.0014 3.87
Four different sets of J-C model parameters available in open literature for Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy were assumed for research purposes. Their values are presented in
Table 2.
4 Simulation Results
Obtained simulation results were analyzed on the account of cutting force values, chip
shape and stress distribution.
Table 2. Values of J-C model parameter sets for Ti6Al4V titanium alloy [6, 8–10].
Set number Literature A, Pa B, Pa C n m
S1 [6] 862∙106 331∙106 0.012 0.34 0.8
S2 [8] 1098∙106 1092∙106 0.014 0.93 1.1
S3 [9] 860∙106 683∙106 0.035 0.47 1
S4 [10] 1000∙106 870∙106 0.033 0.47 1.02
In Fig. 2, cutting force values vs. machining time for used parameter sets are
shown. There are noticeable differences in both values and courses of simulated cutting
force.
Fig. 2. Cutting force values vs. machining time for used Johnson-Cook model parameter sets.
The lowest cutting force value was noted for S1 parameter set. It can also be seen
that for S1 parameters, a slowest rise in cutting force value can be observed, with
cutting force reaching its maximum value of Fcmax = 169 N around approximately
0.15 s, which is half of total simulated cutting time. Higher maximum cutting force
value (Fcmax = 182 N) was noted for set S2, with cutting force reaching its maximum
value after a simulation time of 0.12 s.
A constant, approximately linear increase in cutting force value in the initial cutting
time (t = 0-0.03 s) can be seen for S3 and S4 parameter sets. Comparatively highest
cutting force values were also noted for these sets, equaling respectively Fcmax = 193
for S3 and Fcmax = 225 in the case of S4. The force value simulated with the use of the
fourth shows the closest match to available experimental results for the used range of
machining parameters [11].
Obtained chip shapes were compared for simulation times of t = 0.12 s (critical
stress) and t = 0.15 s (material fracture initiation). Stress distribution in the workpiece
material for the same time periods was also analyzed.
Simulation results for used J-C model parameter sets are shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5 and
6. Substantial differences in stress distribution and critical stress values can be seen.
The highest stress value was noted for set S4 (rS4 = 1733 MPa), whereas the lowest
one was noted for S1, equaling rS1= 1139 MPa. Therefore, the difference between the
lowest and highest value obtained for assumed J-C model parameter values is
594 MPa.
Fig. 3. Simulation results for S1 parameter set at simulation times of (a) t = 0.12 s,
(b) t = 0.15 s.
Discrepancies between used sets were also noted in the chip formation process. In
the case of S1 and S2 sets, at the simulation time of t = 0.15 s, a portion of workpiece
material has fractured, forming a single discontinuous chip. For S3 and S4 sets, only
a formation of a single crack in the shear band region can be seen (note Figs. 5b and
6b). It has to be noted that workpiece material separation and chip formation in the case
of S3 and S4 sets occurs at the simulation time of t = 0.18 s. This is reflected with the
drop in cutting force value at that time that is evident in Fig. 2. A highest drop in
cutting force value during material separation and chip formation can be seen in the
case of S1 set, equaling 94 N. Force value drops during chip formation for other used
parameter sets equal respectively: S2 = 31 N, S3 = 58 N, S4 = 45 N.
In Fig. 7, the effect of changes in Johnson-Cook model parameter values on
equivalent plastic stress related to plastic strain is presented. A correlation between
plastic stress and cutting force values obtained for each parameter set can be seen. Sets
for which plastic stress values are higher yield higher values of cutting force in the
FEM simulation. The following critical stress values in crack zones seen in Fig. 6 were
noted for used sets: S1 = 1066 MPa at strain of 0.26, S2 = 1425 MPa at strain of 0.45,
S3 = 1554 MPa at strain of 0.86 and finally S4 = 1733 MPa at strain 0.82.
(b) t = 0.15 s.
(b) t = 0.15 s.
Fig. 6. Simulation results for S4 parameter set at simulation times of (a) t = 0.12 s,(b)
t = 0.15 s.
Fig. 7. The effect of changes of Johnson-Cook parameters on equivalent plastic stress.
5 Summary and Conclusions
A substantial effect of alternating J-C model parameter values while keeping the rest of
the simulation setup unchanged can be noted. Basing on simulation results, the authors
have drawn the following main conclusions:
1. Differences in J-C model parameter affect the course of the cutting force value vs.
machining time function and different peak cutting force values Fcmax;
2. A drop in cutting force value is evident during material separation and chip for-
mation in the case of all assumed parameters sets. Analogically, a rise in cutting
force value is seen when reaching critical stress in the workpiece material;
3. Changes in J-C model parameter values significantly affect stress distribution in the
workpiece, stress fields and critical stress values.
4. It is worth noting that cutting force values obtained for all simulation values are
underestimated in comparison to available experimental data for analogical
machining parameters and tool-workpiece material. The best agreement of simu-
lation and experimental results in the aspect of cutting force was shown for the S4
parameter set.
Presented findings can be applied to choose the proper set of parameters for
machining simulations in the situation when the end user already possesses experi-
mental data. Presented findings show a clear link between simulation results and
assumed J-C model parameters alone, which could not be clearly established by ana-
lyzing previous work by the other authors, as simulation setups and even used software
varied for different simulations.
The main conclusions are that changing the values of Johnson-Cook model
parameters while keeping the rest of the simulation setup intact results in clearly
noticeable changes in simulated chip shape, stress and cutting force components.
Future research by the authors will focus on experimental validation of obtained
simulation results with the aim of determining which used set of parameters has the
best agreement with experimental results in terms of chip shape and cutting force.
References
1. Kosmol, J., Mieszczak, W.: Zastosowanie metody elementów skończonych do modelowania
procesu wiercenia. Modelowanie Inżynierskie 6, 169–176 (2009)
2. Guo, Y.B., Yen, D.W.: A FEM study on mechanisms of discontinuous chip formation in
hard machining. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 155, 1350–1356 (2004)
3. Özel T., Zeren E.: Finite element method simulation of machining of AISI 1045 steel with a
round edge cutting tool. In: Proceedings of the 8th CIRP International Workshop on
Modeling of Machining Operations. Verl. Wiss. Scripten, Zwickau (2005)
4. Karpat, Y.: Temperature dependent flow softening of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V: an
investigation using finite element simulation of machining. J. Mater. Process. Technol.
211(4), 737–749 (2011)
5. Maranhão, C., Davim, J.P.: Finite element modelling of machining of AISI 316 steel:
numerical simulation and experimental validation. Simul. Model. Pract. Theory 18(2), 139–
156 (2010)
6. Zhang, Y., Outeiro, J.C., Mabrouki, T.: On the selection of Johnson-Cook constitutive model
parameters for Ti-6Al-4V using three types of numerical models of orthogonal cutting.
Procedia CIRP 31, 112–117 (2015)
7. Löschner, P., Niesłony, P., Jarosz, K.: Wpływ przemieszczenia niszczącego na wyniki
symulacji numerycznej MES. Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Rzeszowskiej – Mechanika
89(4), 487–496 (2017)
8. Zhang, Y., Marek, T., Nelias, D., Gong, Y.: FE-model for titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) cutting
based on the identification of limiting shear stress at tool-chip interface. Int. J. Mater. Form.
4(1), 11–23 (2011)
9. Chen, G., Ren, C., Yang, X., Ji, X.: Guo, T: Finite element simulation of high-speed
machining of titanium alloy (Ti–6Al–4V) based on ductile failure model. Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Technol. 56(9), 1027–1038 (2011)
10. Wu, H.B., Zhang, S.J.: 3D FEM simulation of milling process for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.
Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 71(5–8), 1319–1326 (2014)
11. Sun, S., Brandt, M., Dargusch, M.S.: Characteristics of cutting forces and chip formation in
machining of titanium alloys. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf 49(7), 561–568 (2009)
Comparative Analysis of Surface Finishing
for Different Cutting Strategies of Parts Made
from POM C
Nicolae Panc(&) , Glad Contiu, and Vlad Bocanet
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

nicolae.panc@tcm.utcluj.ro
Abstract. This paper focuses on the comparing the resulting surface after
finishing holes machined with different cutting technologies. The machined
material is Polyoxymethylene polymer POM C. The cutting technologies that
were used are: helicoidal milling, contour milling, head boring, and reaming.
The main purpose of this paper is to establish the most appropriate finishing
technology for a hole, depending on its functional role. The article compares
each finishing process following the qualitative differences that occur. Quali-
tative analysis refers to the dimensional, shape and quality precision of the
obtained surface. Surface quality was evaluated through its main parameters:
surface roughness and surface texture. Following the evaluation of the worked
surfaces, it was found that there are considerable differences between the fin-
ishing strategies that were used. The differences are considerable enough that
one should consider using one technology instead of another depending on the
use case. The results of this paper help in making faster decisions about what
finishing technology to use when finishing holes in a POM C part depending on
the functional purpose of the machined hole.
Keywords: Polymer POM C Surface roughness Cutting operations
1 Introduction
At the present, the industry is increasingly using more plastic because of the many
advantages it brings, such as: cost price, good machinability, and acceptable
mechanical properties. Of all the plastic materials commonly used to obtain the parts by
cutting, polymer POM C is frequently used, especially in mechanical engineering,
automotive and textile industries. This material is a thermoplastic polymer, that has low
elastic modulus, high mechanical strength and stiffness, high surface hardness, good
sliding properties, high wear resistance, high coefficient of thermal expansion and
internal stresses [1].
The quality of the surface obtained after finishing is important for the functionality
of a certain part within in a product. This is why obtaining a high surface quality in the
most advantageous technological conditions is desirable. Because a similar quality can
be obtained using different processing operations involving different costs, it is
important to know what the recommended technology for finishing is.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_35
Comparative Analysis of Surface Finishing 325
There are numerous researches that study the connection between surface rough-
ness, cutting forces, cutting power, and material removal rate, among which:
– Panc et al. in [2] where different ways of finishing a bore (precise hole) using helical
milling, contour milling, head boring and reaming were presented;
– Keresztes et al. [3] made a comparative study between cutting forces for different
polymers;
– Chabbi et al. [4, 5] shows how the cutting parameters influence surface roughness,
cutting forces, cutting power and productivity during turning of polyoxymethylene
(POM C) polymer;
– Kaddeche et al. [6] studied surface roughness, cutting force, and temperature rise
during the machining of two types of polymers.
The continuous evolution of industry resulting from the numerous researches in the
field, led to the development of the fourth industrial revolution, the so-called Industry
4.0. It focuses on bringing highly customized products to the customer, at a lower cost.
This implies various diagnostic systems of the process equipment, tooling, and the
machined surface [7]. A few aspects of the machined surface of the POM C material are
presented in this paper. By understanding the input parameters and the machining
process, better diagnostic systems can be designed and automated.
The purpose of this paper is to present a comparative analysis of four bore finishing
technologies commonly used for POM C polymer machining.
Starting from the research presented in [2, 4–6], the current research fills the gap in
the existing literature regarding the qualitative differences that appear when using
different finishing operations to obtain the same surface.
The results of this research can be used in the larger context of Industry 4.0, by
establishing the right machining operations depending on the part requirements, such as
a certain surface roughness or texture, dimensional precision and so on.
To reach the proposed aim, the methodology presented briefly in Fig. 1 was used. First,
a rough boring operation was performed bringing the holes to a diameter of 19.80 mm.
Next the holes were finished by means of four types of operations: reaming, helical
milling, contour milling and head boring. These types of operations are heavily used in
industry for precise hole finishing on a milling machine or machining center. The same
cutting depth was set for all operations, 0.2 mm, to get similar cutting forces. Finally,
for each precise hole the dimensional accuracy, shape error and surface roughness were
determined.
The last step consisted of analyzing the data and drawing the conclusions based on
the obtained results.
2.1 Experimental Design

The experiment consisted of machining precise holes in a polymer POM C part. By
using four cutting methods five times, a total of twenty holes were obtained.
326 N. Panc et al.
Fig. 1. Flowchart of the proposed methodology.
Fig. 2. The workpiece, (a) Photograph of the workpiece fixed on the fixture devices,
(b) Drawing workpiece.
Figure 2 shows the workpiece fixed to CNC milling machine before the finishing
process.
2.2 Equipment and Measurements

The following equipment was used for machining and measuring the precision holes:
– Vertical milling machine Hass TM1;
– TRM50/50 Testarossa D’Andrea Boring head;
– HSS Reamer for Ø20H7;
– Ø19.80 mm drill;
– Solid carbide end mill, Ø16, z = 6 mm;
The machining parameters that were used are presented in Table 1. The values for
the cutting parameters have been chosen among the middle of the value range rec-
ommended by tool manufacturers.
These parameters can be also determined experimentally in order to get other
roughness values, but the parameters prescribed by tool manufacturers are the ones
more likely to be used in industry by manufacturers rather than the optimized
parameters for a certain part.
The measurements were done on a Zeiss Prismo Navigator Coordinate Measuring
Machine (CMM) equipped with a VAST sensor and 5 mm ruby probe. According to
the manufacturer the CMM has a length measurement error of 0.5 + L/500 (lm).
The surface roughness of the blocks was characterized with an Alicona Infinite-
Focus surface measurement system.
Table 1. Cutting conditions.

Method Cutting method
Cutting speed Depth of cut Feed rate Cutting fluid
(m/min) (mm) (mm/rev)
Reaming 14 0.2 0.5 Oil-water
emulsion
Helical 297 0.2 0.3 Oil-water
milling emulsion
Contur 297 0.2 0.3 Oil-water
milling emulsion
Head 125 0.2 0.09 Oil-water
boring emulsion
The quality of the precision holes was determined by measuring the dimensional and
surface quality characteristics. The dimensional accuracy and shape error were deter-
mined, and the measurement data were stored in an Excel worksheet. An average was
calculated for the diameter, the circularity and the cylindricity.
In the case of processed surface, the main indicators for surface characterization
were determined: surface roughness and surface texture.
3.1 Dimensional Accuracy

After determining the dimensional accuracy of the diameter for all the 20 precise holes,
the average and the standard deviation for the obtained values were determined and the
confidence interval was determined. The results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Physical and mechanical characteristics of POM C.

Parameters Cutting method
Reaming Helical milling Contour milling Head boring
Average 20.010 20.007 19.993 19.995
Std. dev. 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.01
C.I. (20.05, 19.97) (20.074, 19.94) (20.02, 19.966) (20.008, 19.982)
Better dimensional precision is obtained in the case of precise hole machining with
head boring. Through helical milling and contour milling, precise hole can also be
obtained, but the processing precision is obtained from radius corrections done on the
end mill tool. An easy method of obtaining precise holes is by using reamers. Their
disadvantage is that for each hole size you need a different tool.
328 N. Panc et al.
3.2 Shape Deviation

Shape deviations were determined by measuring the circularity at three different levels
and the cylindricity of each hole. The three considered levels were: upper Sect. (3 mm
from the top), middle Sect. (15 mm from the top) and lower Sect. (27 mm from the top).
The profile of the precision hole can be determined by observing the variation in
diameter from one section to the other (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Influence on the type of operation of the circularity.
Figure 3 shows that circularity changes depending on bore depth. In this case, for
a 30 mm depth, the maximum deviation from circularity occurs at the beginning of the
process. It can also be seen that the minimum value of the circularity is obtained in the
middle section measurement resulting in a barrel shape that affects the cylindricity of
the precision hole.
Figure 4 shows that the highest deviation from cylindricity is in the case of helical
milling and head boring operations. The possible explanation for these deviations is
due to process kinematics consisting in tool displacing after a helix-like generating
curve and a straight guiding curve along the hole axis. Elastic deformations and returns
are considered the main causes of deviations from circularity.
3.3 Surface Roughness

To determine the surface parameters, surface scanning was used over the entire depth
of the precise hole. Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 shows the profile measurement reports.
Parameters of the profile surface, obtained after scanning, are shown in Table 3.
From Table 3 it can be seen that when using established operations for hole fin-
ishing, better results are obtained for the average deviation of the assessed profile (Ra).
Still, the kinematic of the manufacturing process is decisive for obtaining a better Ra
value. In the case of using head boring or helical milling the Ra value is qualitatively
better than in the case of reaming or contour milling. The Ra is 10-35% better in the
case of head boring or helical milling.
Fig. 4. Influence on the type of operation of the cylindricity.
Fig. 5. The surface profile in the case of reaming obtained through scanning.
Fig. 6. The surface profile in the case of helical milling obtained through scanning.
Fig. 7. The surface profile in the case of contour milling obtained through scanning.
330 N. Panc et al.
Fig. 8. The surface profile in the case of head boring obtained through scanning.
Table 3. Surface roughness parameters.

Parameters Method of cutting
Reaming Helical Contour milling Head boring
milling
Ra (µm) 0.35 0.64 0.71 0.24
Rz (µm) 3.94 4.40 3.01 3.82
Rp (µm) 2.35 2.57 2.03 3.08
Rv (µm) 2.93 3.91 1.52 4.19
Rc (µm) 2.44 2.62 2.31 3.43
Rdq (-) 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.02
The tribological behavior of the obtained surface through the four methods will be
different. This is visible from the analysis of the maximum profile valley depth (Rv)
value. In the case of this parameter we will consider the average of the valley depth
rather than that of the peak height. This means that the bearing capacity is superior in
the case of head boring or helical milling. This conclusion also appears from the
profiles presented in Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8 where valley depth is more pronounced than
peak height for helical milling and head boring. The presence of deeper valleys means
that the oil film is maintained better and reduces wear. The conclusions relating to the
way in which the Ra parameter influences bearing capacity and wear intensity of a
surface are consistent with the ones in papers [8, 9].
The Rc parameter is a potential process control parameter because it is very sen-
sitive to process change. The influence of the finishing technology used on surface
quality can be established by comparing the obtained Rc values for each technology.
For finishing precise holes, head boring or reaming are preferred compared to helical
milling or contour milling.
3.4 Surface Texture

Every cutting surface has some form of texture consisting of a series of peaks and
valleys. After finishing, the holes have different textures depending on the method used
[10–12].
Table 4 lists the main parameters that define the processed surface texture.
Table 4. Surface textures parameters.

Parameters Method of cutting
Reaming Helical milling Contour milling Head boring
Sa (µm) 1.63 1.19 1.62 1.47
Sp (µm) 20.11 38.58 22.20 48.87
Sv (µm) 7.12 103.10 11.13 8.03
Sz (µm) 27.23 141.68 33.33 56.90
S10z (µm) 23.81 50.39 26.60 43.62
Sdq (-) 0.05 0.10 0.09 0.08
From a texture perspective, the finishing operation done by reaming is superior

because the S10z and Sz parameters have the lowest values. Also, the Sdq parameter,
that gives the inclination level of the texture, is superior to the other possible
operations.
4 Conclusions
Following the studies done on the possible finishing operations for obtaining high
quality precise holes, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• Each type of operation leaves its particular mark on the quality of the manufactured
surface.
• To obtain a high dimensional accuracy it is recommended to use either head boring
or reaming.
• The tribological behavior of the obtained surface through helical milling and head
boring is superior to the one obtained through reaming or contour milling because it
maintains the lubricant film better and has a higher bearing capacity.
These results were obtained as a result of a comparative study on a limited number
of manufactured surfaces. For future research, the results can be validated on a larger
number of surfaces obtained through the same working operations. Other materials can
also be used to test if the results obtained on Polyoxymethylene polymer POM C are
applicable. As a result, it can be determined if the qualitative differences that occur
when using the different finishing strategies are material specific or if the differences
manifest themselves on other materials like steel, bronze, cast iron or aluminum alloys
as well.
Acknowledgment. The results presented in this paper were obtained with the support of the
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca through the research Contract no. 2002/12.07.2017,
Internal Competition CICDI-2017.
332 N. Panc et al.
References
1. Popescu, A., Hancu, L., Sabau, E., Radu, S.A.: Mechanical characteristics improvement for
extruded products made of reinforced polyamide. Acta Tech. Napoc.-Ser. Appl. Math.
Mech. Eng. 57(2), 201–204 (2014)
2. Panc, N., Bocanet, V., Bulgaru, M., Beldean, C.: Research on holes finishing operations
performance by cutting. Acta Tech. Napoc.-Ser. Appl. Math., Mech., Eng. 57(1), 47–50
(2014)
3. Keresztes, R., Kalácska, G., Zsidai, L., Dobrocsi, Z.: Machinability of engineering polymers.
Sustain. Constr. Des. 2(1), 106–114 (2011)
4. Chabbi, A., Yallese, M.A., Nouioua, M., Meddour, I., Mabrouki, T., Girardin, F.: Modeling
and optimization of turning process parameters during the cutting of polymer (POM C)
based on RSM, ANN, and DF methods. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 91, 2267–2290 (2017)
5. Ghabbi, A., Yallese, M.A., Meddour, I., Nouioua, M., Mabrouki, T., Girardin, F.: Predictive
modeling and multi-response optimization of technological parameters in turning of
Polyoxymethylene polymer (POM C) using RSM and desirability function. Measurement
95, 99–115 (2017)
6. Kaddeche, M.K., Chaoui, K., Yallese, M.A.: Cutting parameters effects on the machining of
two high density polyethylene pipes resins. Mech. Ind. 13, 307–316 (2012)
7. Kraynev, D.V., Bondarev, A.A., Tchigirinsky, Y.: On-line monitoring and parameter control
of a surface microprofile. Procedia Eng. 206, 1285–1291 (2017)
8. Wang, X.: An experimental study of the effect of ultrasonic vibration assisted wire sawing on
surface roughness of sic single crystal. Acad. J. Manuf. Eng. 15(4), 6–12 (2017)
9. Nedezki, C., Trif, A., Bugnar, F., Detesan, O., Lazarescu, L.: Experimental study of surface
roughness in the case of turning of free-cutting steel AUT20 (22S20). Acad. J. Manuf. Eng.
15(3), 49–54 (2017)
10. Bocanet, V., Panc, N.: The influence of hole finishing strategies on quality. In: MATEC Web
of Conferences, vol. 137 (2017)
11. Ceclan, V.A., Popan, I.A.: Grozav., S.D., Miron-Borzan, C.S., Kurik, I.: The analyses of
working parameters for a 3D complex part manufacturing by CNC machine. Appl. Mech.
Mater. 808, 286–291 (2015)
12. Popan, I.A., Popan, A., Comsa, C.S., Carean, A.: Analysis of process parameters influence
on the drilling process using carbide drills for steel ST52-3. In: MATEC Web of
Conferences, vol. 94 (2017)
Investigation of the Effect of Process
Parameters on Surface Roughness in EDM
Machining of ORVAR® Supreme Die Steel
Krzysztof Jarosz(&), Piotr Nieslony, and Piotr Löschner
Opole University of Technology, Prószkowska str 78, 45-758 Opole, Poland

jarosz.krzysztof91@gmail.com
Abstract. This work presents the effect of selected process parameters on

surface roughness in EDM machining of hot-working die steel. Different values
of pulse current and pulse voltage were assumed in combination, while indi-
vidual pulse time was set as constant. The effect of EDM parameters on 3D
surface roughness parameters was investigated. Two samples machined with
different pulse voltages were prepared, with each sample divided into five
separate areas corresponding to different values of used pulse current. 3D sur-
face roughness measurements were performed on each area of all samples. The
authors have found a substantial link between pulse current and surface
roughness. Moreover, it was discovered that pulse voltage affects surface
roughness in a significant way for a certain range of pulse current values,
allowing to obtain better surface finish with the use of a higher voltage.
Keywords: Orvar supreme EDM Roughness
1 Introduction
The Electric discharge machining (EDM) process is a material removal process which
relies on heat generation to melt and vaporize a select portion of the workpiece material
by ionization within the dielectric medium, in which the workpiece is dipped. EDM has
seen particularly profound use in the manufacturing of injection molds. The electric
discharges produced by the EDM machine tool generate impulsive pressure by
dielectric explosion, which removes the melted material. It is to be noted that a portion
of removed workpiece material is flushed incompletely, meaning it resolidifies on the
machined surface. This leads to formation of cracks and pores, which reduce surface
quality [1]. Electrical discharges occur in a continuous manner at a high frequency,
with each one producing a crater at the workpiece surface. The shape of individual
craters is roughly vertically symmetric and shallow. Surfaces after EDM can be
characterized as matte in appearance, with shallow craters and resolidified machining
debris. The resultant surface is dependent on a variety of factors, including discharge
energy. Shallow craters and fewer, smoother surface irregularities can be observed for
lower discharge energy values, whereas higher discharge energy produces deeper
craters and more evident and plentiful surface irregularities [2].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_36
334 K. Jarosz et al.
Surface finish and roughness parameters after EDM machining have been the focus
of many works by other authors. Kiyak et al. [1] have examined the effect of pulse
current and individual pulse time on surface roughness in EDM machining of tool steel.
An equation for determining arithmetical mean surface roughness Ra basing on either
pulse current or individual pulse time was given in work [3]. Keskin et al. [2] have
devised an equation which correlates both pulse time and current with arithmetical
mean surface roughness Ra. The effect of voltage on surface roughness was investi-
gated in [3, 4]. The effect of pulse current on material removal rate was the subject of
research conducted by Sameh et al. [5], showing the increase in material removal rate
for higher pulse current values. The effect of peak pulse current and pulse time was
investigated by Rahman et al. [6]. The effect of electrode shape on workpiece accuracy
was the subject of research conducted in [7]. Gostimirovic et al. have studied the effect
of chosen process parameters on EDM process performance [8]. Available studies on
EDM machining of die steels focus mainly on investigating the effect of cutting with
the use of Wire-cut Electro Discharge Machining [9–11] or the effect of electrode
material on process performance [12].
This study aims to investigate the effect of both pulse current and voltage on surface
roughness in EDM machining of ORVAR® Supreme hot work die steel with a square
copper electrode. The evaluation of results was conducted with the use of 3D surface
roughness parameter measurements.
2 Experimental Setup
Samples for experimental studies were prepared in form of 2010120 mm blocks

made of ORVAR® Supreme hot work die steel. Chemical composition and material
properties are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition and mechanical properties of sample material [13].

Chemical composition, %
C Si Mn Cr Mo V
0.39 1.0 0.4 5.2 1.4 0.9
Mechanical properties
Hardness, Tensile strength, Modulus of elasticity, Thermal conductivity,
HRC MPa MPa W/m K
45 1420 210 000 25
Prior to EDM machining, samples were milled and ground. Each sample was
divided into five separate areas, each corresponding to different pulse current value.
Two different pulse voltage and five different pulse current values were assumed for
research purposes, while individual pulse time was set as constant. Values used for
experimental research are presented in Table 2.
Investigation of the Effect of Process Parameters on Surface Roughness 335
Table 2. Parameter values used for experimental research.

Sample 1 Sample 2
Voltage, V 200 80
Pulse time, ms 6.4
Pulse current for all samples, A 1.5 3 6 12 24
A square electrode made of CU99.9E/M1E electrolytic copper was used in this

study. The process was performed on a Charmilles Roboform 400 EDM machine. The
machining setup is shown in Fig. 1(a), while samples are shown in Fig. 1(b)
Fig. 1. Machining setup (a) and test samples (b).
3D surface roughness parameter and surface topography measurements for each

obtained surface were taken with the use of TOPO 01 contact profilometer.
A 2.5 2.5 mm square of each area of the samples corresponding to different pulse
current values was measured. Results were processed with the use of Mountains Map
Universal 6.2 software.
The following surface roughness parameters were chosen for analysis purposes: root
mean square height of the surface Sq, maximum height of peaks Sp, maximum height
of valleys Sv, maximum surface height Sz and core roughness depth Sk. The averaged
roughness measurement results are presented in Table 3. The mean value was calcu-
lated from 6 separate measurement results. Standard deviation of results has not
exceeded ±6%.
A graphical representation of roughness measurement results is shown in Figs. 2, 3
and 4.
Basing on the analysis of surface roughness measurement results presented
graphically in Figs. 2, 3 and 4, it can be seen that both pulse current and pulse voltage
Table 3. Measurement results.

Sample 1
Pulse time, ms 6.4
Voltage, V 80
Pulse current, A 1.5 3 6 12 24
Sq. µm 0.96 1.99 2.48 2.68 3.57
Sp. µm 5.31 12.1 14.1 14.4 18.2
Sv. µm 15.9 14.7 11.8 13 21.7
Sz. µm 21.21 26.8 25.9 27.4 39.9
Sk. µm 1.68 4.16 5.55 5.98 8.24
Sample 2
Pulse time, ms 6.4
Voltage, V 200
Pulse current, A 1.5 3 6 12 24
Sq. µm 0.983 2.02 2.28 2.14 2.34
Sp. µm 4.65 10.1 10.6 11.3 12.4
Sv. µm 8.3 8.32 10.5 10.2 10.4
Sz. µm 12.95 18.42 21.1 21.5 22.8
Sk. µm 1.86 4.61 5.19 4.82 5.25
Fig. 2. Root mean square height of the surface Sq vs. pulse current for different pulse voltage.
Fig. 3. Maximum surface height Sz and maximum height of valleys Sv vs. pulse current for
different pulse voltage.
Fig. 4. Core roughness depth Sk vs. pulse current for different pulse voltage.
affect surface roughness. In the assumed range of research parameters, a general

increase in surface roughness parameters can be seen for greater values of pulse cur-
rent. In general, lower roughness parameter values were obtained for pulse voltage of
200 V than in the case of 80 V.
Identical values of root mean square height of the surface Sq shown in Fig. 2 were
obtained for the lowest used pulse current (1.5A) in the case of both voltages. For the
higher pulse current (3A), differences are minimum, whereas noticeable differences can
be seen for 12A and 24A, totaling as much as 34% between 80 V and 200 V in the
case of 24A pulse current. Lower surface roughness was obtained for the higher voltage
(200 V). It is worth noting that the biggest increase in surface roughness can be seen
between 1.5A and 3A pulse currents. Differences in roughness did not exceed 0.54 lm
between 80 V and 200 V for currents up to 12A, as the grayed out field visible in
Fig. 2 shows.
Figure 3 presents maximum surface height Sz. A growth in maximum height of
peaks Sp (which is a difference between Sz and Sv values) was observed with an
increase in pulse current, regardless of used voltage. The most dramatic increase (as
much as 52%) was observed between pulse currents of 1.5A and 3A. For the latter
pulse currents, maximum height of surface peaks increases in a steady, nearly linear
fashion. Interestingly, the lowest maximum height of valleys Sv was obtained with the
use of 3A pulse current for the voltage of 80 V. A significant increase in valley depth
was noted for 80 V when higher pulse currents were used. This is in opposition to the
trend observed for pulse voltage of 200 V, where Sv reaches a peak at 6A pulse current,
slightly decreasing at 12A and keeping an approximately constant value at 24A. This is
an interesting observation, as a higher discharge energy should theoretically cause
a formation of more pronounced craters on the machined surface [5]. This is perfectly
in line with results obtained for 80 V, however there is no increase in valley depth for
200 V after a certain (12A) value of pulse current is reached.
Core roughness depth Sk, which is shown in Fig. 4 is calculated by subtracting the
minimum height from the maximum height of the measured surface. Therefore, it is
affected by both Sp and Sv values. Only negligible differences were noted in Sk values
for lower pulse currents (1.5A, 3A and 6A), regardless of used voltage. In the range of
6A–12 pulse currents, the difference did not exceed 1.16 lm. Highest differences were
noted in the case of highest used pulse current (24A), totaling and 36% between 200 V
and 80 V in the favor of the former voltage. A similar situation can be observed for
other measured parameters, which leads to an observation that pulse voltage affects
surface roughness more strongly in the case of higher pulse currents.
4 Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn on the basis of obtained experimental results:
• Differences in surface roughness between assumed pulse currents grow greater with
an increase in pulse current. Therefore it can be inferred that this is the machining
parameter which affects surface roughness the most;
• No substantial differences in surface roughness parameters was noted for three

lowest used pulse current values (namely 1.5A, 3A and 6A) regardless of used pulse
voltage. Therefore, in this range of pulse currents the end user should choose the
voltage depending on desired machining time and power consumption;
• An increase in pulse current affects surface roughness parameters less significantly
for the higher used voltage (200 V). As material removal rate increases with pulse
current [5], a shorter machining time can be expected when using higher pulse
current values. Therefore, it should be considered whether it is more economically
viable to use a lower pulse current and lower voltage, or use a combination of
higher voltage and pulse current, which offsets the detrimental effect of pulse
current on surface roughness to a degree.
Further research will focus on the analysis of a greater range of EDM parameters,
including individual pulse time. The authors are also planning to expand the analysis of
presented samples by evaluating microstructures of machined surfaces.
References
1. Kiyak, M., Cakir, O.: Examination of machining parameters on surface roughness in EDM
of tool steel. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 191(1–3), 141–144 (2007)
2. Keskin, Y., Selcuk, H., Mevlüt, K.: An experimental study for determination of the effects of
machining parameters on surface roughness in electrical discharge machining (EDM). Int.
J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 28(11–12), 1118–1121 (2006)
3. Halkaci, H.S., Abdülkadir, E.: Experimental investigation of surface roughness in electric
discharge machining (EDM). In: 6th Biennial Conference (ESDA 2002), Instanbul, Turkey
(2002)
4. Lee, S.H., Li, X.P.: Study of the effect of machining parameters on the machining
characteristics in electrical discharge machining of tungsten carbide. J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 115(3), 344–358 (2001)
5. Habib, S.S.: Study of the parameters in electrical discharge machining through response
surface methodology approach. Appl. Math. Model. 33(12), 4397–4407 (2009)
6. Rahman, M.M., Khan, M.A.R., Kadirgama, K., Noor, M.M., Bakar, R.A.: Experimental
investigation into electrical discharge machining of stainless steel 304. J. Appl. Sci. 11(3),
549–554 (2011)
7. Pellicer, N., Ciurana, J., Ozel, T.: Influence of process parameters and electrode geometry on
feature micro-accuracy in electro discharge machining of tool steel. Mater. Manuf. Process.
24(12), 1282–1289 (2009)
8. Gostimirovic, M., Kovac, P., Skoric, B., Sekulic, M.: Effect of electrical pulse parameters on
the machining performance in EDM. Indian J. Eng. Mater. Sci. 18, 411–415 (2012)
9. Kuruvila, N.: Parametric influence and optimization of wire EDM of hot die steel. Mach. Sci.
Technol. 15(1), 47–75 (2011)
10. Kanlayasiri, K., Boonmung, S.: An investigation on effects of wire-EDM machining
parameters on surface roughness of newly developed DC53 die steel. J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 187, 26–29 (2007)
11. Choi, K.K., Nam, W.J., Lee, Y.S.: Effects of heat treatment on the surface of a die steel
STD11 machined by W-EDM. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 201(1–3), 580–584 (2008)
12. Singh, S., Maheshwari, S., Pandey, P.C.: Some investigations into the electric discharge
machining of hardened tool steel using different electrode materials. J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 149(1–3), 272–277 (2004)
13. http://www.bucorp.com/orvar_supreme_h.htm
The Influence of EP/AW Addition in the MQL
Method on the Parameters of Surface
Geometrical Structure in the Process
of Turning 316L Steel
Radoslaw W. Maruda1(&), Szymon Wojciechowski2,

Grzegorz M. Krolczyk3(&), Danil Yu Pimenov4,
and Stanislaw Legutko2
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zielona Gora,
4 Prof. Z. Szafrana Street, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Management,
Poznan University of Technology, 3 Piotrowo Street, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
3
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology,
76 Proszkowska Street, 45-758 Opole, Poland
g.krolczyk@po.opole.pl
4
Department of Automated Mechanical Engineering, South Ural State
University, Lenin Prosp. 76, Chelyabinsk 454080, Russia
Abstract. The methods of cooling with minimum lubrication, MQL, and with
minimum cooling and lubrication, MQCL, are often applied in machining
nowadays due to their ecological and environmental advantages. The MQL and
MQCL methods are a good alternative to dry cutting, especially during
machining of hard-to machine steels, where high temperature occurs in the
cutting zone and process engineers want high quality of the machined surface.
The paper compares four methods of cooling when turning austenitic steel,
316L: dry cutting, MQCL method, MQL method and MQL + EP/AW method.
During the experiment, 2D height parameters were monitored, as well as Abbott
Firestone curve with the spatial parameters and profiles of selected surfaces have
been presented. Due to the large number of variables in the tests, the planning
method of Parameter Space Investigation has been used. When applying the
MQL cooling method with the addition of EP/AW, the smallest values of Ra and
Rz parameters have been obtained in the whole range of the variable parameters
of machining. The Abbott Firestone curve, together with the spatial parameters,
has proved that a surface manufactured after the process of turning in the
MQL + EP/AW conditions shows better exploitation properties.
Keywords: Additives EP/AW Surface roughness and quality

MQL MQCL Dry cutting

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_37
1 Introduction
Fluids used for cooling and lubrication of the cutting zone contain chemical substances
which are detrimental to health and environment. CCS are applied many times in the
process of manufacturing and, consequently, the quantity of bacteria grows as result of
their ageing [1]. Long lasting exposure of an employee to the vapors resulting from the
use of such coolant can cause pneumonia, irritation of the upper respiratory tract and
generates an additional problem of utilization of the used substances. Incorrect storing
and utilization of such substances results in: contamination of underground waters,
surface waters, soil and air [2]. On the one hand, ecological trends in the cutting zone
cooling solve the problems of environment contaminations and hazards; on the other
hand, they reduce costs related to the use of CCS in industry. Among these trends, the
dry cutting [3–5], cryogenic method [6, 7], MQL and MQCL method [8–12] can be
found.
Many scientific works concerning machining under the MQL and MQCL condi-
tions have been devoted to the surface irregularity [8, 10, 12–15]. The surface quality
of a machined part has a decisive influence on: thermal and electrical conduction,
tightness, esthetical features (appearance), rigidity of joints, deformation, fatigue
strength and, first of all, on the basic tribological properties of the surface [16–20]. In
machining, surface roughness can be influenced by plastic deformations of the
machined material (internal stresses), by generation of high temperatures, changes in
the cutting tool geometry (cracks, deformations, roughness) and by chemical reactions
between the cutting edge and the material under machining [11, 17].
Application of an adequate cooling-lubricating agent can reduce friction during
machining and increase heat dissipation from the machined surface, which reduces
mechanical interaction and increases compressive internal stress [19]. That is why the
MQL method finds wide application for the sake of the quality of the machined surface,
also when machining hard steels. Rabiei et al. [21] have subjected hard steels (HSS and
100Cr6) and soft ones (CK45 and S305) to the process of grinding with the three
methods of cooling: dry cutting, wet machining and MQL. In grinding of hard steels
under MQL conditions, lower values of the friction coefficient and larger cutting forces
have been obtained as compared to other cooling conditions. Those effects cause
increase of the grinding wheel sharpness, which increases the depth of cutting with a
single grain and results in obtaining chips with smaller coefficient of chip thickening
and in improvement of the machined surface quality.
Krolczyk et al. [15] have proposed an approach to the surface quality analysis based
on quality assessment of it. They have analyzed the conditions of turning duplex steel,
dry and with MQL method of cooling. In the paper, the authors have proved that,
applying spectral density of power (SDP), it is possible to assess the surface quality
after turning depending on the applied methods of cooling the cutting zone, so as to
compare the checked surfaces in the qualitative and quantitative way. Analysis of the
SDP signal has shown higher values of the wave lengths and amplitudes in dry cutting
than in the conditions of MQCL cooling. The differences were up to 52% for lower
cutting speeds and 55% for higher cutting speeds. The authors have drawn special
attention to the assessment of the surface quality results which, based mostly on the
The Influence of EP/AW Addition in the MQL Method 343
identification of surface damages, will have particular importance for many scientists,
both in the field of surface metrology and in the field of machining.
Investigations show that, in addition to the lubricating substances contained in
vegetable, mineral oils, water based emulsions and synthetic fluids, improvement of
lubricating properties of the individual machining fluids can be obtained by the
application of additives. That is why solid particles of MoS2, WS2, CaF2, graphite, TiN,
TiC, TiB2, etc. [22–24], as well as extreme pressure additives, EP, and anti wear
additives, AW [8, 13], which allow for minimization of the friction effect and for
control of the temperature between the friction surfaces in contact are being employed.
The kind and concentration of the solid lubricant in the machining fluid can be
important factors for the optimum utilization of CCS in the machining processes [25].
Many scientists have investigated the effects of applying various cooling methods
with the use of conventional machining liquids depending on the process of machining.
However, there are no detailed data concerning the application of conventional
machining fluids improved by the additions of EP/AW in the MQL method. The
purpose of the present work is to determine the influence of the EP/AW addition in the
MQL method on the surface roughness and the Abbott Firestone curve, together with
spatial parameters in the process of turning the 316L steel.
The tests have been performed on cylindrical samples with the diameter of 45 mm and
width of 16 mm made of 316 austenitic steel. Prior to testing, the samples have been
initially subjected to turning with the depth of 1 mm to eliminate any casting inac-
curacies in the form of surface irregularities and to ensure similar properties. The
turning process has been performed on an lathe, CU502. The tool kind and geometry,
chemical composition of the machined material, parameters of cutting and supply of the
active medium in the MQL and MQCL methods have been shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Experimental conditions.

Tool Tool holder CSRNR 2525
Carbide insert SNUN 120408-PF, PVD coating composition
(Ti, Al) N
Tool geometry Cutting edge angle jr = 75°, rake angle c0 = −6°, clearance angle
a0 = 10°, cutting inclination angle ks = −6°, corner radius
re = 0.8 mm
Work piece Material-316L (austenite structural steel), diameter-45 mm, length
of cut 16 mm
Composition-Cmax 0.3%, Simax 0.1%, Smax 0.015%, Pmax 0.045%,
Mn 2%, Cr 16.5–18.5%, Mo 2–2.5%, Ni 10–13%, Nmax 0.11%
Cutting parameters Cutting speed = 70 − 400 m/min, cutting feed
rate = 0.05 − 0.35 mm/rev, depth of cut = 0.5 mm
Parameters of the Mass flow of active medium = 0.124 − 0.458 g/min, volume air
active medium flow = 1.2 − 5.8 l/min, distance between the nozzle and the
cutting zone = 0.3 m
In order to minimize the influence of the tool wear on the surface roughness, each
sample has been turned with the use of a new edge of the cutting plate.
In the experiment, four cooling methods have been applied: dry cutting, minimum
quantity cooling lubrication (MQCL), minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), minimum
quantity lubrication with the addition of EP/AW (MQCL + EP/AW. In the MQL and
MQCL methods, the active medium has been made with the use of the device,
Micronizer Lenox 1 LN. The compressor working pressure was 0.48 MPa.
In the MQCL method the active medium was a mixture of water and a concentrate
with trade name Wedolit K-910 made by Lubricant Poland Ltd in the concentration of
7%. WedolitK-910 is a semi-synthetic high-quality machining fluid containing 20% of
mineral oil. Wedolit K-910 does not possess in its composition additives type EP
containing compounds of chlorine. phosphor or sulfur. For correct preparation of the
active medium, electromagnetic mixer type ES21H has been used. In the MQL method,
the active medium was oil with the trade name UltraLube which is recommended for
the processes of turning, milling, threading, drilling and reaming. It does not contain
chlorine. In the MQL +EP/AW method, the product available in the marked with the
trade name ECOCUT MIKRO 20 E based on mineral oil has been used.
The surface of the samples after the turning process has been analysed on a focal
differentiation microscope, InfiniteFocus 4G. The system of the InfiniteFocus 4G.
microscope makes a series of images on various heights of the examined samples. Each
image has pixels which are sharp depending on the difference of height on which they
have been recorded. The software processes a set of over a dozen images to determine
the highest sharpness for each pixel. The work presents the results of parameters Ra,
Rz, surface profiles, Abbott Firestone curve with the Sk, Spk, Svk parameters and two
values of material contribution, Sr1 and Sr2.
Due to the high number of variables, the planning method of Parameter Space
Investigation (PSI) has been used in the tests; the method is widely applied in solving
problems concerning, among others, designing of machines and mechanisms and
manufacturing engineering [26]. Basing on the values from the individual items of the
PSI method from the computer program, regression equations have been obtained; the
equations can be found in Table 2.Checking the relationships between the variables,
the multiple correlation, coefficient, Ri.1….k has been taken into consideration (the
coefficient informs about the strength of the relationship between a variable and the set
of the other variables from 1 to k), as well as Cochran coefficient, G which checks the
relationship between the nominal variables in case of checking another variable [26].
Table 2. Multiple regression equations for the selected parameters of roughness depending on
the method of cooling.
Dry cutting MQL MQL + EP/AW MQCL
Ra Ra = 42.3v−0.175
c Ra = 43,6v−0.235
c Ra = 31v−0.309
c Ra = 36.2v−0.256
c
f 0.945 f 0.827E0.054P −0.095 f 0.924E0.16P−0.091 f 0.956E0.103P−0.126
G = 0.54 R = 0.81 G = 0.68 R = 0.77 G = 0.51 R = 0.81 G = 0.49 R = 0.82
Rz Rz = 68.4v−0.209
c f0.564 Rz = 129v−0.209
c f Rz = 142v−0.3c f 0.849 E Rz = 72.7v−0.214
c
0.823
E 0.042P0.006 0.043
P −0.105 f 0.68E 0.056P −0.186
G = 0.38 R = 0.79 G = 0.34 R = 0.79 G = 0.43 R = 0.89 G = 0.36 R = 0.74
Roughness of a machined surface is an important element of the object quality and

strongly influences its utilization properties. The results have been presented with the
use of the arithmetical average of the profile ordinates, Ra, and the largest profile
height, Rz because those are basic parameters used, by designers. Surface roughness
examinations of the 316L steel after turning in the conditions of dry cutting, with the
use of MQL, MQL +EP/AW and MQCL have shown that the influence of the cooling
and lubrication method on the roughness parameters depends, to a large extent, on the
cutting parameters (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. The influence of feed and cutting speed on the surface roughness parameters for the
investigated cooling/lubricating methods.
For the height parameters, Ra and Rz, the smallest values in the whole range of the
variable cutting speed were observed in the case of cooling by the MQL method with
the addition of EP/AW. The MQL + EP/AW method reduces the considered param-
eters by about 35–49% as compared to dry cutting, by about 23–30% as compared to
the MQCL method and by about 17–28% as compared to the MQL method. The
reduction of the Ra and Rz values can be due to the fact that, when cooling with oil mist
with EP/AW addition, more intensive lubrication of the contact zone takes place,
particularly between the flank face and the newly formed top layer [11], which also
causes temperature drop in the cutting zone [27]. The lowest values of Ra and Rz
parameters in the whole range of variable feeds have been observed in the case of
cooling with oil mist with the addition of EP/AW. On the other hand, cooling with oil
mist alone has resulted in that the highest values of the Ra parameter have been
obtained. The Rz parameter after dry turning and turning with oil mist has reached
comparable values for the feeds of 0.25 to 0.35 mm/rev; with the feed below
0.25 mm/rev, one could see that the surface quality, in respect of roughness was better
with the application of the MQL method.
The percentage differences between the Ra values for the selected cooling methods
according to the seven items of the PSI method can be seen in Fig. 2. The diagrams have
been shown, depending on the variable cutting parameters, i.e. variables X1 and X2.
Fig. 2. Percentage changes of the Ra parameter after turning of 316L steel - dry cutting
compared to other methods of cooling (sign “−” means drop of a value; sign “+” means increase
of a value).
Analysing the percentage changes (Fig. 2), it has been found tat the largest dif-
ferences, as compared to dry cutting, were those of the method of cooling by oil mist
with the addition of EP/AW. The application of the MQL method has caused reduction
of the Ra parameter by 17% to 33% (an exception was only the 7th point of the PSI
method where the value was only 6.4%) The seventh point of the PSI method
corresponds to the highest value of the feed (f = 0.35 mm/rev) and the lowest cutting
speed (vc = 70 m/min). With the use of the MQCL method, the direction of the per-
centage changes has been noticed, which has been marked in the diagram. Emulsion
mist cooling brings the largest differences as compared to dry cutting for smaller feeds
and higher cutting speeds, I e. for parameters which correspond to finish machining. In
tho0se conditions, emulsion droplets better penetrate the zone between the chip and the
rake face and, consequently, reduce the cutting force, which could influence reduction
of roughness [28]. Applying cooling and lubrication by oil mist alone, it has been
noticed that, for all the items of the PSI method, the value of the Ra parameter is
reduced as compared to dry cutting and in oscillates from 2% to 19%. In the MQL
method the influence of the cutting parameters like in the case of the MQL +EP/AW
and MQCL methods has not been found. Elimination of the cooling and lubricating
liquid has resulted in a slight increase of surface roughness with larger feeds and lower
cutting speeds.
The load capacity of the surface geometrical structure has been defined by the ratio
of the total surface to the bearing surface. The graphic presentation of the relationship is
the Abbott Firestone curve. The curve informs the process engineer about the shape of
surface irregularities and that is why it is mainly used to check the surfaces generated
by multioperational forming of surfaces. Figure 3 shows spatial Abbott Firestone
curves of 316L steel after the process of turning with the four methods of cooling
according to the fifth point of the PSI method.
Additionally, a linearising line has been determined for the middle area of that
curve comprising 40% of all the defined items of the profiles. The curve divides into
parts related to pits, core and upgrades. This, in turn, allows the surface roughness to be
assessed with the use of the spatial parameters: core height, Sk, reduced height of
vertices, Spk, two values of the Abbott Firestone curve, Sr1 and Sr2, and reduced depth
of valleys, Svk. Furthermore, determination of those parameters has allowed for the
calculation of the area of pit free from material, Sa, and the area of upgrades filled with
material, Sa1.
In an analysis of the shapes of the Abbott Firestone curve (Fig. 3), it has been
found that the shape of the curve is very similar in the cases of dry cutting, MQL and
MQCL methods. However, for the MQL +EP/AW method (Fig. 3d), the curve is
clearly moved upward (the curve bending point moves in the degressive direction).
From the exploitation point of view, such a surface has many advantages. Then the
vertices of the irregularities will be most probably removed during running-in and the
manufactured part will work with the whole surface of it.
Considering the roughness parameters of group Sk of the analysed surfaces, it has
been found that the highest values of the core height, Spk, can be observed for dry
cutting (7.63 µm), the lowest for MQL +EP/AW method of cooling (2.72 µm). Higher
values of the Spk parameter generally designate a surface built of high vertices. In
practice, high vertices result in that the contact area between the matching surfaces
decreases, which leads to an increase of pressures between those surfaces. On the other
hand, the biggest depth of valleys, Svk, has been found for surfaces after turning in the
conditions of cooling by the MQL +EP/AW method. The higher value of that
parameter results in s arresting of oil or grease in those places, which is very advan-
tageous in respect of further exploitation of the manufactured part. The results of spatial
Fig. 3. Abbott Firestone curves for the 5th item according to the PSI method after turning of
31 l steel in the case of: (a) dry cutting; (b) MQL method; (c) MQCL method;
(d) MQL + EP/AW method.
roughness parameters reflect the values for areas Sa1 and Sa2. The biggest area of
upgrades filled with material has been obtained in the case of MQL method; the
smallest in the case of the MQL +EP/AW method. As regards the area of pits free from
material, the biggest one has been found in the case of a surface after turning in the
conditions of cooling with oil mist with the addition of EP/AW.
4 Conclusion
Applying four methods of cooling based on ecological trends in machining, the fol-
lowing conclusions have been formulated in respect of the parameters of the geo-
metrical structure of 316L steel surface after turning:
1. The lowest values of the roughness height parameters, Ra and Rz, have been
obtained in a surface machined in the conditions of cooling by the MQL + EP/AW
method in the whole range of the variable parameters of machining and parameters
of generating the active medium.
2. The biggest percentage changes, as compared to dry cutting, have been observed
with the application of MQL +EP/AW method for smaller feeds and higher cutting
speeds, i.e. for conditions corresponding to finish machining
3. The Abbott Firestone curve combined with the linearization line have proved that
the surface generated in the process of turning under MQL +EP/AW conditions has
better properties for further exploitation. For the MQL +EP/AW method, the lowest
values of the Spk parameter have been recorded and the highest ones of the Svk
parameter. The Svk parameter, which is a measure of the valley depths, causes then
oil and grease arresting on the surface. In dry cutting, higher values of the Spk
parameter have been found, which means a surface consisting of high peaks. In
practice, high peaks result in smaller area of contact between two matching parts,
which causes higher pressure on the contact surfaces.
References
1. Shokoohi, Y., Khosrojerdi, E., Rassolian Shiadhi, B.H.: Machining and ecological effects of
a new developed cutting fluid in combination with different cooling techniques on turning
operation. J. Clean. Prod. 94, 330–339 (2015)
2. Barth, M.: Belastung und Beanspruchung durch biologische Arbeitsstoffe bei Kühlschmier-
mittel-Exponierten in der Metallbearbeitung. University of Duüsseldorf, Düsseldorf. (Dr. -
Ing. Dissertation), Elsevier B.V. (2003)
3. Twardowski, P., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M., Hloch, S.: Investigation of wear and tool life
of coated carbide and cubic boron nitride cutting tools in high speed milling. Adv. Mech.
Eng. 7(6), 1–9 (2015)
4. Niemczewska-Wójcik, M.: Multi-sensor measurements of titanium alloy surface texture
formed at subsequent operations of precision machining process. Measurement 96, 8–17
(2016)
5. Kaplonek, W., Nadolny, K., Królczyk, G.M.: The use of focus-variation microscopy for the
assessment of active surfaces of a new generation of coated abrasive tools. Meas. Sci. Rev.
16(2), 42–53 (2016)
6. Aramcharoen, A.: Influence of cryogenic cooling on tool wear and chip formation in turning
of titanium alloy. Procedia CIRP 46, 83–86 (2016)
7. Pušavec, F., Kopač, J.: Sustainability assessment: cryogenic machining of inconel 718. Stroj.
Vestnik/J. Mech. Eng. 57(9), 637–647 (2011)
Vjesn. - Tech. Gaz. 22(5), 1219–1223 (2015)
10. Dhar, N.R., Kamruzzaman, M., Ahmed, M.: Effect of minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) on tool wear and surface roughness in turning AISI-4340 steel. J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 172(2), 299–304 (2006)
12. Tawakoli, T., Hadad, M.J., Sadeghi, M.H., Daneshi, A., Stöckert, S., Rasifard, A.: An
experimental investigation of the effects of workpiece and grinding parameters on minimum
quantity lubrication-MQL grinding. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49(12–13), 924–932 (2009)
13. Maruda, R.W., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M., Hloch, S., Michalski, M.: An influence of
active additives on the formation of selected indicators of the condition of the X10CrNi18-8
stainless steel surface layer in MQCL conditions. Int. J. Surf. Sci. Eng. 9(5), 452–465 (2015)
14. Emami, M., Sadeghi, M.H., Sarhan, A.A.D., Hasani, F.: Investigating the Minimum quantity
lubrication in grinding of Al 2O3 engineering ceramic. J. Clean. Prod. 66, 632–643 (2014)
15. Krolczyk, G.M., Maruda, R.W., Nieslony, P., Wieczorowski, M.: Surface morphology
analysis of Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) in clean production using the power spectral
density. Measurement 94, 464–470 (2016)
16. Jaber, S.A., Ruggiero, A., Battaglia, S., Affatato, S.: On the roughness measurement on knee
prostheses. Int. J. Artif. Organs 38(1), 39–44 (2015)
17. Liao, Y.S., Lin, H.M.Ã.: Mechanism of minimum quantity lubrication in high-speed milling
of hardened steel. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 47, 1660–1666 (2007)
19. Arunachalam, R.M., Mannan, M.A., Spowage, A.C.: Residual stress and surface roughness
when facing age hardened Inconel 718 with CBN and ceramic cutting tools. Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 44(9), 879–887 (2004)
20. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Gómez, E., Merola, M.: Experimental comparison on
and UHMWPE/AL2O3ceramic, under dry and lubricated conditions. Tribol. Int. 96, 349–
360 (2016)
21. Rabiei, F., Rahimi, A.R., Hadad, M.J., Ashrafijou, M.: Performance improvement of
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technique in surface grinding by modeling and
optimization. J. Clean. Prod. 86, 447–460 (2015)
22. Krajnik, P., Rashid, A., Pušavec, F., Remškar, M., Yui, A., Nikkam, N., Toprak, M.S.:
Transitioning to sustainable production - part III: developments and possibilities for
integration of nanotechnology into material processing technologies. J. Clean. Prod. 112,
1156–1164 (2015)
23. Su, Y., Gong, L., Li, B., Liu, Z., Chen, D.: Performance evaluation of nanofluid MQL with
vegetable-based oil and ester oil as base fluids in turning. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 83(9–
12), 2083–2089 (2016)
24. Hdz-García, H.M., Pech-Canul, M.I., Muñoz-Arroyo, R., Mtz-Enriquez, A.I., Acevedo-
Dávila, J.L., Castro-Román, M.J., Reyes-Valdés, F.A.: 304 stainless steel brazing
incorporating tungsten nanoparticles. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 215, 1–5 (2015)
25. Vamsi Krishna, P., Nageswara Rao, D.: Performance evaluation of solid lubricants in terms
of machining parameters in turning. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48(10), 1131–1137 (2008)
26. Statnikov, R.B., Matusov, J.B.: Multicriteria Analysis in Engineering. Springer (2002)
27. Dhar, N.R., Islam, M.W., Islam, S., Mithu, M.A.H.: The influence of minimum quantity of
lubrication (MQL) on cutting temperature, chip and dimensional accuracy in turning AISI-
1040 steel. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 171(1), 93–99 (2006)
28. Machado, A.R., Wallbank, J.: The effect of extremely low lubricant volumes in machining.
Wear 210(1–2), 76–82 (1997)
Change of the Substrate Surface After Removal
Multiple Plasma Spraying Layers
Jozef Kužma(&), Michal Krescanko, and Sergej Hloch
Department of Manufacturing, Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies,

Technical University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, 08001 Kosice, Slovakia
jozefkuzma69@gmail.com
Abstract. The paper deals with the change of the surface properties of the
substrate after the application of multiple plasma spraying NiCr. The influence
of selected technological factors (substrate material, surface angle of the sub-
strate and degreasing of the surface) on topography and surface quality of the
substrates. Presented procedures and experimental results demonstrate surface
resistance of individual materials from effect multiple plasma coatings. The best
results of surface resistance have samples from chromium steel. In addition, the
results of these experiments indicate which parameters are key in selecting the
substrate material for the masking process in serial production of coatings by
plasma spraying.
Keywords: Plasma spraying Rationalization Serial production

Surface quality Substrate
Nomenclature
Ra Mean arithmetic deviation of roughness
Rz Maximum height of the roughness profile
HVm max Maximum value of microhardness according to Vickers
HVm min Minimum value of microhardness according to Vickers
HVm avg Average value of microhardness according to Vickers
CTE Coefficient of thermal expansion
Rm Ultimate tensile strength
1 Introduction
Plasma spraying emerged as a surface finishing technology after the Second World
War. Currently, plasma spray technology brings new possibilities to manufacturing
technology. In the field of engineering, energy, aerospace, automotive, chemistry and
electrical engineering, these technologies are widely used. It is one of the leading
technologies for applying a relatively thick coating (a few hundred of micrometers up
to a few millimeters thick) on a substrate to protect its surface or improve its function.
Their extensive use in industrial practice is a driving force for studying their own
application process, developing of new coatings and rationalizing processes. Of the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_38
352 J. Kužma et al.
various ways of applying thermally sprayed coatings, plasma-spray technology is at the

forefront. Plasma spraying technology allows the application of practically all tech-
nically useful materials with suitable properties for both metallic and non-metallic
substrates. Metal, ceramic and ceramic coatings are applied. Most of the metallic
additives are steel-based materials with higher carbon content (up to 0.4% C) and
chromium (13% Cr, 17% Cr). In smaller quantities, additional pure metal materials
(Mo, W, Cr, Al, Ta, Fe, Zn, Ni and Cu) are used [1–3].
Metallic coatings are characterized by specific properties such as high hardness,
abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance, temperature, heat, and etc. They allow opti-
mum adaptation of the surface properties of the components to the operating condi-
tions. This leads to a longer life and increased component reliability. The basic patterns
of plasma-sprayed coatings are described in the works [4, 5]. One of the most important
factors that determine the characteristics and durability of coatings is their adhesion -
adhesion to the base substrate. High adhesion can be achieved in different ways. Type
of coating technology, substrate surface properties and coating composition [6, 7]. The
adhesion of the layer to the base material is one of the properties that have the greatest
influence on the quality of the coating produced. The consistency of the deformed
fused particles and the adhesion of the layer to the base material is most affected by
mechanical anchoring of incident particles on the surface of the base material. On the
already falling and solidified particles on the surface of substrate impacting other hot
particles. The strength of the coating is judged by the strength of the joint between new
particles and particles already stiff. For all thermally sprayed coatings (ceramic, metal)
in general, the adhesion to the base material with increasing thickness of the coating
decreases [8, 9] The properties of the coating can be considered to be a function of
three inter-dependent sub-systems: (1) the formation of the plasma jet, (2) injection and
processing of the powder material in the plasma jet issuing from the torch and mixing
with the surrounding gas, (3) impact and solidification of the particles on the substrate.
All of these sub-systems have been investigated in a large number of experimental and
analytical works by universities and equipment suppliers and the results have advanced
the plasma spraying process [10]. The current research on plasma deposition was
primary focused on the analysis of coated coatings and their properties. For serial
production technology of plasma coating it is necessary to solve the problem of the
rationalization process, which is lack of knowledge in the literature. The specific
problem of masking surfaces which must not be affected by the coating for serial
production conditions has not yet been sufficiently explored. The lessons learned from
this paper approach some of this problem.
The paper is focused on the change of surface properties of the substrate after
multiple coatings (12 times coating). This process leads to self-remove multiple
coatings and also to change surface parameters of substrate. The surface of the substrate
was studied using roughness and hardness parameters, which were measured before
and after plasma coating.. The knowledge will be applied in the development of the
process of serial production of components by means of plasma spraying.
Change of the Substrate Surface 353

2.1 Tested Materials
Duralumin marked as EN 573-3 (STN 424203, or AlCu4Mg1) was the first experi-
mental material. It is a construction material with high strength after heat treatment and
low corrosion resistance and good weldability. It is used for medium and heavy duty
components requiring increased service life under the influence of a short-term elevated
temperature for aircraft and other vehicles. Rm is 200–450 MPa.
Material with the coating Ni-Cu-Ni is used as the second experimental material. It
is galvanic nickel plating and this surface treatment is extended to cover NdFeB
magnets. The coating is applied to the magnet in three layers: the base Ni-layer, the
middle Cu- and finally the cover Ni-layer. The layer has a thickness of approx. 12 lm.
Rm of nickel is 275–550 MPa.
Chromium steel marked as 17 029 (STN 41 7029 /Z1) was used as the third
experimental material. They are used as corrosion-resistant, steel, less often than the
heat resistant temperature of 800–830 °C. It is used for the production of machine tools,
kitchen knives and medical instruments. Rm is max. 780 MPa [11].
Material with the coating hard chrome was used as the fourth experimental mate-
rial. Hard chrome, also known as industrial chrome, is used to reduce friction, wear
resistance, oxidation resistance and increased surface hardness. HV of this surface is
about 400. The layer has a thickness of up to 10 micro meters [12].
2.2 Experimental Conditions

Plasma coating was performed on the GTV plasma Spraying machine. Parameters used
for plasma spraying are shown in Table 1. The chemical compositions of the materials
are shown in Table 2. Twelve coating layers of the NiCr were applied to the substrate.
The chemical composition of the coating powder was Ni80% and Cr 20%. The tem-
perature of the particles on the substrate during the plasma spraying was 1400 °C. The
distance between the plasma nozzle and the substrate was 180 mm. Samples of
AlCu4 Mg were prepared by grinding and polishing to a roughness of Ra of 0.03–
0.09 lm. The real measured values on the samples before the plasma injection Ra, Rz,
Rmax, Hvmin, Hvmax, HV avg are shown in Table 3.
Table 1. The used plasma spray parameters.

Voltage/V 160
Electric current/A 350
Power/kW 56
Ar/(L/min) 45
Gas flow 12
H/(L/min)
Table 2. Tested materials.

Sample Material Chemical composition (%)
no. Al Cu Cr Ni Fe Mg Mn Si Zn V Ti
1–5 AlCu4Mg 93.46 4.37 – – 0.36 0.84 0.44 0.45 0.063 – –
6–10 Ni-Cu-Ni 1.03 28.59 0.65 67.32 1.27 – 0.39 v – 0.59 0.12
11–15 Chromium – – 13.03 0.3 85.96 – 0.34 0.28 – – –
steel
16–20 Hard chrome – – – – – – – – – – –
Table 3. Parameters of surfaces after remove coating layers.

Sample Material Angle of surface Surface Ra Rz HVm HVm HVm
no. cleanliness (lm) (lm) min max avg.
1 AlCu4Mg Before the Degrease 0.031 0.279 127.05 120.66 124.67
plasma coating
2 90° Degrease 0.169 3.88 113.15 105.55 109.51
3 90° Grease 0.254 4.702 125.67 111.29 117.46
4 45° Degrease 0.191 5.094 122.38 112.67 117.83
5 45° Grease 0.552 7.924 129.94 116.13 123.91
6 Ni-Cu-Ni Before the 0.268 2.009 349.95 310.89 335.09
plasma coating
7 90° Degrease 0.464 4.696 185.37 153.7 174.09
8 90° Grease 0.53 5.332 181.66 162.24 173.16
9 45° Degrease 0.239 2.573 186.95 177.71 183.43
10 45° Grease 0.283 3.718 195.03 175.59 187.49
11 Chromium Before the 0.049 0.397 698.45 679.75 687.53
steel plasma coating
12 90° Degrease 0.073 1.035 601.16 569.22 582.97
13 90° Grease 0.197 3.252 599.26 543.97 565.67
14 45° Degrease 0.095 1.903 474.38 428.34 454.08
15 45° Grease 0.213 4.823 656.08 601.65 628.78
16 Hard Before the 0.09 0.713 428.55 395.57 410.11
chrome plasma coating
17 90° Degrease – – – – –
18 90° Grease 0.151 2.448 265.55 247.17 259.64
19 45° Degrease – – – – –
20 45° Grease – – – – –
The chemical composition of the materials was measured on a Spectromerti ED-

XRF X-ray device. Surface roughness measurement was performed on the device
MarSufr SD 26. The measurement of the microhardness of the materials was performed
on the device Duramin 40. Average values were calculated from the 6 measurements
(imprints) for each sample. Samples from each material were plasma coated at 90° and
45° angle and also with degrease and grease surface. To create a grease surface on
samples was used a thin vaseline film. It was used vaseline Shell Gadus S2 V220AC.
All measurement machines which were used and experimental set up are shown in
Figs. 1.
Fig. 1. Experimental set up.

The results show that the grease surface on the substrate on AlCu4 Mga and chromium
steel had a negative influence on roughness compared to degreased surface. Samples
with grease surface of substrate 90° and 45° had similar parameters. This did not
confirm the hypothesis that the grease surface on the substrate will have a protective
effect before the plasma spraying. Comparison of surface roughness Ra, Rz and
evaluation of microhardness based on HVm min, HVm max and HVm avg are shown
in Table 3. The experiment was performed at the same plasma spraying parameters and
the same distance from the plasma nozzle to the samples.
3.1 Duralumin
Comparisons of parameters are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Measurements Hvm and
surfaces of samples are shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7. Evaluation of experimental
samples AlCu4 Mg number 2–5 did not indicate a change microhardness material
because of influence plasma coatings. Between samples with 90° and 45° angle of
surface, and between degrease and grease samples were measured only small devia-
tions. The least increased of roughness compared to the roughness of material before to
plasma spraying was measured on sample No. 2 (90° + degrease). The highest
roughness was measured on sample No. 5 (45° + no degrease). Surface with no
degrease have negative influence on the surface roughness of the sample after the
plasma spraying.
Fig. 2. Comparison of parameter HVm avg.

Fig. 3. Comparison of parameter Ra
Fig. 4. Measurement Hvm and surface of AlCu4 Mg (samples No. 1–5).
3.2 Nickel
Evaluation of experimental samples coated Ni-Cu-Ni No. 6–10 indicate the big dif-
ferences microhardness of the material because of influence plasma coatings. On
samples 7, 8 (90°) the hardness was reduced by 48% and on samples 9, 10 (45°) the
hardness was reduced by 44%. The surface cleanliness did not affect the hardness of the
Fig. 5. Measurement Hvm and surface of Nickel (samples No. 6–10).
samples. The surface roughness was doubled on samples 7, 8 (90°) because of influ-
ence plasma coatings. On samples 9, 10 (45°) the roughness did not change. The
surface cleanliness did not affect the roughness of the samples.
3.3 Chromium Steel

Evaluation of experimental samples Chromium steel (17 029) No. 11–15 indicate
a change microhardness material because of influence plasma coatings. On samples
number 12, 13 (90°) the value of microhardness was reduced by 15%. On sample
No. 14 (45° + degrease) the microhardness was reduced by 34%. On sample number
15 (45° + no degrease) the microhardness was reduced by 9%. The surface roughness
was increased four times on samples 13 and 15 (no degrease) compared to the
roughness of material before to plasma spraying. The minimum increase of roughness
was on sample No. 12 (90° + degrease) compared to the roughness of material before
to plasma spraying. The angle of surface substrate did not affect the roughness on the
samples.
Fig. 6. Measurement Hvm and surface of Chromium steel (samples No. 11–15).
Fig. 7. Measurement Hvm and surface of Hard chrome (samples No. 16, 18).
3.4 Hard Chrome

Evaluation of experimental samples coated Hard Chrome. 17–20 indicate the big
differences microhardness of the material because of influence plasma coatings. On
sample No. 18 (90° + grease) the hardness was reduced by 37%. The surface rough-
ness on sample No. 18 (90° + degrease) was increased only minimal compared to the
roughness of material before to plasma spraying. Samples 17, 19, 20 were not eval-
uated because plasma coating was not self-remove after 12 plasma sprayings.
4 Conclusions
Based on the experimental observations, the authors formulated the following

conclusions:
1. The largest decrease HVm surface of substrate compared to the material before to
plasma spraying was indicate on samples coated Ni-Cu-Ni and on sample coated
Hard Chrome. The least decrease was indicated on samples AlCu4 Mg.
2. The angle of the substrate surface had little or minimal effect on the change of
HVm compared to the material before to plasma spraying. Angle 45° of the sub-
strate surface had positive effect on HVm (higher hardness) compared to the
hardness of samples with 90° angle.
3. Grease of the substrate surface had little, but positive effect on the HVM compared
to degrease of the substrate surface.
4. The largest increase of roughness surface of substrate compared to the material
before to plasma spraying was indicate on samples AlCu4 Mg and the least on
samples Chromium steel.
5. The angle of the substrate surface had little effect on the change of roughness
compared to the material before to plasma spraying. Angle 45° of the substrate
surface had positive effect on roughness (lower roughness compared with samples
with angle 90°) mainly on samples coating Ni-Cu-Ni. The least effect of angle of
the substrate surface was indicated on samples Chromium steel.
6. Grease of the substrate surface had medium and negative effect on the roughness
compared to the material before to plasma spraying. Grease of the substrate surface
had negative effect mainly on samples Chromium steel.
7. Comparison parameters HVm and roughness changes on samples coated Hard
Chrome was not possible because after multiple (12 times) plasma sprayings were
self-remove coatings only on one sample with grease + 90°.
8. Comarison of change parameters HVm and roughness indicated that, Chromium
steel had the best resistance from negative effects of multiple plasma spraying.
9. Comparison of chemical composition of tested materials indicated that, the most
improved of resistance from negative effects of multiple plasma sprayings had
materials with Cr component.
10. Comparison of parameter CTE has not indicated resistance change from negative
effects of multiple plasma sprayings, nor on better self-remove coatings from
surface of substrate.
Acknowledgments. Research knowledge can be used in the engineering industry, where plasma
coating is used. Primary, the research results can also be used to rationalization the plasma
coating process for serial production and next research and development of material resistance to
the plasma coating.
Next recommended research should be to compare the HVm and surface roughness after
double removal plasma coatings (24 times coating). Also, more detailed research of multiple
plasma coating on material Chromium Steel because, material Chromium steel had the best
resistance from negative effects of multiple plasma spraying, but there was a big deviation of
HVm on the sample No. 14 (degrease + 45°).
References
1. Aubrecht, V.: Technické aplikace plazmatu. Vutium, Brno (2003)
2. Ambrož, O., Kašpar, J.: Žárové nástřiky a jejich průmyslové využití. 1. vyd. Praha: SNTL,
320 p. (1990)
3. Tucker R.C. (ed.): ASM Handbook, vol. 5A, Thermal Spray Technology. ASM International
(2013)
4. Steffens, H.D., Nassenstein, K.: Thermal spraying: a review of 1993. Powder Metall. Int. 25
(6), 280–284 (1993)
5. Suryanarayanan, R.: Plasma Spraying: Theory and Applications. CNRS, London (1993)
6. Westergard, R., Axen, N., Wiklund, U., Hogmark, S.: An evaluation of plasma sprayed
ceramic coatings by erosion, abrasion and bend testing. Wear 246, 12–19 (2000)
7. Jankura, D., Papcun, P.: Evaluation of structure of ceramics and composite coatings prepared
by heating sprying. Mechanika 270(78), 25–29 (2009)
8. Houdková Šimůnková, Š., Enžl, R., Bláhova, O.: Žárové nástřiky: moderní technologie
povrchových úprav Plzeň (2003)
9. Gardon, M., Guilemany, J.M.: Therm. Spray Technol. 23, 577 (2014)
10. Fauchais, P., Heberlein, J., Boulos, M.: Thermal Spray Fundamentals. Springer, New York
(2014)
11. Skočovský, P., Konečná, R.: Nové konštrukčné materiály – Vybrané kapitoly II, ŽU (1996)
12. Svenson, E.: Plating Resources, Inc. Cocoa, Florida, USA (2006)
Tool Wear Measurement in Single Point
Incremental Forming
Manish Oraon1(&) and Vinay Sharma2

1
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra,
Off Campus-Patna, Patna 800014, Bihar, India
moraon@bitmesra.ac.in
2
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra,
Off Campus-Deoghar, Deoghar 814142, Jharkhand, India
Abstract. Forming tool in manufacturing industries plays a vital role in pro-

cessing and finished part surface profile. Tool wear in single point incremental
forming (SPIF) is studied in the present study with the aim to investigate the
effect of input parameters. Image tool wizard of MATLAB R2010a software is
used for the wear measurement. The image of tool end is transformed into the
histogram plot and the difference of bar length is measured as wear. For
experiment, six parameters, namely step depth, feed rate, spindle speed, thick-
ness of material, wall angle and lubricant are considered for SPIF of aluminum
AA3003-O. Experiments are being made based on the Taguchi technique fol-
lowed by ANOVA analysis to study the effect of process parameters and the
image analysis is used for the measurement of tool wear. The results shows that
the significant input parameters are step depth, feed rate of tool and spindle
speed for tool wear whereas wall angle is insignificant.
Keywords: SPIF Tool wear Taguchi ANOVA
1 Introduction
Single-point incremental forming (SPIF) of sheets metal is comes into the picture in last
two decade. The transformation of a plane sheet (limited thickness) into a finished part
by is made by localized deformation where forming tool moves in a prescribed tool
path. There is no need of die and punch, Of course, the deformation is incremental,
local in nature and gradual. These enhance the limiting strain during SPIF. It is
a growing process; therefore, a wide analysis is required to develop the theory of
incremental forming [1]. The review of SPIF is carried out with its practical application
in different sectors is presented [2]. The finite element (FE) based analysis is investi-
gated for shape distortions and spring back effects in SPIF. They suggested that, spring
back effect can be reduced by optimized tool path [3]. In SPIF, a simple circular rod is
used as tool whose one face is shaped. The shaped end rod moves over the clamped
metal sheet in a predefined path in computer numerical control (CNC) machine [4]. The
ball end tool and conical end tool is used in SPIF and compared the effective based on
induced deformation force. It is found that the ball end tool will be providing the more
accurate shape than the conical end tool [5]. SPIF has a great potential to respond the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_39
Tool Wear Measurement in Single Point Incremental Forming 363
new market demands such as processes flexibility, customization of products etc.

Hence, SPIF may be a suitable solution for prototype manufacturing and low volume
production but, despite its advantages, the process has not been commercialized
because many challenges are still under investigation and unsolved. The ball end tool
used in SPIF which moves incrementally in the predetermined path until the end of the
program [6], further micro-forming using pointed tools [7] and conical end tool [8] has
been successfully used in SPIF. The box-behnken design analysis is used for deter-
mination of dimensional accuracy. It found that the most of the deviations between are
within 0 and 1 mm and the overall mean deviation is 0.13 mm [9]. The effect of
forming speed with varying step size on surface roughness of AA3003 (H14) grade
alloy is investigated. It is observed that, more refined grains is achieved at 0.1016 mm
step size and Rotary and feed speeds seem to have secondary effects on the grain sizes.
Both high spindle speed and feed rate tend to have grain reduction capabilities [10].
The tool wear is largely influenced by the friction at the tool-work contact area,
incoming work sheet and the direction of forming. The tool material, shape of tool end
and its mechanical characteristics also influences the tool wear. The tool material
changes the rate of wear which will lead to a change in the performance characteristics
of the work piece [11]. The relationship between surface quality of metals and tool
wear with tool geometry is being reported by using multiple regressions [12]. The
significance of input parameters is investigated statistically by using the ANOVA
technique. It highlighted the working parameters have contradictory influence on the
analyzed quality characteristics of parts and only a proper combination of them could
lead to the expected results [13]. A review is presented on wear mechanisms
encountered in forming processes and various surface-engineering techniques to
improve the wear resistance and the anti-sticking properties of forming tools. It is found
that the adhesive wear or galling [14] over stressing of the tool [15] is responsible for
tool failure in cold sheet-metal forming. The effect of lubricants on friction and wear of
work material is investigated. The vegetable oil and corn oil are used as lubricant in
which SiO2 nano particles is mixed during SPIF of 6061aluminum sheet alloys.
Experimental results showed a significant surface wear reduction when 0.025 wt% of
SiO2 nano particles is added into the vegetable oil [16]. The effects of friction on
surface finish, forming load, material deformation and formability are studied using
a newly developed oblique roller ball (ORB) tool. Also an analytical model is devel-
oped based on the analysis of the stress state in the SPIF deformation zone for
understanding of the frictional effect [17]. The complex tool tip i.e. (two hemispherical
tips revolving at a same time) is used in SPIF. It is found that a 23% improvement in
formability and a 21% reduction in spring back is achievable utilizing this tooling as
compared to the single point hemispherical end tool [18].
After the extensive literature review, the most research work directed towards the
improvement of SPIF process such as formability, dimensional accuracy of finish
product by reducing spring back effect, surface roughness of formed part etc. by
varying input parameters is found. With the interest of improving tool life in SPIF by
reducing wear of tool end is being studied first time by using image analysis technique
in the present work because it is observed that no investigation on tool wear in SPIF is
done previous research.
364 M. Oraon and V. Sharma
2 Experimental Instigation
In SPIF, tool wear is a progressive damage to a tool end caused by relative motion with
respect to a blank surface. Measurement of tool wear is time-consuming and costly to
predict the tool worn location as well as relationships between tool wear distribution
and processing control parameters by means of try-out techniques based on conven-
tional trial. Measurement of tool wear is difficult in SPIF due to many control
parameters involvement such as step depth, lubrication, spindle speed, feed rate, wall
angle, type of metal, contact pressure at the tool-work piece interface etc. The SPIF of
AA3003-O is done on CNC vertical milling centre MIKROTOOLS DT-110 at
department of production engineering, Birla institute of technology, Mesra, India. The
machine having specifications such as Travel: x-axis: 200 mm, y-axis: 100 mm and z-
axis: 100 mm, Spindle speed: 0–3000, Feed rate: 1–2000 mm/min. A single tool is
used during the entire experiments. The end of tool is measured every time before and
after conducting individual experiment. The differences in the tool end height are
assumed as the wear of tool. In the present study, only aluminum AA3003-O alloy is
taken for experiment and small pyramid frustum is formed during SPIF. The experi-
mental setup on the table of machine DT100 and tool wear zone is presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup for SPIF and tool wear zone.
2.1 Forming Tool

The tool is fabricated from 50 mm long and 7 mm diameter mild steel rod. One face of
the rod is grooved for inserting the bearing ball. The stainless steel bearing ball is taken
for forming end since it has sufficient hardness and is polished. It does not require any
heat treatment for hardening of tool end for the purpose of wear resistance. The half
part of stainless steel bearing ball of 6 mm diameter inserted into the groove. The tool
and its dimensions used for experimental investigation are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Geometry of the forming tool (shape and dimension).
2.2 Experiment
There are various input parameter involved in SIPF and it is very difficult to consider
the whole input parameters at the same time for investigation of tool wear. The
selection of inputs for the present study is done with the help of literatures in which the
influences of inputs on output are discussed followed by preliminary experiments. The
influences of input variables such as step depth (Dz), feed rate (f ), spindle speed (R),
sheet thickness (T), wall angle (h) and lubricant (L) is considered for the analysis. The
two levels (low and high) of parameters are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Two level of input parameters for experiment.

Input Variable Dz f R T h L
ðmmÞ ðmm=minÞ ðmmÞ ð Þ
Low 0.1 20 500 0.2 15 MoS2 Grease
High 0.7 100 2000 0.4 45 Graphite Powder
Six input parameters are considered for SPIF of AA3003-O alloy. The combination
of these input are decided by suitable orthogonal array (OA). Since, the tool wear
measurement is limited in literatures; a minimum number of experiments are conducted
in the present study. The L8 orthogonal array and only two levels (low and high) is
used in the present investigation.
2.3 Tool Wear Measurement

Tool life is the main parameter for the manufacturer, since it is a costlier affaire to
reproduce new tool every time. The tool and work material is continuously in contact
with each other in SPIF. The tool wear is measured with the help of optical microscope
RS422 incorporated with DT110.The initial size of ball in terms of height is measured
before each experiment by keeping the end of tool on the intersection of reference lines.
The intersection of reference line is taken as origin O (0,0,0) shown in Fig. 3.
It is very difficult to measure the exact amount of tool wear. For that, it is assumed
that the tool wear in terms of reduction in the height of ball end, since very small
Fig. 3. Microscope RS422 incorporated with DT110 and reference lines.
quantity of tool worn out after each experiment. The image of tool is captured before
experiment and after experiment. The captured images are then imported in compatible
image analysis software for measuring the tool wear. MATLAB version R2010a is
used for image analysis in the present study. The image of tool end before conducting
experiment and after experiment is shown in Fig. 4a and b respectively. The exact tool
wear measurement is not possible in these images.
Fig. 4. Forming tool during image analysis: (a) before experiment; (b) after experiment.
Further, the images are converted into the histogram plot for the calculation of exact
amount of tool wear. The histogram plot for initial shape (before experiment) and final
shape (after experiment) is shown in Fig. 5. The tool wear zone is shown in Fig. 5b.
For each experiment, the difference in the height of individual bar is calculated and
taken the average of these differences as mean tool wear. The measured tools wear
along with the coded input variables shown in Table 2.
Fig. 5. Wear measurement: (a) Tool end profile before experiment; (b) Wear zone.
Table 2. Coded input variables with measured tool wear Tw .

Exp. Dz f R T h L Tw
No. ðmmÞ ðmm=minÞ ðmmÞ ð Þ ðmmÞ
1 0.1 20 500 0.2 15 MoS2 Grease 0.0199
2 0.1 20 500 0.4 45 Graphite Powder 0.0210
3 0.1 100 2000 0.2 15 Graphite Powder 0.0374
4 0.1 100 2000 0.4 45 MoS2 Grease 0.0379
5 0.7 20 2000 0.2 45 MoS2 Grease 0.0227
6 0.7 20 2000 0.4 15 Graphite Powder 0.0234
7 0.7 100 500 0.2 45 Graphite Powder 0.0231
8 0.7 100 500 0.4 15 MoS2 Grease 0.0240
The effect of SPIF in tool end is observed. For the purpose, the scanning electron
microscope (SEM) is used. Figure 6a is the SEM image of tool end before SPIF
whereas Fig. 6b is the image of tool end at minimum tool wear (Experiment 1) and
Fig. 6c is the image of tool end at maximum tool wear (experiment 4).
Fig. 6. SEM images of tool end (a) before SPIF, (b) at low Tw , (c) at high Tw .
3 Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis is carried out in Minitab 17.0.1 version with 95% confidence
level. The minimum tool wear increased the life of tool. For the purpose, smaller is
better approach is taken for the statistical analysis for finding the significance of input
variables. The effect of individual input parameters for tool wear Tw is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Response of input variables on tool wear Tw .
Figure 7 represents the slop of curve for individual input parameters. Higher slop of
individual input parameter indicated more significance on output.
According to Fig. 7, the feed rate of tool, spindle speed and step depth are the
controlling input parameters for the lowering the tool wear. Other input parameters are
not shown their significance on output. The rank of input parameters is presented in
Table 3. According to Table 3, the higher priority for low tool wear is feed rate of tool
followed by spindle speed/RPM, step depth, thickness of metal, lubricant and wall
angle respectively.
Table 3. Rank of input parameters for tool wear Tw .

Level Dz f R T h L
1 0.02905 0.02175 0.02200 0.02577 0.02618 0.02613
2 0.02330 0.03060 0.03035 0.02658 0.02618 0.02623
Delta 0.00575 0.00885 0.00835 0.00080 0.00000 0.00010
Rank 3 1 2 4 6 5
Table 3 indicated that the suitable combination of input parameters for low tool
wear is as Dz = 0.7 mm, f = 20 mm/min, R = 500, T = 0.2 mm, h = 150, and L =
MoS2 grease. The wall angle is found as neutral input parameter for the low tool wear.
It means tool wear does not controlled by the wall angle during SPIF. Further, Analysis
of variance (ANOVA) is carried out for finding the significance of input parameter for
low tool wear (Table 4).
Table 4. Analysis of variance of tool wear Tw .

Source DF Seq SS Adj. SS F P
Dz 1 0.000066 0.000066 826.56 0.022
f 1 0.000157 0.000157 1958.06 0.014
R 1 0.000139 0.000139 1743.06 0.015
T 1 0.000001 0.000001 16.00 0.156
h 1 0.000000 0.000000 0.00 1.000
L 1 0.000000 0.000000 0.25 0.705
Residual error 1 0.000000 0.000000
Total 7 0.000364
Table 4 shows that the significance of input parameter for low tool wears Tw . The
step depth Dz (P = 0.022), feed rate of tool f (P = 0.014) and spindle speed R
(P = 0.015) are found as the significant input variables which directly affect the tool
wear Tw . The other input parameters viz thickness T, wall angle h and lubricant L are
not significant for tool wear.
The life of forming tool is main consideration for manufacturing industries. The pre-
cision of tool profile takes a vital role in SPIF. If the tool end worn out rapidly and
needed to be replaced, it will be a costlier affair for manufacturing industries. The tool
wear is measured through image analysis by using MATLAB version R2010a by
means of histogram plots. The decrement in bar height (Fig. 5b) indicated as the wear
of tool end. In this continuation, the significant input parameters i.e. Dz, f and R is
found as significant input parameters for low tool wear. The interactions of these input
parameters are not discussed in the present study. These interactions may show the
significance of metal thickness T, wall angle h and lubricant L.
5 Conclusion
The forming tool in SPIF is important parameter in SPIF. The life of tool may be
increased by controlling the input parameters. The present study is concentrated on the
reduction of tool end wear and following points is found as,
• The exact tool wear in SPIF can be measured through image analysis. The differ-
ences in bar height can easily by measure.
• The suitable combination of input parameters for low tool wear is Dz ¼ 0:7mm,
f ¼ 20 mm=min, R ¼ 500, T ¼ 0:2 mm and L = MoS2 grease.
• Wall angle h is not significant for tool wear.
• Statistically, it is observed that the tool wear is influenced by step depth
DzðP ¼ 0:022Þ, feed rate of tool f ðP ¼ 0:014Þ and spindle speed RðP ¼ 0:015Þ.
• The main controlling parameter for low tool wear is feed rate of tool with respect to
step depth and spindle speed.
• The input parameters metal thickness T, wall angle h and lubricant L are not
significant for tool wear.
• The tool wear may vary in SPIF of hard metals.
• The other hardening such as isothermal hardening, nitriding etc. may improve the
life of tool.
References
1. Pohlak, M., Majak, J., Kuttner, R.: Manufacturability and limitations in incremental sheet
forming. Proc. Estonian acad. Sci. Engg 13(2), 129–139 (2007)
2. Oraon, M., Sharma, V.: Sheet metal micro forming: future research potentials. Int. J. Prod.
Ind. Eng. 1, 31–35 (2010)
3. Dejardin, S., Gelin, J.C., Thibaud, S.: Experimental investigations and numerical analysis for
improving knowledge of incremental sheet forming process for sheet metal parts. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 201(2), 363–369 (2010)
4. Oraon, M., Sharma, V., Kumar, S.: Effect of tool geometry in sheet metal Incremental
forming. In: 27th National Convention of Production Engineers: National Seminar on
Advancements in Manufacturing Vision-2020, pp. 1–6. Ranchi, India (2012)
5. Oraon, M., Sharma, V.: Effectiveness of tool profile in sheet metal incremental forming. In:
5th International Scientific and Expert Conference of the International TEAM Society, vol.
1, pp. 55–59. Presov, Slovakia (2013)
6. Kroplin, B., Luckey, E.: Metal forming process simulation in industry. In: International
Conference and Workshop, pp. 28–30. Baden-Baden, Germany (1994)
7. Lee, J.K., Kinzel, G.L., Wagoner, R.: Numerical simulation of 3D sheet metal forming
processes, verification of simulations with experiments. In: 3rd International Conference on
NUMISHEET 96, pp. 128–135. The Ohio State University, Dearborn (1996)
8. Guo, Y.Q., Batoz, J.L., Naceur, H., Bouabdallah, S., Mercier, F., Barlet, O.: Recent
developments on the analysis and optimum design of sheet metal forming parts using a
simplified inverse approach. Comput. Struct. 78, 133–148 (2000)
9. Ham, M., Jeswiet, J.: Dimensional accuracy of single point incremental forming. Int.
J. Mater. Form. 1(1), 1171–1174 (2008)
10. Hamilton, K., Jeswiet, J.: Single point incremental forming at high feed rates and rotational
speeds: surface and structural consequences. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 59(1), 311–314
(2010)
11. Sarraji, W.K.H., Hussain, J., Ren, W.X.: Experimental investigations on forming time in
negative incremental sheet metal forming process. Mater. Manuf. Process. 27(5), 499–506
(2012)
12. Kadhum, A., Zghair, H., Mohammed, Z.: Estimation the influence of tool geometry on the
surface quality and tool wear. Iraqi J. Mech. Mater. Eng. 10(3), 417–430 (2010)
13. Radu, M.C., Cristea, I.: Processing metal sheets by SPIF and analysis of parts quality. Mater.
Manuf. Process. 28, 287–293 (2013)
14. Podgornik, B., Leskovsek, V.: Wear mechanisms and surface engineering of forming tools.
Mater. Technol. 49(3), 313–324 (2015)
15. Jarfors, A.E.W., Castagne, S.J., Danno, A., Zhang, X.: Tool wear and life span variations in
cold forming operations and their implications in microforming. Technologies 5(3), 1–29
(2017)
16. Diabb, J., Rodriguez, C.A., Mamidi, N., Sandoval, J.A., Tijerina, J.T., Romero, O.M.,
Zuniga, A.E.: Study of lubrication and wear in single point incremental sheet forming (SPIF)
process using vegetable oil nano lubricants. Wear 376-377, 777–785 (2017)
17. Lu, B., Fang, Y., Xu, D.K., Chen, J., Ou, H., Moser, N.H., Cao, J.: Mechanism investigation
of friction-related effects in single point incremental forming using a developed oblique
roller-ball tool. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 85, 14–29 (2014)
18. Grimm, T.J., Ragai, I., Roth, J.T.: A novel modification to the incremental forming process,
part 2: validation of the multi-directional tooling method. Procedia Manuf. 10, 520–530
(2017)
Materials
Increasing Compressor Wheel Fatigue Life
Through Residual Stress Generation
Simon M. Barrans(&), Andrew Thompson, and John Allport
Turbocharger Research Institute, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK

s.m.barrans@hud.ac.uk
Abstract. Cast aluminium compressor wheels in turbochargers may fail fol-

lowing cyclic loading in service due to crack growth from the highly stressed
bore of the wheel. In this paper it is proposed to subject wheels to a single over-
speed event to generate beneficial, compressive residual stresses at the bore of
the wheel and hence reduce stresses at the working speeds. A theoretical model
has been identified to simulate this process and a technique developed to
determine the model input parameters. This closed form analytical model shows
good correlation with a detailed finite element analysis over a wide range of
over-speed events.
Keywords: Turbo-charger Residual stress Autofrettage
1 Introduction
One of the common modes of failure for an automotive turbocharger compressor wheel
is low cycle fatigue (LCF), which is the fatigue of the material due to a cyclic load at a
low frequency. Engels [1] highlights that the fatigue behaviour of metallic materials is
closely connected with local plastic deformation and an accumulation of cyclic plastic
deformation that leads to micro fatigue cracks. The initial micro cracks are the starting
point for macro cracks and then after a certain time the macro crack growth will lead to
component failure. In the case of the example automotive compressor wheel used in
this paper, the material is a cast aluminium alloy and the load is being applied by the
application duty cycle.
During operation the compressor wheel can be subjected to high stresses due to
speed, temperature and pressure. Ohri and Shoghi [2] have shown that the principal
stress is only minimally affected by pressure, while Christmann et al. [3] demonstrated
that the influence of temperature on the principal stress is also minimal. Hence, the duty
cycles used for LCF analyses are typically presented as speed vs time. Engels [1] states
that the load cycle is mainly determined by the application topography but operating
altitude and driving style can also have an influence.
Residual stresses may be generated within a component during the manufacturing
processes. In the case of cast aluminium compressor wheels initial casting of the wheel
and subsequent machining of the bore, nose, blade profile and back disc may all
generate residual stresses. Wyatt et al. [4] note that casting may generate residual
stresses at any point within the section whereas machining will only impact up to

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_40
376 S. M. Barrans et al.
depths of approximately 0.1 mm. Webster and Ezeilo [5] note that residual stresses can
either be beneficial or detrimental and can have a significant influence on the fatigue
life of the component. They point out that, “near surface tensile residual stresses tend to
accelerate the initiation and growth phases of the fatigue process while compressive
residual stresses close to a surface may prolong fatigue life”. To accurately determine
the fatigue life of a component the residual stress profile within the component is
required and then needs to be incorporated in to the life time calculation process.
Within the pressure vessel industry, it is common practice to autofrettage cylin-
drical vessels [6]. In this process the vessel is subjected to a single pressure load cycle
where the maximum pressure drives the stresses at the inner surface of the wall beyond
the material yield point. However, the bulk material remains elastic so when the
autofrettage pressure is removed, compressive residual stresses are present at the inner
surface. These residual stresses then reduce the level of stress at that surface when
cyclic working pressures are applied and hence increase fatigue life.
Within the turbocharger industry, it appears that only the detrimental effects of
residual stress have been studied. There appears to have been no attempt to study the
potential benefits of residual stress. In particular, residual stresses may be beneficial in
the bore of the wheel.
The objective of the work described here is to generate a design tool which will
allow a process similar to autofrettage to be defined to generate beneficial residual
stresses within compressor wheels.
2 Rotating Cylinder: Generating Residual Stress

2.1 Wheel ‘Autofrettage’ Process
In the autofrettage process used in pressurized, thick walled cylinder applications
pressure is used to generate the residual stresses. For compressor wheels a similar
process could be adopted but would require significant additional tooling within the
manufacturing plant. A more cost effective option would be to utilise the spin testers or
high speed balancing machines already present in many turbocharger manufacturing
plants. The wheel could then be subjected to a single, high rotational speed load cycle
to generate the desired residual stresses.
2.2 Theoretical Model

In order to generate a simple design tool to predict residual stress generation, the
complex form of the compressor wheel can be simplified to a thick walled cylinder.
The residual stress, rR , can then be determined from the Partially plastic, rPP , and
equivalent elastic, rEE , stresses as:
rR ¼ rPP rEE ð1Þ
The equivalent elastic stresses are determined by ignoring material yielding and
assuming elastic behaviour up to infinite stress levels. For rotating cylinders
Increasing Compressor Wheel Fatigue Life 377
constrained to prevent axial deformation, the radial, rr , and circumferential, rh , stresses

at a radius, r, can be determined from classical theory as:

3 2t qx2 2 a2 b2
rr ¼ a þb 2 r
2 2
ð2Þ
1t 8 r

qx2 a2 b2
rh ¼ ð3 2tÞ a2 þ b2 2 ð1 þ 2tÞr 2 ð3Þ
8ð 1 t Þ r
Where a and b are the inner and outer radii of the cylinder respectively, q and t are
the material density and Poisson’s ratio and x is the angular velocity.
Gamer and Lance [7] have previously presented an elastic-plastic analysis of a
rotating cylinder with fixed ends assuming linear work hardening and applying the
Tresca yield criterion. The yield stress, rY , can be defined as:
rY ¼ r0 þ gepEQ ð4Þ
Where r0 is the initial yield stress, g is the hardening factor and epEQ is the
equivalent plastic strain.
As the speed of rotation is increased, the cylinder first yields at the inner radius, a.
Further increasing the angular velocity produces a cylinder with an inner portion which
is deforming plastically and an outer portion which is still deforming elastically. In the
plastic region, up to an interface radius, c, the stresses are given by:

1 D
rr ¼ 16rY lnr f8 þ ð3 2tÞH gqx r 4ð1 2tÞH 2 þ C ð5Þ
2 2
8½2 þ ð1 tÞH r

1 D
rh ¼ 16r Y ð1 þ lnr Þ f8 þ ð1 þ 2tÞH gqx r þ 4ð1 2tÞH 2 þ C
2 2
8½2 þ ð1 tÞH r
ð6Þ
Where:
" 2
#
1 16rY lna þ 4ð1 tÞHrY ac2
C¼
8½2 þ ð1 tÞH þ f8 þ ð3 2tÞH gqx2 a2 ð1 2tÞHqx2 ac2
4
1t 1
D¼ rY c2 qx2 c4
1 2t 4
And the hardening parameter, H, is defined as:

gr0
H¼ ð7Þ
G
Where G is the material shear modulus.

Between the interface radius and the outer radius, b, of the cylinder the elastic
stresses are given by:
A 2G 3 2t
rr ¼ 2G þ B qx2 r 2 ð8Þ
r 2 1 2t 8ð 1 t Þ
A 2G 1 þ 2t
rh ¼ 2G þ B qx2 r 2 ð9Þ
r 2 1 2t 8ð 1 t Þ
Where:
1 1 2t
2GA ¼ rY c2 qx2 c4
2 8ð1 tÞ

2G 1 c2 1 c4
B ¼ rY 2 þ qx2 b2 3 2t ð1 2tÞ 4
1 2t 2 b 8ð 1 t Þ b
The following equation can be used to determine either the elastic-plastic interface
radius for a given angular velocity or the location of the elastic plastic interface for
a given angular velocity.

ð3 2Þ½2 þ ð1 tÞH ð1 tÞ½8 þ ð3 2tÞH Q2 þ 4ð1 2tÞf2 ð1 2tÞ½2 þ ð1 tÞH f4
f4
þ ð1 tÞð1 2tÞH 2 gX2 ¼ 4ð1 tÞ½2 þ ð1 tÞH 1 f2
Q 2
f f
þ 4ð1 tÞ2 H 1 þ 16ð1 tÞln ð10Þ
Q2 Q
Where f is the non-dimensional elastic-plastic interface radius, X2 the non-

dimensional angular velocity and Q is the diameter ratio.
2.3 Finite Element Analysis

To investigate the effect of the yield and hardening models embedded within the
theoretical model, a simple, axisymmetric finite element model was created of a thick
walled cylinder. As the cylinder was axially constrained at either end, only a short
section of the cylinder was modelled with a single element in the axial direction. For
this initial study an angular velocity of 39853 rad/s was applied. The material prop-
erties used are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Material properties.

Property Value Property Value
Young’s modulus 63.4 GPa Density, q 2762 kg/m3
Poisson’s ratio, t 0.3 Initial yield stress, r0 238 MPa
To determine the number of elements required through the cylinder wall to accu-
rately predict the stresses, a mesh convergence study was carried out. This study
indicated that using more than 26 elements through the cylinder wall made minimal
difference to the stress magnitude and distribution.
Figure 1 compares the finite element and theoretical results with a hardening
parameter, H ¼ 0 (i.e. a perfectly plastic material model). These show good correlation
although the FEA predicts a smaller plastic region and consequently, less residual
stress. This is due to the theoretical calculations using the Tresca yield criterion, while
the FEA uses the Von-Mises. The Von-Mises criterion, unlike the Tresca criterion,
accounts for the fact that hydrostatic stress does not cause yielding.
Fig. 1. Perfectly plastic theoretical and FEA stress predictions.
2.4 Material Model Approximation

In order to extend the theoretical analysis to a realistic wheel material, hardening must
be accounted for. The theoretical model allows for a single hardening parameter (i.e.
the material is considered to be linear work hardening). However, wheel materials are
typically highly non-linear in the plastic region. Figure 2(a) shows the hardening curve
for a typical wheel material. Superimposed on this are a range of linear hardening
approximations and their associated hardening parameters.
Fig. 2. (a) Comparison of hardening parameters and (b) impact on circumferential stress.
The FEA described in Sect. 3.3 was repeated with the four linear work hardening
material models shown in Fig. 2(a) and the non-linear material model. The partially
plastic circumferential stresses generated are shown in Fig. 2(b). The linear work
hardening material model with a hardening parameter of 0.71 gives the closest result to
the non-linear material model. This is due to the constraining, elastic outer portion of
the cylinder preventing substantial plastic deformation.
3 Wheel Analysis
3.1 Example Compressor Wheel

The compressor wheel used for this investigation had seven main blades and seven
splitter blades. A one seventh segment of the full wheel was defined using a path
sweeping along the flow path, as shown in Fig. 3. This complex path is not required in
order to implement the cyclic symmetry feature available in ANSYS and other FEA
software packages (see Barrans et al. [8]). However, it does aid interpretation of results
in that continuous main and splitter blades can be visualised. The wheel had an outer
diameter of 77 mm, an axial length of 40 mm and a maximum working speed of 139
krpm.
Fig. 3. Sample wheel (left) and modelled segment (right).
3.2 Finite Element Model

The mesh used for the analysis was optimised to have increased density on the bore and
the fillet radii. Previous analyses had shown these to be areas of high stress and hence
potential plastic deformation. The material model used the properties given in Table 1
with the hardening parameter of 0.71 identified in Sect. 3.4. Cyclic symmetry was
imposed on the two cut faces and the nose of the wheel was constrained in all direc-
tions. This latter constraint was used to approximate the complex interaction between
wheel, shaft and nut that axially constrains the wheel. Previous analyses have
demonstrated that the impact of this approximation is negligible.
A stepped analysis was used to determine the residual stresses generated by taking
the wheel past the normal maximum operating speed. Eight initial steps were used to
investigate wheel stresses generated with speeds of 126 krpm to 140 krpm. A load step
was then defined with 0 rpm to allow residual stresses to be generated. The maximum
speed was then increased to 170 krpm in increments of 2000 rpm. After each high
speed load case, a load case was defined with 0 rpm followed by a load case with the
maximum operating speed. This allowed the effect of a wide range of over-speed
events to be investigated using a single analysis run.
3.3 Residual Stress Generated

Figure 4 shows the stresses generated in the critical bore and blade root areas with
a maximum speed of 150 krpm and the residual stresses found from the subsequent
zero velocity load case. Examination of the stress vectors showed that in the wheel
bore, the maximum principal stress at high speed and the minimum principal stress at
zero speed (i.e. the residual stress) were in the circumferential direction. This area of
the wheel is therefore behaving in a similar way to the cylinder analysed in Sect. 3. The
maximum compressive residual stress generated in this case was –70 MPa.
In the blade root area compressive residual stresses were also generated following
the over-speed load case. In this case the maximum principal stress vector and resultant
Fig. 4. (a) and (b) Maximum principal stress (MPa) at 150 krpm. (c) and (d) subsequent
minimum principal stress (MPa).
minimum principal residual stress vector were running around the surface of the fillet
radius, in an approximately circumferential direction. For both the main blade and the
splitter blade the residual stress was –20 MPa.
Looking at the position of the maximum principal stress at 150 krpm in Fig. 4a and
then the minimal principal stress (or largest magnitude compressive stress) at 0 rpm in
Fig. 4c it can be seen that the position is not identical as may be expected. A similar
situation exists for the blade root area shown in Fig. 4b and d. In both cases the largest
magnitude principal residual stress is in the same location as the maximum equivalent
stress during the over-speed load step. This is due to residual stress generation being a
function of plastic deformation which in turn is governed by the equivalent stress.
A consequence of this is that the maximum benefit from the compressive residual
stresses cannot be utilised.
3.4 Impact of Residual Stress

Prior to running the wheel at over-speed and inducing plastic deformation, the maxi-
mum principal stress in the bore at the maximum working speed of 139 krpm was
255 MPa. Rotating the compressor wheel at 150 krpm generated compressive residual
stresses in the bore. These residual stresses reduced the stress observed at the maximum
working speed to 221 MPa. Similarly, in the main blade fillet radius area the stress at
maximum working speed was reduced from 285 MPa to 255 MPa.
Classical mechanics states that the resultant stress following plastic deformation
should be the sum of the residual stress and the stress without plastic deformation. This
does not appear to be the case here. This is due to two reasons: Firstly, as discussed in
the previous section, the largest residual stress generated does not occur at the same
point as the maximum principal stress. Secondly, at the working speed, some plastic
deformation has already taken place.
The benefit of subjecting the wheel to a single over-speed event can be seen in
Fig. 5 which shows the maximum principal stresses at the maximum working speed in
key areas of the wheel following residual stress generation. In all three areas, over the
range of over-speed velocities used, stress at the maximum working speed reduced
linearly. The estimated burst speed of this wheel was 164 krpm which placed an upper
limit on the over-speed event.
Fig. 5. Key maximum principal stresses at working speed following residual stress generation.
4 Designing with Residual Stress
4.1 Approximate Theoretical Model

In order to determine the benefits of a single over-speed event shown in Fig. 6, a finite
element model with a highly refined mesh had to be run through multiple load cases.
Undertaking this type of study whilst developing a new wheel would not be practical.
However, the closed form theoretical model presented in Sect. 3 is for a plain cylinder,
not a wheel. A method of approximating a wheel as a thick walled cylinder is therefore
required. The length of the wheel can be disregarded in the theoretical model and the
bore is clearly defined. A cylinder outer diameter which will represent the hub sub-
jected to blade loading, is then required.
Fig. 6. Theoretical and FEA circumferential stresses at the bore at maximum working speed.
A relatively simple FEA of the wheel running up to maximum working speed

demonstrated that plastic deformation at the bore initiated at 126 krpm. Using the final
equation of Sect. 3.2 with the elastic-plastic interface at the bore and this rotational
velocity, the outer diameter of the hub can be found. For the example 77 mm com-
pressor wheel, this analysis gave a thick walled cylinder with an outer diameter of
48.1 mm.
4.2 Theoretical Model as a Design Tool

Having determined the required outer diameter for the cylinder to be used in the
theoretical model, the stresses at a given over-speed and the resultant residual stresses
can be determined as presented in Sect. 3.2. The stress at the operating speed can then
be determined by adding the residual stress to the elastic stress.
Figure 6 compares the circumferential stress at the bore at the maximum working
speed, predicted by the theoretical and FEA models, following a range of over-speed
events. There is good correlation between these results.
This method of approximating the wheel is dependent on the estimate of the speed
required to initiate yielding at the bore, as provided by the simple FEA model.
Investigating the sensitivity of this calculation, an increase in yield initiation speed of
5000 rpm changed the outer diameter of the cylinder used to approximate the wheel by
2 mm. Subjecting the nominal cylinder model to a 150 krpm over-speed event, the
theoretical model predicted a bore circumferential stress at the maximum operating
speed of 214 MPa. To generate the same bore stress with the outer diameter increased
by 2 mm, required the over-speed to be increased by 1000 rpm. In other words, the
technique is relatively insensitive to the initial yield speed predicted by the simple FEA
model.
5 Conclusions
Subjecting compressor wheels to a single over-speed event will generate beneficial

residual stresses in the bore and blade root area. These will reduce the stresses gen-
erated at working speeds and hence extend fatigue life. Circumferential stress at the
bore at maximum working speed can be reduced from 245 MPa to 190 MPa using this
method.
The compressor wheel can be approximated as a thick walled cylinder. A closed
form analysis can then be used to predict the circumferential stresses taking into
account the over-speed event. For the example wheel studied, the theoretical model
showed good correlation with a highly refined FEA model.
The theoretical model requires an initial, relatively simple FEA to determine the
required cylinder outer diameter. However, the technique is relatively insensitive to the
accuracy of this model.
References
1. Engels, B.: Lifetime prediction for Turbocharger Compressor Wheels - Why Use Titanium-?
BorgWarner internal company presentation (2002)
2. Ohri, K., Shoghi, K.: Compressor wheel low cycle fatigue calculations for off highway
applications an approach to accurately calculate application duty cycle. In: IMechE 10th
International Conference on Turbocharging, London, pp. 97–107 (2012)
3. Christmann, R., Langler, F., Habermehl, M., Fonts, P.-M., Fontvielle, L., Moulin, P.: Low –
cycle fatigue of turbocharger compressor wheels. In: IMechE 9th International Conference on
Turbocharging, London, pp. 251–262 (2010)
4. Wyatt, J.E., Berry, J.T., Williams, A.R.: Residual stresses in aluminum castings. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 191(1), 170–173 (2007)
5. Webster, G.A., Ezeilo, A.N.: Residual stress distributions and their influence on fatigue
lifetimes. Int. J. Fatigue 23, 375–383 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-1123(01)00133-5
6. Zhu, R., Yang, J.: Autofrettage of thick cylinders. Int. J. Press. Vessel. Pip. 75(6), 443–446
(1998)
7. Gamer, U., Lance, R.H.: Stress distribution in a rotating elastic-plastic tube. Acta Mech. 50(1–
2), 1–8 (1983)
8. Barrans, S., Tabriz, M., Ellis, C.: Determining stress in turbocharger impellers due to
component machining. In: ASME Turbo Expo: Turbomachinery Technical Conference &
Exposition, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA, 26–30 June 2017
Preliminary Study of Residual
Stress Measurement Using Eddy Currents
Phasor Angle
Frantisek Botko1(&), Jozef Zajac1, Andrej Czan2,

Svetlana Radchenko1, Vladimir Simkulet1, Pavol Radic1,
and Jaroslav Bircak1
1
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with a Seat in Presov,
Technical University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, 080 01 Presov, Slovak Republic
frantisek.botko@tuke.sk
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zilina,
Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovak Republic
Abstract. Residual stress detection and evaluation has been of crucial impor-
tance, and also problematic for many years. There are many methods of residual
stresses determination based on destructive and non-destructive way of
approach. Nowadays there are still undiscovered possibilities to determine these
internal stresses. Opportunity to detect residual stress on line directly, without
using big and expensive devices is motivation for presented work. Presented
article is focused on possibility to determine the residual stresses induced in
conductive materials using eddy currents phasor angle. Using eddy currents
method gives opportunity for quick on line measurement of residual stresses.
Induced stress causes in base material slight deviation in permeability and
conductivity, which can be detected using standard eddy currents flaw detector.
Experimental procedure included annealing for stress relief, manufacturing by
face milling and measurement of residual stresses using x-ray diffraction and
eddy currents. Results of experimental research lead to extension of knowledge
in the field of residual stresses. Presented method is applicable for assessment of
residual stresses in many components.
Keywords: Eddy currents X-ray diffraction Residual stress

Steel
1 Introduction
Residual stresses (RS) are tensions in object, which are not necessarily in balance
between object and environment. Residual stresses can be categorized according to
cause of origin and based on dimension (distance) in which they acquire balance [1]
(Fig. 1).
Categorization of residual stresses according to area of influence [23]:
I. Order – Macroscopic stress is created during machining process, forming pro-
cess, welding, and heat treatment. They act in deep volumetric layers of material.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_41
Preliminary Study of Residual Stress Measurement Using Eddy Currents Phasor Angle 387
Fig. 1. Classes of residual stress adapted from [23].
II. Order – Second order RS act in grains and crystals in small volumes.
III. Order – Third order RS act in the level of crystalline lattice atoms.
Nowadays, the detection, evaluation and elimination of residual stresses are very
actual issues. Authors Winiarski et al. [3] described detection of residual stresses after
shot peening using drilling method, cutting method and x-ray diffraction on aluminum
alloy Al-7075-T651. Authors Sun et al. [4] deals with detection of residual stresses
after friction stir welding of high strength aluminum alloy AW 7010 on notched
samples after shot peening. Coules et al. [5] used neutron diffraction on samples after
three-point bend test. Smith [6] deals with effect of RS no cracks creation in creep
resistant stainless steel AISI 316 Effect of RS on fracture behavior on different plas-
ticity levels was aim of research of Ainswort et al. [7]. Detection of RS after electron
beam welding of austenitic stainless steel AISI 316LN and ferritic-martensitic P91 steel
using neutron diffraction described Venkata et al. [8]. Wang et al. [9] observed residual
stresses induced in various materials using neutron diffraction. Publication [9] deals
with stress induced phase transformation of CuZr alloy. Wang et al. [10] evaluate effect
of compressive RS on crack growth on aluminum alloy 6061-T6. Yang et al. [11] deals
388 F. Botko et al.
with effect of induced RS on martensitic transformation in shape memory alloy

NiFeGaCo. Collective of authors Aba-Perea et al. [12, 13] focuses on thermo-elastic
properties and diffraction elastic constants of super alloys Inconel and Udimet at dif-
ferent temperatures as a recourse for study of RS after aging. Wang et al. [15] described
basic mechanism of the relaxation of welding [14, 16] RS under cyclic loading on
aluminum alloy. Cozzolino et al. [17] focused on post-weld rolling methods to reduce
residual stress and distortion.
Problematic of eddy currents (EC) measurement of RS was studied by Shen et al.
[18] and Abu-Nabah et al. [19] on nickel alloys. Pulsed EC for measurement of RS was
used by Habibalahi and Safizadeh [20], Abu-Nabah et al. [21] Boone et al. [22] all used
electrical resistivity for determination of residual stresses.
2 Experimental Methods
2.1 Experimental Technique

Measurement of residual stress using X-ray diffraction (XRD) [1] is based on crys-
talline lattice deformation and associated residual stresses are determined from elastic
constants, taking into account elastic linear distortion of crystallographic plane [24].
XRD is based on fundamental interaction of X-ray and crystalline lattice. Basic of
XRD measurement is Brags law (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Diffraction of x-rays adapted from [24].
Eddy current testing is based on electromagnetic induction principle. Ampers law

generalized by Maxwell stated, that alternating current create magnetic field variable in
time. Primary coli excited by alternating current is placed near conductive surface,
alternating primary magnetic field is in interaction with material [21] (Fig. 3).
Induced voltage creates eddy currents in material, which according to Lenz law
creates secondary magnetic fields opposite to primary fields.
Fig. 3. Principle of EC testing adapted from [25].
2.2 Experimental Procedure

Presented article is focused on finding dependences between residual stress in surface
layer after machining and eddy current’s phasor angle.
Experimental samples (18+1 pcs) were prepared from construction steel EN
S355J2. Each sample was annealed for stress relief [2]. 18 samples were machined with
different cutting conditions and 1 sample was left without machining. Chemical and
mechanical properties of experimental material are listed in tables below.
Unalloyed structural fine-grained steel EN S355J2 is suitable for welded joints and
for components working in temperature range from −50 °C to 400 °C (Tables 1 and 2).
Table 1. Chemical composition EN S355J2.

C [%] Si [%] Mn [%] P [%] S [%] Cu [%]
˂0.22 ˂0.55 ˂1.6 ˂0.03 ˂0.03 ˂0.55
Face mill used in experimental machining was FMACM 4063HR with effective
diameter Def = 63 mm with carbide inserts SEET 14M4AGSN – MM from company
KORLOY (Fig. 4).
Machining operation was carried out with constant depth of cut ap = 2 mm with
single pass. After each pass were cutting inserts turned to unused cutting edge and after
fourth turn were changed for new insert. Cutting conditions used in experimental
procedure are listed in following table (Table 3).
Measurement of residual stress was provided in NDT laboratory of Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering - University of Zilina using x-ray diffraction instrument
Proto XRD. For all samples was detected significant values of normal residual stress,
tangential residual stresses were detected in the range from −35 to +35 MPa and thus
were not taken in to account. All measured residual stresses for each sample were in
normal direction in the range from 362–593 MPa (Fig. 5).
390 F. Botko et al.
Table 2. Mechanical properties EN S355J2.

Rm [MPa] Rp0,2 [MPa] A [%] Hardness HB
470–630 315 20 107–169
Fig. 4. Face mill FMACM 4063HR.
Eddy current measurement was performed using EC flaw detector Olympus Nortec
600 D with absolute probe INDETEC ndt. MTW100.S3.A1N 10–100 kHz. Taking into
account XRD measurement of residual stress in the depth 12 lm was calculated eddy
currents depth of penetration for construction steel. Depth of penetration was calculated
using skin effect formula (1).
503:3
s ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1Þ
f :lr :ro
Where:
S [mm] – eddy current’s depth of penetration
f [Hz] – probe frequency
µir – permeability of material
rO [S.m−1] – electrical conductivity
In the fact, that measurement is carried out in near surface layer was selected probe
frequency 100 kHz with depth of penetration 60 µm. Selected frequency was subse-
quently preliminary tested for measurement resolution. Figure 6 shows signals from all
experimental samples. Curve heading to center of axes comes from “zero” sample,
Table 3. Machining conditions.

Sample No. RPM n [min−1] Feed speed vf [mm.min−1]
1. 600 500
2. 700 500
3. 800 500
4. 900 500
5. 1000 500
6. 1100 500
7. 1200 500
8. 1300 500
9. 1400 500
10. 1000 600
11. 1000 650
12. 1000 700
13. 1000 750
14. 1000 800
15. 1000 850
16. 1000 900
17. 1000 950
18. 1000 1000
Fig. 5. Machining of experimental samples.
signals in the right upper quadrant comes from machined samples. Measurements were
carried out in laboratory conditions with stable temperature 22 °C.
Measured values Hmax [V] and Vmax [V] were subsequently used for calculation
of phasor size and phasor angle. Hmax [V] represents horizontal part of voltage and
392 F. Botko et al.
Fig. 6. Preliminary testing.
Vmax [V] vertical part of voltage. Phasor size and phasor angle were calculated using
Eqs. (2) and (3) and graphical representation is shown in Fig. 7.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
j zj ¼ Hmax2 þ Vmax2 ð2Þ
Phasor angle u was calculated from Eq. (3)
Hmax
cosu ¼ ð3Þ
j zj
Calibration was performed basic presets of flaw detector:

– Probe frequency 100 kHz
– Horizontal gain 35 dB
– Vertical gain 35 dB
Calibration process consisted of touching probe to measured point and pressing
NULL button, subsequently was probe lifted and touched again to same point with
pressing NULL again. This step ensures that signal from reference sample is located in
the center of axes. Calibration is necessary step, which provide difference between
signals in measurement process.
Calibration process was followed by measurement with 11 repetitions on each
sample and recording of Hmax [V] and Vmax [V] values (horizontal and vertical part of
voltage). Vmax and Hmax values represents phase shift of electrical voltage in vertical
and horizontal direction and can be characterized as complex number (4).
Fig. 7. Representation of phasor size and angle.
Hmax þ i:Vmax ð4Þ
Where:
Hmax [V] – horizontal shift of voltage (real part)
Vmax [V] – vertical shift of voltage (imaginary part)
3 Results
Mentioned formula (4) then allows calculations of phasor size and phasor angle. For
each measured sample were subsequently calculated phasor angles and their average
values. Following figure (Fig. 8) shows graphical dependence of XRD measured
residual stress on eddy current’s average phasor size. From figure is evident that in the
range of measured residual stresses acquire linear trend. For simplification of prelim-
inary experiment was calculated linear formula used for calculation of residual stress
size based on phasor angle size.
Following graphical dependence shows courses of XRD measured residual stresses
and calculated residual stresses based on EC phasor size. For better illustration were
added curves which characterize courses of residual stresses calculated using minimal
and maximal phasors angle. Minimal and maximal phasors angle were obtained by
calculation of minimal respectively maximal values of Hmax [V] and Vmax [V] for
each sample separately (Fig. 9).
394 F. Botko et al.
Fig. 8. Graphical dependence of RS on EC phasor angle.
Fig. 9. Comparison of measured and calculated RS.

4 Conclusions
Measurement of eddy currents brings the possibility to quick online measurement of

residual stresses induced in conductive materials. Presented work is a part of research
in the field of rifled tubes production. This presented method will be used for deter-
mination of rifled tubes properties. In the range of experimental values was observed
linear dependence between phasor angle and residual stress in certain depth. Induced
residual stresses cause slight deviation of eddy currents signal, which can be observed.
Linear trend shows high correlation with measured data. In the range of residual stress
near zero value can be expected steep curve, so that dependence will not be linear.
Based on preliminary experiment evaluation, it can be stated that there is certain
dependence between eddy current’s phasor angle and residual stresses in subsurface
layer. In the range of experimental values, were measured tensile RS in the range from
362 to 592 MPa. For further research will be necessary to measure samples in range
from compressive to tensile RS for exact determination of EC phasor angle dependence
on induced RS. Welded joints give opportunity for such measurements with all kinds of
residual stresses.
Future research will be focused on produce customized probes, manufactured for
specific applications and shapes of measured parts. Variable penetration depth gives
possibility to determine RS in the different distances from surface which will be further
tested.
Acknowledgement. This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development
Agency under the contract No. APVV-15-0696 and by project 039-TUKE-4/2017 - Transfer of
Knowledge from Research of Welding the Creep Resistant Steel into the Study Branch
Progressive Technologies.
References
1. Kloos, K.H., Kaiser, B.: Residual stresses induced by manufacturing, residual stresses
measurement, calculation, evaluation. In: Hauk, V., Hougardy, H., Macherauch, E. (eds.)
Proceedings of the Conference on Residual Stresses, Darmstadt, Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Metallkunde, Oberursel, pp. 205–226 (1991)
2. Davim, P.J.: Residual stresses and microstructural modifications. In: Surface Integrity in
Machining, pp. 67–126. Springer, London (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84882-874-2
3. Winiarski, B., Benedetti, M., Fontanari, V., et al.: High spatial resolution evaluation of
residual stresses in shot peened specimens containing sharp and blunt notches by micro-hole
drilling, micro-slot cutting and micro-x-ray diffraction methods. Exp. Mech. 56, 1449–1463
(2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-016-0182-x
4. Sun, T.Z., Roy, M.J., Strong, D., et al.: Comparison of residual stress distributions in
conventional and stationary shoulder high-strength aluminum alloy friction stir welds.
J. Mater. Process. Technol. 242, 91–100 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.
11.015
5. Coules, H.E., Smith, D.J., Orrock, P.J., et al.: A combined experimental and modelling
approach to elastic-plastic crack driving force calculation in the presence of residual stresses.
Exp. Mech. 56, 1313–1325 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-016-0171-0
396 F. Botko et al.
6. Smith, D.J.: Creep stress relaxation and crack incubation in the presence of structural elastic
follow-up. Trans. Indian Inst. Metals 69, 483–488 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-
015-0819-y
7. Ainsworth, R.A., Sharples, J.K., Smith, S.D.: Effects of residual stresses on fracture
behaviour-experimental results and assessment methods. J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des. 35, 307–
316 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1243/0309324001514431
8. Venkata, K.A., Truman, C.E., Smith, D.J., et al.: Characterising electron beam welded
dissimilar metal joints to study residual stress relaxation from specimen extraction. Int.
J. Press. Vessel. Pip. 139, 237–249 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2016.02.025
9. Wang, D.M., Mu, J., Chen, Y., et al.: A study of stress-induced phase transformation and
micromechanical behavior of CuZr-based alloy by in-situ neutron diffraction. J. Alloys
Compd. 696, 1096–1104 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.12.020
10. Wang, Y.L., Zhu, Y.L., Hou, S., et al.: Investigation on fatigue performance of cold
expansion holes of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. Int. J. Fatigue 95, 216–228 (2017). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.10.030
11. Yang, H., Yo, D., Chen, Y., et al.: In-situ TOF neutron diffraction studies of cyclic softening
in superelasticity of a NiFeGaCo shape memory alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A Struct. Mater.
Prop. Microstruct. Process. 680, 324–328 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.10.078
12. Aba-Perea, P.E., Pilling, T., Withers, P.J., et al.: Determination of the high temperature
elastic properties and diffraction elastic constants of Ni-base superalloys. Mater. Des. 89,
856–863 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.09.152
13. Aba-Perea, P.E., Pilling, T., Preuss, M.: In-situ residual stress analysis during annealing
treatments using neutron diffraction in combination with a novel furnace design. Mater. Des.
110, 925–931 (2016)
14. Krejci, L., Hlavaty, I., Sevcikova, X.: Transition zones study of the heterogenous welded
joints. In: 22nd International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials, Metal 2013,
pp. 785–789 (2013)
15. Wang, Q., Liu, X.S., Yan, Z.J., et al.: On the mechanism of residual stresses relaxation in
welded joints under cyclic loading. Int. J. Fatigue 105, 43–59 (2017). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.ijfatigue.2017.08.016
16. Mohyla, P., Tomcik, P., Benes, L., et al.: Effect of post-welding heat treatment on secondary
hardening of welded joints Cr-Mo-V Steel. Metal Sci. Heat Treat. 53, 374–378 (2011).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11041-011-9401-3
17. Cozzolino, L.D., Coules, H.E., Colegrove, P.A., et al.: Investigation of post-weld rolling
methods to reduce residual stress and distortion. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 247, 243–256
(2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.04.018
18. Shen, Y., Lo, C.C.H., Nakagawa, N., Frishman, A.M.: Residual stress profile assessment by
eddy current for shot peened nickel superalloy. J. Nondestruct. Eval. 29(1), 1–13 (2010)
19. Abu-Nabah, B.A., Hassan, W.T., Ryan, D., Blodgett, M.P., Nagy, P.B.: The effect of
hardness on eddy current residual stress profiling in shot-peened nickel alloys. J. Nonde-
struct. Eval. 29(3), 143–153 (2010)
20. Habibalahi, A., Safizadeh, M.S.: Forward to residual stress measurement by using pulsed
eddy current technique. Insight Non Destruct. Test. Cond. Monit. 55(9), 492–497 (2013)
21. Abu-Nabah, M.B.B., Hassan, W., Nagy, P.B.: On the limitations of eddy current residual
stress profiling in precipitation-hardened nickel-base superalloys. In: Electromagnetic
Nondestructive Evaluation (XIII), vol. 13, p. 95 (2010)
22. Boone, T.A.P.S., Raoa, S.I., Wang, P., Nagy, P., Blodgett, M.: Investigation of
microstructural effects on electrical resistivity and their implications for eddy current
methods in measuring residual stresses in IN718. In: Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Evaluation (XIII), vol. 13, p. 165 (2010)
23. Withers, P.J., Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H.: Residual stress. Part 1–measurement techniques. Mater.
Sci. Technol. 17(4), 355–365 (2001)
24. Kumar, A.: Synthesis and Characterization of TiO2-GeO2-Azobenzene nanocomposite as
Photoanode for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells and other Optoelectronic devices Applications.
Doctoral dissertation, Pondicherry University (2016)
25. García-Martín, J., Gómez-Gil, J., Vázquez-Sánchez, E.: Non-destructive techniques based on
eddy current testing. Sensors 11(3), 2525–2565 (2011)
Forces and Process Dynamics in Profiling
of AlCu4MgSi Aluminium Alloy
Eugene Feldshtein1 and Piotr Nieslony2(&)

1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zielona Gora,
4 Prof. Z. Szafrana Street, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology,
76 Proszkowska Street, 45-758 Opole, Poland
p.nieslony@po.opole.pl
Abstract. This work presents the results of experimental research regarding

cutting force, chatter frequency and amplitude for different cooling conditions in
profiling of AlCu4MgSi aluminium alloy. The following conditions were ana-
lyzed: dry cutting, cooling with water-based emulsion, MQL and MQCL. It was
determined that cooling and lubricating conditions in the cutting zone have a
minimal effect on machining forces in the following range of parameters: cutting
speed 300–600 m/min, depth of cut 1–2 mm, feed rate 0.1–0.5 mm/rev.
Therefore, a conclusion to introduce dry machining to cut down costs was
formed. Changes in cutting force components can be described by the following
relation: Fc Fp > Ff. The intensity of the effect of technological parameters on
cutting force components decreases in the direction of f ! ap ! vc. It was
proven that by analyzing changes of cutting force in machining time, possi-
bilities of chatter occurrence for different machining conditions can be assessed.
Keywords: Cutting force MQL MQCL Dry cutting
1 Introduction
The change in cutting force significantly affects – directly or indirectly – basically every
indicator of the machining process, such as chatter intensity, heat exchange in the
machining zone, character of tool wear, tool life and strength, surface layer hardening etc.
The effects of research on the subject of machining force are very broad and shown
in scientific publications, both domestic and foreign. The research regards all types of
construction materials- steel, cast iron, non-ferrous alloys, polymer composites and
many others. Aluminum alloys are nowadays widely used in many branches of
industry. Therefore, expanding the knowledge regarding forces and dynamic phe-
nomena in machining of aluminum alloys is an important issue.
The main factors affecting cutting force are material properties, machining param-
eters, cooling and lubricating conditions, and finally cutting tool geometry and condition
[1, 2]. In regards to tool geometry, the rake angle has the most effect on cutting force, as
the cutting force decreases with and increase in it. On the other hand, an increase in rake
angle decreases tool life. A preparation of cutting edge and overall tool condition also
have a substantial effect on cutting force. For example, the use of polished cutting edges

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_42
Forces and Process Dynamics in Profiling of AlCu4MgSi Aluminium Alloy 399
and the used of tool coatings extends tool life and facilitates chip removal, causing a
decrease in cutting force [3, 4]. The use of TiN coated indexable inserts has allowed to
lower the cutting force in turning of Al 2219 aluminum alloy and composites based on it
when turning with cutting speeds of 75–175 m/min, 0.3 mm/rev feed rate and constant
depth of cut 0.5 mm [5]. It was found that in turning of 7050-T7451 aluminum alloy,
lowering the rake angle and depth of cut resulted in increased cutting energy con-
sumption in the range of 1000–4500 m/min cutting speeds [6]. In [7], the effect of
cutting speed on thrust force when turning different aluminum alloys was shown. For
each of those alloys, a border value of cutting force at a certain cutting speed (600–
750 m/min depending on the alloy) was determined, marking the transition between
conventional and high speed cutting (HSC) at that “critical cutting speed”. Similar data
was shown in [8] when researching the effect of tool coating type (or lack thereof) on
thrust force depending on the cutting speed in machining of AlSilMgMn alloy. The use
of an approx. 1 lm thick TiB2 layer causes a decrease in cutting force in comparison to
a non-coated tool in a wide range of cutting speeds. A thicker TiAlCN coating lowers
the cutting force for cutting speeds under 450 m/min. For the higher cutting speeds the
cutting force is higher or comparable to values obtained when machining with a non-
coated tool. The effect of cutting liquids on cutting force was analyzed in [3, 4, 9]. It was
ascertained that turning with the use of cutting liquid or in MQL conditions significantly
lowers the cutting force value in comparison to dry cutting.
Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) [3, 4, 9, 11–13] and Minimum Quantity
Cooling Lubrication (MQCL) [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20] based strategies are nowadays
widely used in machining due to environmental aspects associated with the use of those
methods. MQL and MQCL fit into sustainable development thanks to reduction in
environmental effects of machining, reduction in energy consumption, cutting liquid
costs, improvement of machine tool operator health and safety and a positive effect on
waste management. Authors of many scientific papers have proven positive effects of
MQL and MQCL methods in comparison to traditional flood cooling and dry machining.
Currently, it has been proven that the use MQL and MQCL strategies results in decreases
in surface roughness [11, 12, 15, 16, 20], tool wear [11–14, 16], plastic deformation in
near-surface layer [19], cutting force [11, 13], cutting zone temperature [11] and
improvement in tribological properties of the surface layer [17].
Results of research regarding cutting force and process dynamics in turning of
AlCu4MgSi aluminum alloy for different cooling and lubricating conditions are shown
below.
AlCu4MgSi aluminum alloy was used for research purposes. It is commonly known as
duralumin and is characterized as having high strength and good machinability. It is
used for production of parts and components, particularly in automotive and aerospace
industries.
A CSDCN 20 20 H 12 tool holder with SNMN 12 04 08 cutting tool was used for
machining. Tool geometry characteristics are as follows: jr = 45°; a = 7°; c = −7°;
re = 0.8 mm. Non-coated P25 grade sintered carbide inserts were used.
400 E. Feldshtein and P. Nieslony
A 23-1 type fractional factorial design was used to conduct the research [10]. Range
of research parameters and their codes are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Machining parameters.

No. ap f vc
Code X1 Value, mm Code X2 Value, mm/rev Code X3 ! X1 X2 Value, m/min
1 −1 1 −1 0.1 +1 600
2 +1 2 −1 0.1 −1 300
3 −1 1 +1 0.5 −1 300
4 +1 2 +1 0.5 +1 600
Turning was performed both in dry conditions and with the use of various cooling
strategies, i.e. flood cooling (7% water-based cutting fluid on the base of Emulgol-S
concentrate), MQCL (minimum quantity cooling lubrication) with the same fluid as
used for flood cooling, and finally MQL (minimum quantity lubrication) with the use of
ECOCUT MIKRO PLUS 20 oil. The following conditions for creation of coolant mist
were used: air flow 5.8 l/min, fluid/oil flow 0.44 g/min, nozzle standoff from the
machining zone 0.3 m.
Cutting force components were measured with the used of Kistler 9129A
dynamometer equipped with piezoelectric sensors. Sampling frequency was 1000 Hz.
Values of three main cutting force components in cartesian coordinate system were
registered during machining: Fc – main cutting force, Fp – thrust force, Ff – feed force.
Statistical processing of obtained results was done with the use of Statistica 13.1
software.
3 Research Results
Examples of registered Fc, Fp and Ff cutting force components are shown in Fig. 1. The
effect of machining conditions on cutting force components is shown in Fig. 2. It can
be easily seen that cooling conditions have a negligible effect on cutting force com-
ponents values. Even in the most favorable conditions, changes do not exceed 5%
(MQCL). Therefore, the solution to use dry cutting in machining of aluminum with
high cutting speeds presents itself as economically viable, allowing for reduction in
production costs.
Changes in cutting force components can be characterized by the following rela-
tion: Fc Fp > Ff. Intensity of the effect of machining parameters on cutting force
drops in the direction of f ! ap ! vc. A substantial effect of feed rate can be attributed
to low depths of cut, at which cutting force values are mostly affected by cutting edge
radius.
Fig. 1. Examples of registered cutting force component signals (positive and negative force
values are in accordance to dynamometer software measurement coordinates).
Measurement results were the basis for calculating a multi-dimensional linear

regression Fi = b0 + b1ap + b2f + b3vc. Values of regression coefficients for 95%
probability level are shown in Table 2. It was shown that cutting speed has the least
effect on all cutting force components, which is depicted in Fig. 3.
By observing changes of cutting force component signals in machining time
(Fig. 1) and basing on the knowledge that piezoelectric sensors allow for measurements
with a high sampling rate, an evaluation of chatter in select conditions was performed.
An example of cutting force component changes in time were shown in Fig. 4,
whereas the effect of cutting conditions on chatter frequency x is illustrated in Fig. 5.
Basing on the analysis of chatter frequency and amplitude it can be inferred that self-
induced chatter does not occur for the assumed range of parameters when turning
duralumin. Only parametric chatter is present due to constant changes in machine-tool-
workpiece system stiffness during machining. It was not possible to precisely determine
relations between machining parameters, cutting conditions and chatter frequency.
Fig. 2. The effect of cutting conditions on cutting force components (numbers 1–4 designate
machining parameter values in accordance with Table 1).
Table 2. Regression coefficients for calculating cutting force components.

Cooling and Fc Ff Fp
lubricating b0 b1 b2 b3 b0 b1 b2 b3 b0 b1 b2 b3
conditions
Dry 371.5 201.5 378.6 85.1 159.3 97.1 51.3 12.4 150 59.1 106.2 11.2
MQL 366.2 209 374.4 87.4 148.8 98 56.4 5.7 145 59 102.8 12.2
MQCL 358.3 184.5 357 57.2 147.7 88.4 47 2.4 143.6 48.8 101.6 −
Flood 360.4 193.8 374.7 98.9 142.2 93.5 59.9 18.4 138.5 49.6 103.5 18.2
Fig. 3. Response surfaces of select machining parameters on cutting force components.

Fig. 4. Changes of Fc and Fp force components in time.
Fig. 5. The effect of cutting conditions on chatter frequency in Fc (a), Fp (b) and Ff (c) directions
(numbers 1–4 designate machining parameter values in accordance with Table 1).
4 Conclusion
Basing on the analysis of cutting force components and machining dynamics in turning
of AlCu4MgSi aluminum alloy in different cutting conditions (dry cutting, flood
cooling, MQL, MQCL) it was observed that lubricating and cooling conditions in the
assumed machining parameter range (cutting speed 300–600 m/min, depth of cut 1–
2 mm and feed rate 0.1–0.5 mm/rev) have a minimal effect on cutting force. Therefore,
a conclusion to use dry cutting to cut down production costs presents itself. Changes in
cutting force components can be characterized by the following relation: Fc Fp > Ff.
Intensity of the effect of machining parameters on cutting force drops in the direction of
f ! ap ! vc. It was established that details of chatter formation in different cutting
conditions can be evaluated on the basis of changes in cutting force components vs.
machining time. Basing on the analysis of chatter frequency and amplitude it can be
inferred that self-induced chatter does not occur in the assumed range of parameters
and cutting conditions- only parametric chatter is present due to constant changes in the
stiffness of machine-tool-workpiece system during machining.
References
1. Oczoś, K.E., Kawalec, A.: Kształtowanie metali lekkich. PWN, Warszawa (2012)
2. Songmene, V., Khettabi, R., Zaghbani, I., Kouam, J.A.D.: Machining and machinability of
aluminum alloys. In: Tibor, K. (ed.) Aluminium Alloys, Theory and Applications, Canada
(2011)
3. Fukui, H., Okida, J., Omori, N., Moriguchi, H., Tsuda, K.: Cutting performance of DLC
coated tools in dry machining aluminum alloys. Surf. Coat. Technol. 187(1), 70–76 (2004)
4. Sreejith, P.S.: Machining of 6061 aluminium alloy with MQL, dry and flooded lubricant
conditions. Mater. Lett. 62(2), 276–278 (2008)
5. Siddesh Kumar, N.G., Shiva Shankar, G.S., Ganesh, M.N., Vibudha, L.K.: Experimental
investigations to study the cutting force and surface roughness during turning of aluminium
metal matrix hybrid composites. Mater. Today: Proc. 4, 9371–9374 (2017)
6. Wang, B., Liu, Z., Song, Q., Wan, Y., Shi, Z.: Proper selection of cutting parameters and
cutting tool angle to lower the specific cutting energy during high speed machining of 7050-
T7451 aluminum alloy. J. Clean. Prod. 129, 292–304 (2016)
7. Adamski, W.: Wybrane kierunki zwiększania wydajności procesów skrawania. Mechanik 5–
6, 540–546 (2009)
8. Obróbka skrawaniem stopów aluminium i magnezu. Praca zbiorowa. In: Kuczmaszewski, J.,
Zaleski, K. (eds.) Politechnika Lubelska, Lublin (2015)
9. Kishawy, H.A., Dumitrescu, M., Ng, E.G., Elbestawi, M.A.: Effect of coolant strategy on
tool performance, chip morphology and surface quality during high-speed machining of
A356 aluminum alloy. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf 45(2), 219–227 (2005)
10. Taavitsainen, V.M.T.: Experimental optimization and response surfaces. In: Varmuza, K.
(ed.) Chemometrics in Practical Applications, pp. 91–138. In Tech, Rijeka (2012)
11. Sharma, A.K., Tiwari, A.K., Dixit, A.R.: Effects of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) in
machining processes using conventional and nanofluid based cutting fluids: a comprehensive
review. J. Clean. Prod. 127, 1–18 (2016)
12. Stachurski, W., Sawicki, J., Wójcik, R., Nadolny, K.: Influence of application of hybrid
MQL-CCA method of applying coolant during hob cutter sharpening on cutting blade
surface condition. J. Clean. Prod. 171, 892–910 (2018)
13. Chetan, B.C., Ghosh, S., Rao, P.V.: Wear behavior of PVD TiN coated carbide inserts
during machining of Nimonic 90 and Ti6Al4 V superalloys under dry and MQL conditions.
Ceram. Int. 42(13), 14873–14885 (2016)
Vjesn. - Tech. Gaz. 22(5), 1219–1223 (2015)
16. Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, G.M., Wojciechowski, S., Zak, K., Habrat, W., Nieslony, P.:
Effects of extreme pressure and anti-wear additives on surface topography and tool wear
during MQCL turning of AISI 1045 steel. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 32(4), 1585–1591 (2018)
17. Maruda, R.W., Feldshtein, E., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M.: Improving the efficiency of
running – in for a bronze – stainless steel friction pair. J. Frict. Wear 36(6), 548–553 (2015)
18. Maruda, R.W., Feldshtein, E., Legutko, S., Krolczyk, G.M.: Research emulsion mist
generation in the conditions of minimum quantity cooling lubrication (MQCL). Teh. Vjesn. -
Tech. Gaz. 22(5), 1213–1218 (2015)
20. Krolczyk, G.M., Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, J.B., Nieslony, P., Wojciechowski, S., Legutko,
S.: Parametric and nonparametric description of the surface topography in the dry and
MQCL cutting conditions. Measurement 121, 225–239 (2018)
A Polyurethane/Carbon Black Composite
Absorber for Low Frequency Waves
Mustafa Yagimli1(&), Hakan Tozan2, H. Ergin Esen3, and Emin Arca4

1
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Beykent University, Istanbul, Turkey
mustafayagimli@beykent.edu.tr
2
School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Istanbul Medipol University,
Istanbul, Turkey
htozan@medipol.edu.tr
3
Vocational School of Health Services, Biruni University, Istanbul, Turkey
4
Faculty of Engineering, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract. This study proposes a Polyurethane/Carbon Black composite coating

that has the ability of absorbing low frequency waves. The characteristics of
coating including contact angle measurements are provided and for performance
analyses, a 1 kHz amplitude-modulated signal superimposed on red and green
laser beam (whose intensity is changed by square wave) sent to composite
coated surface. The reflected beam from the coating was detected by BPW20RF
photodetector and signal waves were measured. The results of the analyses
illustrated that the composite; coating to a great extent, absorbed the waves.
Keywords: Composite coating Absorbency Surface energy
1 Introduction
Polymer composites (PC); specially electrically conductive polymeric types are widely
using in different industries due to their plastic nature. With conducting fillers such
carbon fibers and carbon black (CB), PCs can be used as electrical conductors or for
medium for heat transfer. Their plastic nature gives the advantage of easy preparations
in various forms and low cost for the manufacturing process. to create different forms
of products by using institutional techniques hereby decreases costs [1].
Electrostatic coating materials are often used in the coating of metal and non-metal
surfaces as well as thermosetting materials. They become more preferred than wet-
liquid coating materials because they do not contain solvent chemicals in their struc-
ture. In addition to being environmentally friendly due to their solvent content, they
have the ability to form a film layer with the desired fineness on the surface of the
material to be coated. According to the type of resin and hardener used, those coating
materials can be named such as epoxy-polyester and polyurethane (PU) [2].
Usage of organic composites for coating of various material is not new, but we have
studies about the low frequency wave absorbance of Polyurethane/Carbon Black
(PU/CB) composites are rare in literature. This study proposes a PU/CB coating and
measures the absorbance of the PU/CB coated surface using a practical system consist
of a square wave generator, light source (laser) and a photodetector. For performance

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_43
408 M. Yagimli et al.
analyses of the material, amplitude-modulated signals from the generator are super-
imposed on laser beams and reflections are measured.
The following sections of the paper are organized as follow. In Sect. 2, charac-
teristics of PU/CB coating (including the contact angle measurement) are presented
with the experimental setup (measurement system). In Sect. 3, results from the
experimental application are illustrated. And finally, in Sect. 4 conclusions of the study
are presented briefly.
2 Material Characteristics and Experimental Setup
All reagents in the current experiments were of technical grade and were used as
received without further treatment.
2.1 Pu/CB Pigment Coating

Aluminum substrates (12 cm 5 cm 0.3 cm) were cleaned with 10 dilute acid and
deionized water before use. After surface cleaning, fixed amounts of Castrol oil (80 g)
and toluene diisocyanate (TDI, 20 g) were mixed together (total 100 g) under con-
tinuous ultra-sonication media for 10 min. Then the content of black pigment in the
mixture was fixed with 0.1 g (0.1 wt%), 0.2 g (0.2 wt%), 0.3 g (0.3 wt%) and 0.4 g
(0.4 wt%). The final mixtures were coated on aluminum substrates under an appropriate
pressure. The coating thickness was about 50 lm. Finally, the PU/CB pigment coatings
were dried in an oven at 100 °C for 2 h. In all cases, duplicate experiments were
carried out to ensure reproducibility.
2.2 Contact Angle Measurements

10 lL water, glycerol and paraffin oil droplet gently placed on the coated surface with
sessile drop technique. All dropping process were recorded simultaneously with a high-
resolution camera. Figure 1 illustrates oil droplet for 0.3 wt% and, contact angles which
were measured with Image Processing and Analyses in Java (ImageJ) are illustrated in
Table 1.
Fig. 1. Images of water, glycerol and paraffin oil droplet for 0.3 wt.
A Polyurethane/Carbon Black Composite Absorber for Low Frequency Waves 409
Table 1. Contact angle measurement results.

Probe Left Right Mean
0.1 wt% Water 80.903 79.846 80.3745
Paraffin Oil 15.008 14.151 14.5795
Glycerol 63.985 61.01 62.4975
0.2 wt% Water 71.522 74.66 73.091
Paraffin Oil 18.79 16.5 17.645
Glycerol 52.402 52.441 52.4215
0.3 wt% Water 76.587 77.511 77.049
Paraffin Oil 22.77 22.424 22.597
Glycerol 55.037 53.378 54.2075
0.4 wt% Water 75.88 80.698 78.289
Paraffin Oil 24.068 24.898 24.483
Glycerol 71.023 72.849 71.936
2.3 Experimental Set-up

In the experimental system, square waves with 650 nm-532 nm wave length and 1 kHz
frequency is generated with function generator and superimposed on red and green
laser beam from the light source which transmits the signal to the coated surface. Then
reflected waves from the coated surface is measured by a BPW20RF photodetector (see
[3, 4] for more information) to expose the absorbance. The experimental set up for the
measurement reflected low frequency waves from the PU/CB coated surface is illus-
trated Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the experimental setup.
The angle between the optical system axis and the direction perpendicular to the
sample surface was fixed at 45°. This angle; while remaining close to normal, will
avoid measuring a reflected modulated flux from the optical system, which is not
perfectly transparent.
The square wave with 1 kHz shown in Fig. 3 is used when the laser light is mod-
ulated. The value of the alternative signal equal to the direct signal is called the effective
(root mean square-rms) value and calculated as follow for both laser beams [5];
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z
1 T 2
Urms ¼ U dt ð1Þ
T 0
The amount of conductivity is measured by the four-point probe technique. The four-
point probe technique has been a widespread method for electrical characterization of
thin films for many years [6]. A thin film sheet resistivity measurement with a collinear
symmetry was performed [7]. Figure 4 illustrates schematic of collinear four-point
probe set-up for measurement. In the figure S is the probe spacing, V is the voltage
across the sample, I is current in the sample and t is the film thickness. The amount of
conductivity by the four-point probe technique was measured as 5.10−4 Siemens (S) on
the aluminum surface and 4.76.10−5 S on the 0.1 wt% surface. Conductivity is written
as resistance in Tables 2 and 3.
Fig. 3. The square wave with 1 kHz.
Fig. 4. Schematic of collinear four-point probe set-up.

A Polyurethane/Carbon Black Composite Absorber for Low Frequency Waves 411
Table 2. Voltage of the input and reflected wave from the noncoated surface.
Materials Input wave (mV) Output (Reflected) Surface resistance (kX)
wave (mV)
Red laser Green laser Red laser Green laser
Aluminum surface 2536 3360 164.20 349 2
Table 3. Voltage of the input and reflected wave from the coated surface.
Coated Input wave (mV) Output Surface Surface energy
surface (Reflected) wave resistance (kX) (mJ/m2)
(mV)
Red Green Red Green
laser laser laser laser
0.1 wt% 2445 11800 46.26 15 21 26.67
0.2 wt% 2445 11800 50 18.5 18 24
0.3 wt% 2445 11800 54.32 20 17 20.94
0.4 wt% 2445 11800 62.74 23 16 20.64
3 Results
Table 2 illustrates voltage values of the input and reflected wave and surface resistance
in the aluminum surface without coating. 2536 mV square wave transmitted to the
aluminum surface with a red laser has been measured as 164 mV reflected wave.
Similarly, 3360 mV square wave transmitted with green laser has been measured as
349 mV reflected wave. In this process the aluminum surface resistance was measured
as 2 kX.
Table 3 illustrates voltage values of the input and reflected wave and surface
resistance of the coated surfaces. The surface with 0.1 wt% transmitted with 2445 mV
square wave with red laser has been obtained 46.26 mV reflected wave. In the same
way, a green laser sent with a square wave of 11800 mV has been measured as 15 mV
reflected wave. The surface resistance was measured as 21 kX.
4 Conclusion
This study examines the low frequency wave absorbance of a proposed PU/CB
composite coating with different pigment levels. Experiments using amplitude-
modulated signals (which were superimposed separately on red and green laser
beams) showed that CB pigments dramatically increased the amount of low frequency
wave absorbance of the coated surface (see Tables 2 and 3). Table 3 also illustrated
that the surface resistance is proportional to surface energy (when conductivity
increases, the surface energy decreases). Further researches can be made by changing
pigment levels in the mixture and the heat drying process.
References
1. Appaji, V.: Preparation and properties of polyurethane-carbon black-graphite hybrid
composites for electrically conductive applications. M.S. Thesis, University of Massachusetts
Lowell, MA, USA (2008)
2. Kısmet, Y.: Effects of Hydrolyzed electrostatic powder coating wastes on fluidity and density
of polyolefins. Sigma J. Eng. Natl. Sci. 33, 377–383 (2015)
3. Laser Diode Datasheet. http://www.alldatasheet.com/datasheet-pdf/pdf/536908/ROITHNER/
ADL-65075TA2.html. Accessed 25 Apr 2018
4. BPW20RFPhotodiode Datasheet. http://www.vishay.com/docs/81570/bpw20rf.pdf. Accessed
25 Apr 2018
5. Yağımlı, M., Akar, F.: Alternatif Akım Devreleri & Problem Çözümleri, 6. Edt., BETA
(2015). ISBN 978-605-377-998-8
6. Agumbo, O.J.: Design and Fabrication of a Simple Four Point Probe System for Electrical
Characterization of a Thin Films, Thesis MS, Kenyatta University (2010)
7. Bautista, K.: Thin Film Deposition, 2nd edn., pp. 67–120. University of Texas at Dallas, Erik
Jonsson School of Engineering, Richardson (2004)
The Effect of Additional Shielding Gas
on Properties and Erosion Resistance of High
Chromium Hardfacing
Marek Gucwa1(&), Milos Mičian2, Krzysztof Makles1,

and Jerzy Winczek1
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, Czestochowa
University of Technology, Dabrowskiego 69, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland
mgucwa@spaw.pcz.czest.pl
2
Department of Technological Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 1,
010 26 Žilina, Slovakia
Abstract. The wear-resistant layers of the chromium cast iron structure can be
made by traditional casting methods as well as by the use of welding methods.
The use of hardfacing allows for the creation of a protective layer on existing
elements, often in the place of their use. Especially the use of hardfacing using
self-shielding core wires allows obtaining layers with the desired properties. The
paper presents the results of research on high-chromium hardfacings made in
self-protective technology as well as using shielding gas. It was noted that the
addition of shielding gas has a positive effect on the stability of the surfacing
process and on the appearance of hardfaced surfaces. The hardness tests and
erosive wear tests carried out also indicate a positive effect of shielding gas on
the properties of hardfacings.
Keywords: Hardfacing Erosion Hardness
1 Introduction
The materials with structure of cast chromium iron are widely used in different man-
ufacturing processes, in which high wear resistance and low manufacturing cost are
required. The foundry technologies give a good possibility to produce cast chromium
irons massive elements with modification of their properties by heat treatment and
changes in chemical composition, especially chromium to carbon ratio [1] but with
limitation of this ratio to the 10:1 [2] and addition of titanium [3] and boron [4].
Advancement in welding technologies allows to deposit the surface with similar
structure and chemical composition as well known foundry technologies. One of the
interesting welding technology for hardfacing is using self shielded cored wires that
can be used for obtaining much proper structures of the joints [5]. This technology
gives chance to create surface with desirable structures with implementation of different
welding technologies [6, 7], in which the determination of the most important
parameters is the crucial point of efficiency in processing [8] and quality and quantity
of carbides in the structure [9]. This kind of hardfacing presents greater productivity

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_44
414 M. Gucwa et al.
than coated electrodes and greater flexibility than with a submerged arc and in addition
to this, lower thermal input, less distortions, and less thermally affected zone. The self-
shielded flux cored arc welding process aggregates the main advantages of the GMAW
such as high values of deposition rate, yield, and the work factor of the welder,
enabling high productivity and high quality weld to be obtained [10, 11]. It is possible
to achieve the better erosion rate [12] and corrosion resistance [13] by using cored
wires with nano-additives. This seems to be better solution than implementation the
elements as the boron which increases carbide volume fraction but decreases corrosion
resistance [4].
The method of self-shielded flux-cored wire welding involves melting flux-cored
wire and metal substrates from the heat of an electric arc burning between the metal
wire tube, comprising a core powder, and the weld object. The components of the core
wire provide gas and metal vapour deposition insulating zone than atmosphere. During
the melting of the core is also generated slag. It covers a thin layer of liquid metal
droplets transferred from the wire to the molten weld pool. The slag that is formed
during the melting process is primarily responsible for protecting the welding arc and
molten weld pool from the atmosphere. The problem is that during self-shielding
process the flow of gas is not stable and in some cases produce a lot of spatter and
porosity. Determination of the gas flow rate, as well as changes in the nozzle settings
are considered in work [14] in which it was shown that good quality of the welds can
be achieved in proper conditions of the gas flow rate.
The main objective of the study was to investigate the effect of addition shielding
gases on the properties of the obtained wear resistant plates.
Steel grade S355JR for general purpose was selected as parent material for hardfacing
layers. The thickens of deposited steel plate was 30 mm. Self shielded cored wire with
a diameter of 1.2 mm and the chemical composition specified by the manufacturer in
Table 1 was selected for hardfacing. The deposition process was carried out on using a
Cloos Quinto Profi welding source.
Table 1. Chemical composition of self shielded cored wire wt%

C Cr V W Fe
3.8 22 0.8 0.8 balance
The process of deposition was carried out in two variations, using the same base
process parameters given in Table 2, but in one case using external shielding gas. The
mixture of gases was 82% of argon and 18% of carbon dioxide.
The process of hardfacing was performed using device for automatic welding
PRO-DC 25. In both cases of hardfacing the 4 weave beads were applied with linear
speed 130 mm/min. Made in this way, the deposit has been subsequently tested with
metallographic optical microscope Olympus GX51 and hardness tests with Vickers
The Effect of Additional Shielding Gas 415
Table 2. Hardfacing process parameters.

Deposit Voltage, Gas flow, Width of bead, Wire speed feed,
V l/min mm m/min
A 26-27 0 30 6.8
B 26-27 10 30 6.8
method. The study of structure was performed using metallographic reagent of 90 ml

of C2H5OH, 10 ml HCl and 3 g of FeCl2. Erosive wear tests were carried out on a
modified position of the jet milling. Ejector nozzle diameter was 6 mm, and its distance
from the sample was fixed at 6 mm. Tests were carried out with use of a fixed pressure
jet erosion at 7 atmospheres. Corundum was used as erosive material. Specimen before
the test were cleaned and weighed and then assembled into the device and erosion tests
were carried out at 30° and 45° by 10 min. After 10 min the samples were removed
from the machine, cleaned with the stream of air and reweighed to the nearest 0.001 g.
Each test was repeated three times for statistical calculations and for determination of
the volume loss, the specimens were weighted before and after the wear tests to
calculate the mass loss. The results of the erosive tests are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Results of erosie test.

Specimen Impingement angle, ° Weight loss, g
A1 30 0.211
A2 45 0.049
B1 30 0.08
B2 45 0.092
Welds made without additional shielding gas were marked with a rectangle and with
the letter A (Fig. 1). The remaining paddles marked with the letter B were made with
an additional shielding gas. The use of an additional shielding gas has allowed to
stability of welding arc and almost eliminate of spatter and porosity in the hardfacing.
The analyzed samples show significant differences in the structure of the obtained
deposits. In the case of the hardfacing sample marked as A (Figs. 2 and 3), there are
numerous needle-shaped primaryM7C3 carbides in the matrix comprised of eutectic
mixture of austenite (dark phase) and fine eutectic M7C3 carbides (white phase) [15].
The primary M7C3 needles grow predominantly along the heat flow direction in layer
deposits to depth about 500 lm. In the deepest part of the deposit it is observed mostly
hexagonal carbides. For the sample marked as B the structure close to surface is
dominated by eutectic mixture of carbides (Figs. 4 and 5). It is observed a few large
needle-shaped primary carbides compared to sample A. In both samples the structure of
deposits, close to the fusion line and base material is similar and consist mainly of
hexagonal carbides and numerous of fine eutectic particles. The hardness test shows
416 M. Gucwa et al.
Fig. 1. Plate with hardfacing and visible porosity and spatter.
that the differences in shape and type of carbides do not have significant impact on
obtained values. The average hardness of specimen A is 850 HV10 and specimen B is
882HV10. The maximum hardness 933 HV10 was measured for the sample B close to
the surface. In both investigated deposits the hardness close to the fusion line is on the
same level about 810820 HV10. The decreasing of hardness along the cross-section
of hardfacing is due to the dilution of base mild steel and weld metal. It is noted that
cold cracks occur in the deposits, which are stopped on the fusion line between deposit
and base material (Fig. 6). These cracks exist independently of the setted welding
parameters. Additional shielding gas has positive influence on the absence of spatter
and porosity in the deposit material. The additional gas made better stabilization of the
burning welding arc and increased temperature that gives better possibility to relief
gases of the welding pool. The second positive results of the additional shielding is the
lack of porosity on the surface. The transport of the molten material from the tip of the
wire is in the axis in the opposition to the process without it in which the droplet is
detached from the surface of the electrode in the random direction.
The results of erosive tests are shown in Table 3. The highest wear was measured
for sample A, made without the use of an additional shielding gas tested at an erosive
angle of 30°. The lowest measured wear was also observed for a sample made in the
same way, but tested at an angle of 45°. The weight loss at 45° erosive angle is 4 times
smaller than at 30°. The opposite situation was observed for samples made with
additional shielding gas. In this case, the lowest wear was measured at an erosive
impingement angle of 30°. However, the difference in wear resistance in this case does
Fig. 2. Structure of specimen A near surface, made without additional shielding gases.
Fig. 3. Structure of specimen A in the middle, made without additional shielding gases.
418 M. Gucwa et al.
Fig. 4. Structure of specimen B near surface, made with additional shielding gases.
Fig. 5. Structure of specimen B in the middle, made with additional shielding gases.
Fig. 6. Crack and porosity in specimen A, made without additional shielding gases.
not exceed 15%. This is due to the more homogeneous structure in the padding
obtained in the hardfacing process with an additional shielding gas. In addition, pads
made in this way are free from pores and gas bubbles, the presence of which can affect
the resistance to wear as was probably the case with the sample marked as A1.
4 Conclusions
The research and analysis allowed to draw the following conclusions.

• Use of additional shielding gas has a positive influence on the hardfacing process
and properties of obtained layer. Stabilization of burning arc gives chance to
eliminate porosity in the structure and to create much more homogenous structure.
• It is possible to change the size and morphology of the carbides by using additional
shielding gases, what tends to create much fine and hexagonally carbides than self
shielding hardfacing process.
• Hardfacing made with additional shielding gas gives better wear resistance in
condition of this experiment. Change of impingement angle has a little impact on
the wear resistance in comparison to hardfacing made without additional shielded
gas. External and internal imperfections in hardfacing such as porosity and cracks
increase the wear of materials.
420 M. Gucwa et al.
References
1. Pokusová, M., Brúsilová, A., Šooš, Ľ., Berta, I.: Abrasion wear behavior of high-chromium
cast iron. Arch. Foundry Eng. 16, 69–74 (2016)
2. Tanga, X.H., Chunga, R., Panga, C.J., Li, D.Y., Hinckleyb, B., Dolmanb, K.: Microstructure
of high (45 wt.%) chromium cast irons and their resistances to wear and corrosion. Wear
271, 1426–1431 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2010.11.047
3. Kopyciński, D., Piasny, S., Kawalec, M., Madizhanova, A.: The Abrasive wear resistance of
chromium cast iron. Arch. Foundry Eng. 14, 63–66 (2014)
4. Lu, H., Li, T., Cui, J., Li, Q., Li, D.Y.: Improvement in erosion-corrosion resistance of high-
chromium cast irons by trace boron. Wear 376–377, 578–586 (2017). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.wear.2017.02.014
5. Dumovic, M., Dunne, D.: Prediction of weld metal microstructure of self-shielded arc
hardfacing welds resistant to metal-to-metal wear. Weld. World 5, 831–837 (2014). https://
doi.org/10.1007/s40194-014-0162-7
6. Gucwa, M., Winczek, J.: The properties of high chromium hardfacings made with using
pulsed arc. Arch. Foundry Eng. 15, 37–40 (2015)
7. Gucwa, M., Winczek, J., Bęczkowski, R., Dośpiał, M.: Structure and properties of coatings
made with self shielded cored wire. Arch. Foundry Eng. 16, 39–42 (2016)
8. Bęczkowski, R.: Effect of cladding parameters on the hardness of bimetal plates. Metalurgija
56, 59–62 (2016)
9. Günther, K., Liefeith, J., Henckell, P., Ali, Y., Bergmann, J.P.: Influence of processing
conditions on the degradation kinetics of fused tungsten carbides in hardfacing. Int.
J. Refract Metal Hard Mater. 70, 224–231 (2018)
10. Liu, D., Liu, R., Wei, Y.: Effects of titanium additive on microstructure and wear
performance of iron-based slag-free self-shielded flux-cored wire. Surf. Coat. Technol. 207,
579–586 (2012)
11. Liu, D., Liu, R., Wei, Y., Ma, Y., Zhu, K.: Microstructure and wear properties of Fe–15Cr–
2.5Ti–2C–xB wt.% hardfacing alloys. Appl. Surf. Sci. 271, 253–259 (2013)
12. Gou, J., Wang, Y., Wang, Ch., Chu, R., Liu, S.: Effect of rare earth oxide nano-additives on
micro-mechanical properties and erosion behavior of Fe-Cr-C-B hardfacing alloys. J. Alloy.
Compd. 691, 800–810 (2017)
13. Gou, J., Wang, Y., Li, X., Zhou, F.: Effect of rare earth oxide nano-additives on the
corrosion behavior of Fe-based hardfacing alloys in acid, near-neutral and alkaline 3.5 wt.%
NaCl solutions. Appl. Surf. Sci. 431, 143–151 (2018)
14. Bitharasa, I., McPhersonb, N.A., McGhiec, W., Royc, D., Moorea, A.J.: Visualisation and
optimisation of shielding gas coverage during gas metal arc welding. J. Mater. Process.
Tech. 255, 451–462 (2018)
15. Correa, E.O., Alcântara, N.G., Valeriano, L.C., Barbedo, N.D., Chaves, R.R.: The effect of
microstructure on abrasive wear of a Fe–Cr–C–Nb hardfacing alloy deposited by the open
arc welding process. Surf. Coat. Technol. 276, 479–484 (2015)
Analysis of the Legal Risk
in the Scientific Experiment of the Machining
of Magnesium Alloys
Dorota Habrat1(&) , Dorota Stadnicka2 , and Witold Habrat2

1
Faculty of Law and Administration, University of Rzeszow,
Grunwaldzka 13, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
dhabrat@ur.edu.pl
2
Abstract. In the article, the legal risk of the researcher in the case of a scientific
experiment in the machining of magnesium alloys was determined. The use of
magnesium alloys in industry and identification of the problems associated with
machining were presented. The issues concerning legal liability in the experiment
and provisions ensuring a greater scope of legal protection for the researcher were
indicated and challenges in the machining of magnesium alloys were analyzed.
Moreover, the method to assess legal risk in experiments was proposed and its
application in the experiments was presented. The analysis confirmed the
applicability of the proposed method to the analysis of the legal risk.
Keywords: Risk analysis Experiment Legal responsibility Machining

Magnesium alloys
1 Introduction
Magnesium alloys are widely used, among others, in the automotive [1] and aviation
industry [2]. One of the ways to reduce the fuel consumption of aircraft is an appli-
cation of lighter materials in aircraft construction. Magnesium, next to fiber compos-
ites, is seen as the primary candidate for substantial weight reduction [3]. Therefore,
there is a need to manufacture parts from magnesium alloys. One of the most com-
monly used manufacturing methods is machining. Increasing the efficiency of
machining is associated with scientific research and a need to conduct experiments.
The high strength-to-weight ratio, along with other unique properties, offered by
magnesium alloys, are overshadowed by their high surface reactivity. A lack of sta-
bility at increased temperatures is often associated with magnesium ignition and
burning when in contact with an open flame or another source of heat [3]. One result of
cutting is heat and its generation is associated with the risk of ignition. In particular, it
is dangerous to conduct experimental research due to the fact that the researcher
operates in uncharted areas of knowledge.
The risk of a fire during an experiment, depending on its effects, is associated with
the risk of legal liability. The aim of the research was to determine the legal risk to the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_45
422 D. Habrat et al.
researcher in the case of a scientific experiment of machining magnesium alloys and to

indicate the provisions ensuring a greater scope of legal protection for the
experimenters.
The Sect. 2 presents issues concerning legal liability in the experiment. Section 3
explains the challenges in machining of magnesium alloys. Section 4 presents the
proposed method to assess the legal risks in experiments and their application in
experiments with magnesium alloys. The Sect. 5 summarizes the paper and mentions
future researches.
2 Risk of Legal Liability in the Experiment
The rapid progress of modern technology determines the need to conduct research,
make experiments related to the unavoidable risk of negative effects not only in the
sense of failure of the attempt, but also specific material damage, and even dangers to
human life or health. This risk is sometimes huge. However, this is the price of
technical progress that cannot be avoided. The collision between the necessity of
conducting research experiments and the element of danger that is inevitably associated
with it is one of those situations which require new solutions outside of the framework
of traditional statutory structures under criminal law.
In the face of dynamic scientific development in the world, criminal law empha-
sizes the need to include the risk element in human activities, mainly in the scientific
and technical sphere. Development in various areas of life, in particular in the economy
and industry, requires conducting experiments and scientific research, and thus it is
necessary to clearly indicate that the persons carrying them will not be prosecuted [4].
Technical development carries both, a risk in the form of innovative risk, without
which there is no progress, as well as a form of risk associated with the operation of
new machines, the use of innovative technologies and any inventions and improve-
ments. The problem is not easy, on the one hand, it is necessary to protect human life,
health, social and private property, and on the other - you must constantly expose these
goods to danger if you want to keep up with the progress of technology. In this
situation, any innovative activity that creates new social values can lead to a point of
risk of criminal responsibility.
An act taken as part of the risk of innovation, which under the conditions of normal
production activities could be subject to legal liability, may be subject to the exclusion
of unlawfulness. Such a justification concerns the taking of risky activities that are a
threat to legal goods [5]. The diagram, shown in Fig. 1, presents the rules for exclusion
of legal liability in the case of experiments. Although the presented principals are based
on the Polish criminal code, they may also be applied to other legal systems, even if the
specific legal provisions do not regulate these issues. Among the examples of the legal
responsibility of workers for production activities, the responsibility of the manager for
the occupational health and safety (OHS) system and the responsibility of workers for
unintentional human exposure to injury or loss of life can be distinguished. Moreover,
it can be the responsibility for unintentional exposure to a fire risk or the causing of a
fire that threatens many people.
Analysis of the Legal Risk in the Scientific Experiment 423
Fig. 1. Principals of legal responsibility of researchers for experiment activities.
The application of the exclusion of legal liability in accordance with the principle of
permitted risk may be related to the unpredictable course of the experimental work that
was not planned. In other words, it includes events resulting from failure to experiment,
despite the preservation of careful experimentation. There is no legal responsibility for
experimental activities if the expected benefit is cognitive, the goal of the experiment is
expected due to the current state of knowledge and the conditions of the experiment are
justified due to the current state of knowledge [6].
To show the practical effect of regulations to protect the researchers, a case study of
the experiment of magnesium alloy machining with the legal risk analysis will be
presented. Analysis of the legal risk is one of the most important points of risk
management [7].
3 Challenges in Machining of Magnesium Alloys
In industry, magnesium alloy machining can be both efficient and safe but it is nec-
essary to know the ranges of acceptable parameters. This is currently possible because
scientific research also takes into account factors related to tests into the time to ignition
of chips from magnesium alloys [8]. There are industry guidelines for activities with
magnesium and its alloys taking into account, among others, analysis of the sources of
ignition and the procedure in case of fire [9].
Magnesium alloys ignite at temperatures even below the melting point. This is
especially dangerous if the material’s volume is small like for chips after finish
machining. Friemuth et al. [10] analysed chip temperature and the danger of chip
ignition. These studies have shown that cutting tools coated with polycrystalline dia-
mond presented a superior behavior in dry machining of magnesium alloys compared
to uncoated or TiN-coated cemented tools. Low machining forces reduce the chip
temperature and thus the danger of chip ignition. Carou et al. [11] evaluated the
likelihood of risk ignition due to the size of the chips, finding no relation with the type
of workpieces machined. For the machining process, continuous and long chips should
be avoided, obtaining segmented chips is preferred. On the contrary, short chips can be
a cause of ignition if their size is small and the temperature reached is high. In addition,
it should be considered that the higher part of the heat generated is evacuated by the
chips. Therefore, chip morphology is of great importance in magnesium machining.
Zhao et al. investigated the ignition conditions of magnesium alloy chips during
high-speed dry machining. Based on this research, it could be concluded that the macro
morphologies of chips can be characterized into a powdered chip, tubular helical chip,
acicular helical chip, and long belt chip, which correspond to the different ignition
conditions. The powdered chips and acicular spiral chips are easily ignited. These
results may be used to analyze the cutting process and prevent the chip ignition in dry
machining of magnesium alloys. Hou et al. [12] investigated the relationship between
the cutting parameters and the ignition conditions of chips during milling of selected
magnesium alloys. The probability of ignition of magnesium alloy chips first increases
and then decreases with the increase in cutting speed. Therefore, the fire hazard can be
avoided by selecting suitable cutting parameters and the depth of cut should be greater
than the critical value.
Kuczmaszewski et al. [13] investigated the ignition temperature after high-speed
dry milling of magnesium alloys. It was concluded, that the main parameter deter-
mining safety of magnesium alloy machining is time to ignition. Moreover, Zagórski
and Kuczmaszewski [14] showed that the ignition of magnesium alloy chips is pre-
ceded by strong thermal deformation of the chip.
This analysis shows that the problem of risk in machining magnesium alloys is
significant and connects with important research in this field.
4 Analysis of Legal Risk
Conducting scientific experiments is associated with the risk of their failure due to the
failure to achieve the assumed research goals. In addition, because the experiments
involve the study of new materials, testing of new technologies, etc., various types of
hazards may affect the experimentalists. Therefore, proper preparation of tests is nec-
essary to ensure the safety of conducting experiments. To protect people and equip-
ment, appropriate safety measures should be implemented based on the requirements of
legal regulations and the available knowledge. If the experiment is not properly pre-
pared and the experimenters are not properly protected, there may appear an occupa-
tional risk as well as a legal risk.
In literature, different methods which can be used to assess the occupational risk
such as HAZOP [15, 16], PHA [17], MORT [18], FMEA [19], ISRS [20], Event tree
analysis [21, 22] and many others [23] are presented. With the methods for occupa-
tional risk analysis, what is the source of the hazard, what can happen, what is the
probability of the certain event, how sever might be the consequences, how many
people are at risk, how effective are the protections applied etc., is analyzed. Addi-
tionally, in many publications it is explained how to perform such analysis. Such
analyzes are applied at every new workplace and when an important change is intro-
duced in an existing workstation which may result in new risks.
At the same time, in the literature there are no methods presented which were
applied to assess the risk of legal responsibility concerning threats, which may appear
during the work, although the law regulations present clearly define what the
responsibilities of employers and employees are concerning safety protection.
However, if we are talking about conducting scientific experiments, the legal
provisions are slightly different, as it was presented in the earlier part of this work.
Nevertheless, also in relation to scientific experiments the risk of legal liability has not
been analyzed before. Therefore, in this work, a proposal of a method which can be
used to assess risk of legal liability is presented and then applied for experiments in
which magnesium alloys are treated.
The proposed method doesn’t analyze the probability of legal liability but identifies
situations in which legal liability will arise.
In magnesium alloys machining, the most serious threat is self-ignition. Therefore,
an experiment in which magnesium alloys are used should be adequately prepared and
then monitored to ensure that: (1) no self-ignition will occur, (2) if self-ignition occurs
the fire will burn out within a short time, (3) devices and people will be protected from
the fire, (4) the fire does not spread. To ensure the above mentioned, adequate actions
should be undertaken at different steps of experiment planning and realization.
Therefore, in the proposed method the following steps of the analyses are
recommended:
1. Identification of activities necessary to prepare and carry out the experiment.
2. Identification of potential mistakes which can be made.
3. Identification of causes of the mistakes.
4. Identification of levels of the legal responsibility risk.
5. Identification of a responsible person.
In the method, five levels of legal responsibility risks are identified:

R1: Occupational health and safety system (OHS) is inadequate to protect people in
case of threat
R2: Unintentional human exposure to injury or loss of life
R3: Unintentional exposure of humans to injury or loss of life
R4: Unintentional exposure to fire risk that threatens many people
R5: Unintentionally causing a fire that threatens many people
An employer (ER) and a researcher (RR) can be responsible for undertaking
activities to ensure safe experiment conditions.
In the preparation and execution of the experiment, three stages can be identified:
Stage 1: Experiment definition. Stage 2: Experiment preparation. Stage 3: Experiment
realization. Risk of legal liability is analyzed in these three stages and the results are
presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
Table 1. Risk of legal liability in scientific experiments concerning planning and realization of
magnesium alloys machining - Stage 1: Experiment definition; Legal responsibility: R2;
Responsible: RR.
No Step of the process Potential mistake Cause
1. Problem definition Adoption of the problem to be analyzed, Lack of
which should be solved in specific knowledge
conditions that the laboratory cannot
provide
2. Development of The choice of the machine on which
machining technology machining should not be carried out
3. Choosing the tools The choice of the tools which should not
be applied
4. Choosing the machining The parameters should not be applied due
parameters to the risk of ignition
5. Determining the Wrong selection of the experiment
conditions for conducting conditions
the experiment
In magnesium alloys machining, we can deal with the following situations:

• Accident at work as an effect of bad OHS system.
• Magnesium self-ignition during cutting as an effect of lack of current state of
knowledge, disassembly of safety guards or removal of the safety switches.
• Injury or loss of life as an effect of magnesium self-ignition during cutting, disas-
sembly of safety guards or removal of the safety switches.
• Lack of proper organization of the experiment of cutting of a magnesium alloy (lack
of elements of protection against the threat, e.g. removal of chips from the machine
tool space, procedures in the event of ignition, protection of the operator’s zone).
• Spread of fire as a result of self-ignition of a magnesium alloy and failure to protect
flammable materials or disassembly of safety guards.
magnesium alloys machining - Stage 2: Experiment preparation; Legal responsibility: R1;
Responsible: ER.
No Step of the process Potential mistake Cause
1. Development of instructions for Lack of instructions or Negligence or
conducting the experiment incorrectly prepared insufficient
instructions analysis of state of
2. Development of safety Lack of instructions or knowledge
instructions incorrectly prepared
instructions
3. Development of methods for Lack of methods for
monitoring the experiment monitoring the experiment
parameters parameters
4. Determination of actions to be Lack of established actions
taken in case of a fire hazard or incorrectly determined
actions
5. Operator training Lack of training or Negligence
improper training
6. Medical examination of the Lack of current medical
operator examination
7. Providing measures in the event Lack of measures or Negligence or
of fire insufficient measures insufficient
8. Work stand organization Improper organization of analysis of state of
work stand (e.g. not knowledge
removing flammable
materials)
9. Organization of a workstation Failure to provide Negligence
with increased risk resulting substitute protection
from the conditions of measures
conducting the experiment (e.g.
no safety covers, no safety
switches)
• Large fire due to self-ignition of a magnesium alloy and leaving a large amount of
chips in the machine-tool space.
The first stage is very important because at this stage the current state of knowledge
is analyzed. In case of the experiment, unintentional human exposure to injury or loss
of life will not apply if the available knowledge did not allow to ensure safer working
conditions. The legal responsibility will be if the lack of safe conditions results from
negligence in the analysis of the current state of knowledge, which indicate how to
ensure safe conditions in similar experiments.
The second stage concerns the experiment preparation. In many cases, the exper-
iment requires special preparation of the workstation, which results from the accepted
conditions for conducting the experiment. This may be, for example, the need to
remove covers from machines or standard safety switches. However, in this situation,
magnesium alloys machining - Stage 3: Experiment realization.
No Step of the Potential Cause Legal Responsible
process mistake responsibility
1. Start the Failure to apply Failure to R1–R5 RR
experiment appropriate follow the
safeguards (e.g. instructions or
safety covers) safeguards
were
inadequate due
to lack of
knowledge
2. Monitoring No reaction to Negligence or R2–R5 RR
the process the improper insufficient
situation knowledge
initially due to wrong
identified (e.g. training or
wrong chip general lack of
size) or knowledge
unidentified
3. Taking Not taking Negligence or R1 ER
planned planned actions insufficient
actions knowledge
according to due to wrong
the training
experiment
instructions
(e.g.
removing
chips)
4. Taking Not taking Negligence, R1 ER
determined determined insufficient
actions in case actions knowledge,
of self- lack of
ignition measures or
insufficient
measures
other security measures should be provided to protect people and equipment. The
analysis of the state of knowledge can facilitate the preparation of research, but one
cannot neglect to ensure safety in the design of the experiment. Occupational health
and safety system should ensure safety. The system should be prepared for known
treats. If not, the employer will take the legal responsibility in case of an accident. The
employer will not take the responsibility only in cases of arising of unknown treats or
situations.
Experiment realization depends on the researcher and on how well the experiment
and the experimenter have been prepared. He or she should follow the rules and
instructions. If the rules and instructions are inadequate because of lack of knowledge
we will deal with lack of legal liability. For example, the legal responsibility for
unintentional exposure or causing risk or injury will apply if the rules are not respected
due to wrong training or negligence.
5 Conclusions
The paper presents a method which can be used in legal risk analysis of experiments.
The law provides for special treatment of participants of experiments who have limited
knowledge because they are investigating the unknown. However, on the other hand, it
places special demands on ensuring occupational safety. If the potential negative effects
of the conducted experiments are not known, better protection is required. Only in a
situation where the consequences of the conducted experiment were unpredictable, we
will speak of unintentional action. However, when the adopted rules or developed
instructions of an experiment are not applied, then we already deal with negligence.
In future work, we would like to apply the proposed methodology to other kinds of
experiments to find weaknesses and strengths of the method and to propose
improvements if it will be necessary. Additionally, a study concerning Directives of the
European Union can be interesting in context of requirements concerning risk
assessment of conducting scientific experiments.
References
1. Kainer, K.U. (ed.): Magnesium Alloys and Their Applications. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH &
Co. KGaA, Weinheim (2000)
2. Ostrovsky, L., Henn, Y.: Present state and future of magnesium application in aerospace
industry. In: International Conference “New Challenges Aeronautics”. In: ASTEC 2007,
pp. 1–5 (2007)
3. Czerwinski, F.: Controlling the ignition and flammability of magnesium for aerospace
applications. Corros. Sci. 86, 1–16 (2014)
4. Mozgawa, M. (ed.): Criminal law. The general part (In Polish: Prawo karne. Część ogólna),
Warszawa (2009)
5. Kubiak, R.: Justification of the allowed experiment in the light of collision theory of goods
and social profitability (In Polish: Kontratyp dozwolonego eksperymentu w świetle teorii
kolizji dóbr i opłacalności społecznej), Państwo i Prawo (2005)
6. Gałuszka, A.: The risk of innovation in the new penal code (In Polish: Ryzyko nowatorstwa
w nowym kodeksie karnym), Prokur. i Prawo, no. 2 (1998)
7. Sadgrove, K.: The Complete Guide to Business Risk Management. Routledge, London
(2016)
8. Zagórski, I., Kuczmaszewski, J.: Efektywność i bezpieczeństwo frezowania stopów
magnezu Effectiveness and safety during milling magnesium alloys. Politechnika Lubelska,
Lublin (2017)
9. BG-Regel: BGR 204 Umgang mit Magnesium (2005)
10. Friemuth, T., Winkler, J.: Machining of magnesium workpieces. Adv. Eng. Mater. 1, 183–
186 (1999)
11. Carou, D., Rubio, E.M., Lauro, C.H., Davim, J.P.: Experimental investigation on finish
intermittent turning of UNS M11917 magnesium alloy under dry machining. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 75, 1417–1429 (2014)
12. Hou, J.Z., Zhou, W., Zhao, N.: Methods for prevention of ignition during machining of
magnesium alloys. Key Eng. Mater. 447–448, 150–154 (2010)
13. Kuczmaszewski, J., Zagórski, I., Dziubinska, A.: Investigation of ignition temperature, time
to ignition and chip morphology after the high-speed dry milling of magnesium alloys. Aircr.
Eng. Aerosp. Technol. 88, 389–396 (2016)
14. Zagórski, I., Kuczmaszewski, J.: Study of chip ignition and chip morphology after milling of
magnesium alloys. Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J. 10, 101–108 (2016)
15. Khan, F.I., Abassi, S.A.: TOPHAZOP: a knowledge-based software tool for conducting
HAZOP in a rapid, efficient yet inexpensive manner. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 10(5–6),
333–343 (1997)
16. Venkatasubramanian, V., et al.: Intelligent systems for HAZOP analysis of complex process
plants. Comput. Chem. Eng. 24, 2291–2302 (2000)
17. Brereton, S., McLouth, L., Odell, B., Singh, M., Tobin, M., Trent, M., Yatabe, J.: Overview
of the preliminary safety analysis of the national ignition facilitiy. J. Fusion Energy 16(1/2),
85–94 (1997)
18. Hammer, W., Price, D.: Occupational Safety Management and Engineering, 5th edn.
Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2001)
19. Sevcik, F.: Current and future concepts in FMEA. In: Proceedings – Annual Reliability and
Maintainability Symposium, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 414–421 (1981)
20. Kjellen, U.: Prevention of Accidents through Experience Feedback. CRC Press, London and
New York (2000)
21. Aven, T.: Foundations of Risk Analysis. Wiley, Chichester (2003)
22. Cooper, D.F., Grey, S., Raymond, G., Walker, P.: Project Risk Management Guidelines:
Managing Risk in Large Projects and Complex Procurements. Wiley, Chichester (2004)
23. Lawley, H.G.: Operability studies and hazard analysis. Chem. Eng. Prog. Am. Inst. Chem.
Eng. 4, 45–56 (1974)
Prediction of Tensile Failure Load
for Maraging Steel Weldment by Acoustic
Emission Technique
Gowri Shankar Wuriti1(&), Tessy Thomas2,

and Somnath Chattopadhyaya3
1
Advanced Systems Laboratory, DRDO, Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad, India
wuritigshankar@gmail.com
2
Advanced Systems Laboratory, Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad, India
tessy_1963@yahoo.com
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India
somuismu@gmail.com
Abstract. Maraging steel (Grade 250) pressurized chambers are used in

booster stages for the launch vehicles and missiles. These are designed &
realized with ultra high strength steels like Maraging steels in order to gain in
range and pay load capabilities with optimal Factor-of-Safety(FOS). Effective
manufacturing methodology and fracture control is a prime requirement how-
ever manufacturing processes give rise to defects that are inevitable. Non-
Destructive Engineering techniques viz. ultrasonic testing, Radiography testing,
Eddy current testing etc. address the issue of detecting passive defects only.
Defects that are active i.e. critical and that could cause catastrophe shall be
detected possibly during Proof pressure testing Strain gauge method adopted is
restricted for strain measurements and is in-effective in detecting flaws as it is a
highly localized. Acoustic Emission Technique (AET), as a whole field method,
has ability to detect unstable flaws effectively. Acoustic emissions are generated
due to defects, microstructural variation, presence of inclusions and second
phase particles in metallic materials. AET identifies defects and discontinuities
in terms of Acoustic Emission parameters. Sources of Acoustic Emission
(AE) can be distinguished by their AE signature in terms of amplitude, Count
and Energy. The severity can be quantified in terms of AE Parameters. In this
paper an attempt is made towards predicting tensile failure load of Maraging
Steel weldment with varying extents of notch thereby representing equivalent
tight cracks as per Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) design approach.
Customized specimens were fabricated and notches were made using Electric
Discharge Machining process. Tensile load has been applied to the test speci-
mens with AE data acquisition. The AE distribution obtained from each spec-
imen has been correlated to an equivalent Weibull distribution and represented
in terms of weibull parameters. The significant Weibull parameters viz. Skew-
ness (b value) and centroid of distribution curve (h) are estimated. The distri-
bution at a load of 85% of failure load is used for the prediction process. An
empirical relation connecting Weibull parameters b, h, b * h, is proposed. It is
observed that the product b * h is linearly correlated to tensile failure load.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_46
432 G. S. Wuriti et al.
On comparing results, predicted tensile failure load is closely matching to the

recorded tensile failure load of the specimen. The average prediction capability
of the proposed model is within 5–6%.
Keywords: Acoustic Emission (AE) Failure load prediction

Weibull distribution
List of Abbreviations
AE - Acoustic Emission
UT - Ultrasonic Testing
AET - Acoustic Emission Testing
LEFM - Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
EDM - Electric Discharge Machining
GTAW - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
FOS - Factor of Safety
NDE - Non Destructive Engineering
NDT - Non Destructive Testing
SAE - Society for Automobile Engineers
AMS - Aerospace Material Specifications
PAC - Physical Acoustics Corporation
TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas (welding)
HAZ - Heat Affected Zone
HRC - Rockwell Hardness
PZT - Lead-Zirconate Titanate
FL - Failure Load
1 Introduction
Maraging steel has increasingly found its place in manufacturing of the pressurised
chambers of launch vehicles and missiles as it exhibits good weldablity and strength
thereby offering high payload and range capabilities [1]. Predominantly the fabrication
of rocket motor casings is achieved by GTAW welding process and hence becomes the
obvious weak link during failure. Moreover, the presence of defects induced by
welding process catalyzes failure. In-spite of the most stringent Non-Destructive
Testing and inspection in place, aerospace industry has envisaged catastrophic failures
and breakdowns [2]. Nevertheless, optimization of welding parameters leads to higher
weld efficiency. Similarly usage of advaced welding methods viz. laser welding have
yeilded in better weldments [3]. Any manufacturing or production process induces
defects and a 100% defect free component is near uneconomical. Hence an under-
standing of the potential of the available flaws to cause a failure is to be ascertained.
Many of these flaws cannot often be detected with traditional NDT techniques. Non
destructive techniques in weld joint area are commonly used to control and diagnostic
of welding process. Non destructive techniques try to ensure that the welds are free of
unaccetable defects [4].
Prediction of Tensile Failure Load 433
Acoustic emission (AE) technique is a fast maturing NDT tool ideally suited for
real time monitoring of active defects [5]. The AE technique identifies defects and
discontinuities in terms of AE parameters. Most of the Acoustic emission sources can
be distinguished by their acoustic emission signature [6]. The structural Integrity of any
component can be quantified by way of its residual/safe life which in-turn demands the
estimation/prediction of the component’s failure/rupture load. The application of AE
testing as an effective tool for the evaluation of structural integrity assessment needs a
lot of acoustic data generation for various materials in different failure modes [7, 8].
Acoustic emission signal analysis quantifies flaw growth activity in a structure as it
is loaded through descriptive signal parameters such as amplitude, energy and duration,
provide a measure of the active failure mechanism present during loading [9]. The
presence of various failure initiating mechanisms as recorded by the AE signal dis-
tributions, have been shown to persist throughout final phase of loading, making it
possible to predict the subsequent failure load from a lower level (less than 85% of the
expected ultimate load) proof test. The only limitation on the level of the proof loads is
that sufficient AE must be collected to statistically establish failure mechanism per-
centages. As a precursor for burst pressure prediction of rocket motor pressure
chambers, failure loads of maraging steel tensile specimens with various induced
defects are predicted using Acoustic Emission data [10].
2 Experimental Test Set-Up
Generation and acquisition of Acoustic Emission data involves elaborate investigations

encompassing a set of experiments using a variety of equipment. Hence, experiments
were designed carefully taking note of the complexity of the phenomenon being studied.
For carrying out experiments, facilities used include a closed-loop servo hydraulic
dynamic system in which the tensile specimens were subjected to load cycles. Further
non-destructive testing tools viz., ultrasonic testing and strain measurements have been
employed to extract maximum information from the tests and “Acoustic Emission”
monitoring for on-line detection of damage growth during testing of specimens.
Maraging steel specimens were derived from welded plates. Two plates of size
300 mm 150 mm (Thickness t = 4.0 mm) plates were butt welded by TIG welding
process. Weld parameters were optimized to yeild high quality weldment. Welding
parameters include weld geommetry, Voltage/current, travel speed, backup etc. It has
also been reported that correct shield gas formation gives a guarantee of the highest
quality welds during TIG welding of highly alloyed steels. From the point of view of the
efficiency of the welding process and the properties of the executed joint, an appropriate
choice of shield gas is extremely important [11]. The material for the complete set of
specimen used for testing has been obtained from a single heat batch used for rocket
motor casing manufacturing. The specimens for tensile tests were manufactured from
Maraging steel weldment and using wire-cut EDM technique. The specimens were heat
treated before notching. Heat treatment was carried out at 482 °C ± 6 °C and the
specimens were soaked for 6 h followed by air cooling [12]. The specimens achieved a
hardness of 48–52 HRC, were chosen and notched using EDM technique. Specimens
were cut from the respective welded plates using wire-cut EDM as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Specimen schematic for the experimental program.
Ultrasonic inspection process is being used typically for locating and defining
internal defects such as cracks, voids, laminations and other structural discontinuities
which may or may not be exposed to the surface. These inspections are usually carried
out according established standards. For weld inspection of Aerospace Grade systems,
ultrasonic Inspection Standard, SAE AMS 2632A is being followed [13]. For angle
beam inspection, E, F and G Notches are specified with E being most critical of these.
Specimens have been prepared with all possible notches using EDM technique. Notch
dimensions are as given below.
G Notch: 2.54 mm 1.27 mm with 0.25 mm width
F Notch: 1.27 mm 0.76 mm with 0.25 mm width
E Notch: 1.02 mm 0.51 mm with 0.25 mm width
Ultrasonic NDT evaluation of the defects were carried out using
Krautkramer® USN 45 UT system with 4 MHz, 45o, 60o and 70o angle beam probes.
2.1 AE Testing and Data Acquisition

Physical Acoustics Corporation (PAC) make AE-Win System is used for AE on-line
monitoring. It detects initiation and growth of damage in the Specimens during load
test. Figure 2 shows the schematic block diagram of AE-Win® monitoring system.
High sensitive piezo-electric transducers (PZT) have been used to pick up the acoustic
emissions from the maraging specimens due to damage growth. The sensor used is a
PAC make, type MICRO 30D which is a reasonably wide band transducer. Owing to
its lightweight (approximately 8 g), it has negligible effect on the loading alignment
and symmetry, which is very essential. The voltage output signal from the AE trans-
ducer, which is of the order of few millivolts is fed to a preamplifier with a gain of
40 dB (100). The preamplifier also houses a plug-in filter, in this case, a band pass of
100 KHz–1.2 MHz. This range is chosen so as to avoid the possible extent of noise
generated by sources such as high-pressure oil flow in the actuator assembly, and the
hydraulic grips, frictional and vibration noises generated in the fixture accessories etc.
Fig. 2. Schematic block diagram of AE-Win®.
2.2 AE Amplitude Distribution

The tensile load on the specimen has a binding effect on the severity of Acoustic
Emission parameters. Vital information can be ascertained through careful inspection
of AE amplitude distribution plots. The amplitude of hits emitted during tensile testing
and its distribution indicate if there is any impending fracture. By investigating the
Amplitude distribution plots, a deep insight into the overall state of the test specimen
may be ascertained.
It has been observed during testing that the specimens developed failed either from
the pure weldment or by cracks initiated from the notches or in the HAZ region. The
mode or maximum peak value of the amplitude distribution can be related to the stress
state of the specimen [14]. A shift of the distribution peak towards higher amplitude
indicates presence of abrupt failure mechanisms viz. cracks, linear defects. Conversely,
a shift towards lower amplitudes is an indication of a more or less even stress state or
soft failure viz. HAZ failure or yielding phenomenon [15]. The actual Hit-Amplitude
distributions are given in Figs. 3a to c. From these figures, it could be seen that, the
specimen that failed due to softer failure mechanisms viz. HAZ Failure (i.e. HAZ failed
specimen – Fig. 3a) had a peak shift towards 40 dB and the specimen that exhibited
brittle fracture sort of failure viz. failure due to crack/notch (i.e. specimen with notch
type defect – Fig. 3c) had a peak shift towards 50 dB.
The Weibull distribution is a sort of chameleon distribution, used primarily in cases
where flexibility is required, such as in reliability testing. Most sorts of distributions
can be comfortably represented using Weibull curve by simple variations of the
parameters [16]. The density function of the Weibull distribution is given mathemat-
ically as

b A Ao b1 AAo b
f ðxÞ ¼ expð hAo Þ for A Ao ð1Þ
ðh Ao Þ h Ao
Fig. 3. Actual amplitude distribution plots.
By referring to the density function, it can be seen that the skewness of the dis-
tribution is controlled by the shape parameter, “b”. For example if b = 1;
1
expð hAo Þ
AAo
f ðxÞ ¼ ð2Þ
ðh Ao Þ
The above expression represents an exponential distribution with an asymptote at

Ao (the threshold Amplitude of the distribution). It is interesting to note that for values
of b in the range 3.3 < b < 3.5 the distribution makes a good approximation to the
normal distribution.
Ao, h and b are the paramount parameters which identify the shape of the Weibull
curve. Figure 4 elaborates the Weibull parameters and their effect on the shape of the
distribution. The values of b and h are computed by mathematically fitting a Weibull
curve for a particular specimen’s Amplitude distribution data. The term b is defined as
a shape parameter which is a measure of the skewness or mode of the distribution and h
is a measure of the centroid of the distribution. Larger values of b (curve skewed to the
left) would indicate an increase in the percentage of high amplitude or high stress
events, whereas small values of b (curve skewed to the right) would denote an increase
in the percentage of low amplitude or low stress events. In other words, a larger value
of b indicates presence of defects/brittle fracture and lower value of b indicates
soft/HAZ type failure.
Probablity Distribution Function

2
1.8
b=5
No. Of Hits / Frequency of Events – f(x)
1.6
b=0.5
1.4
1.2
0.8
b=1.5
0.6
0.4 b=1
0.2
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ao
Amplitude
Fig. 4. Plot indicating Weibull parameters and their effect on the shape of the distribution.
The ultimate stress prediction equation can be determined using multivariate sta-
tistical strength equation and is represented as follows:
FL ¼ C0 þ C1 Ao þ C2 b þ C3 h þ C4 Ao b þ C5 b h þ C6 Ao h ð3Þ
where Ci R:
It should be noted that by fixing Ao to a constant value, the three terms involving
this parameter will vanish and hence effect of this variable on prediction process will
almost become negligible. Hence the Failure load depends on either b, h or b * h.
Therefore the above equation can be conveniently re-written as
FL ¼ X0 þ X1 b þ X2 h þ X3 b h ð4Þ
where Xi R.
The specimen-wise details giving UT echo, type of failure and failure load is presented
in Table 1 for correlation. The UT Reference value is set as SAE AMS G-Notch
showing up with 100% value on CRT screen.
It can be seen that the notch with the highest UT echo (i.e. 125% G Notch) has
failed at the lowest load. But interestingly, Specimen 17 in-spite of having a 30% G
Table 1. Specimen-wise experimental test data.

Specimen Actual UT echo (in terms of ref. Type of failure Failure load in
value) observed KN
ID No. 10 125% ( G Notch) Notch failure 70.57
ID No. 05 80% Notch failure 74.79
ID No. 23 102% (*G Notch) Notch failure 72.47
ID No. 17 30% (*F Notch) Notch failure 80.91
ID No. 14 – HAZ failure 84.85
ID No. 24 – Weldment failure 79.84
Notch (i.e. equivalent to F Notch) has not shown substantial reduction in failure load,
there by indicating that the failure is not by fracture but by yielding. The specimens that
failed from Heat Affected Zone have exhibited the maximum failure load. There has
also been failure in the weldment indicating presence of micro defects in the
weldments.
The Weibull parameters arrived from the AE amplitude distributions for all the
specimens are tabulated in Table 2. The data used in the analysis were collected at a
stress state which corresponded to 85% of the expected tensile failure load. The
threshold value, “Ao”, was set to 40 dB.
Tensile Failure load versus Weibull parameters b and h are given in Figs. 5 and 6.
Additionally the failure load is also plotted against the value “b * h” for extended
interpretation (see Fig. 7).
It can be seen that the parameter “b” and the cross product term “b * h” appear to be
linearly correlated with the tensile failure load, while “h” shows no correlation with the
tensile failure load. This is because “h” is a measure of the mean amplitude of the AE
signal and is related to variations in the brittleness or ductility of material which is
attributed to changes in metallurgical behaviour.
Table 3 provides a comparison of the predicted and actual values of failure loads.
The results indicate that there is better correlation between the Weibull parameters and
the failure load. The average prediction capability of the proposed model is well within
5–6% in most of the cases excepting Specimen 10 (Notch Failure) and Specimen 01
(Weldment Failure) where the % error has been close to 9%. By and large, the
Table 2. Estimate of Weibull parameters.

Specimen b h b*h
ID No. 10 1.041 52.80 54.96
ID No. 05 0.972 52.10 50.64
ID No. 23 0.975 52.20 50.90
ID No. 22 0.963 51.10 49.21
ID No. 03 0.942 52.10 49.08
ID No. 20 0.921 50.40 46.42
ID No. 06 0.956 53.40 51.05
ID No. 17 0.903 50.70 45.78
ID No. 18 0.865 43.70 37.80
ID No. 08 0.842 43.80 36.88
ID No. 14 0.881 42.60 37.53
ID No. 24 0.887 52.30 46.39
ID No. 07 0.915 51.30 46.94
ID No. 01 0.872 49.50 43.16
ID No. 13 0.898 51.40 46.16
ID No. 11 0.937 50.50 47.32
ID No. 04 0.892 49.60 44.24
Fig. 5. “b” Value vs failure load Fig. 6. “h” Value vs failure load
prediction error pertaining to HAZ failure has been over and above 15% thereby
rendering this model in-effective for HAZ type failure. Nevertheless, HAZ failures are
encountered when the weldments are of superior quality and hence HAZ type data
needs a different approach.
Fig. 7. “b * h” Value vs failure load
Table 3. Comparison of predicted and actual values of failure loads.

Predicted FL = 226 − 74.31 * b − 0.867 *
− 0.708 * b * h
Specimen Actual FL Predicted FL % Error
ID No. 10 70.57 63.95 9.38
ID No. 05 74.79 72.75 2.73
ID No. 23 72.47 72.26 0.29
ID No. 22 75.30 75.30 0.01
ID No. 03 77.13 76.08 1.36
ID No. 20 77.14 81.00 −5.00
ID No. 06 76.97 72.52 5.78
ID No. 17 80.91 82.53 −2.00
ID No. 18 82.54 97.07 −17.61
ID No. 08 83.78 97.86 −16.81
ID No. 14 84.85 97.03 −14.35
ID No. 24 79.84 81.90 −2.58
ID No. 07 80.27 80.30 −0.03
ID No. 01 80.56 87.73 −8.89
ID No. 13 80.81 82.03 −1.51
ID No. 11 75.80 79.09 −4.34
ID No. 04 81.43 85.39 −4.86
4 Conclusions
The results of this research lead to the following conclusions:

• The shape parameter “b” was found to be significantly related to failure loads of the
specimen
• Higher values of b indicated high amplitude hits (failure from crack/notch), whereas
small values of b indicated low amplitude hits(HAZ Failures).
• Failure load was predicted with the Acoustic Emission Data acquired till a stress
state which corresponded to 85% of the expected tensile failure load individual
specimens.
• The average prediction capability of the proposed model is well within 5–6% in
most of the cases.
• The capability of the model to predict failure load improved with number of
samples tested.
• The probabilistic approach of correlating acoustic emission data has yielded a
quantitative measure by way of failure load prediction. The same shall be highly
useful in structural integrity assessment of larger structures viz. rocket motor
casings.
Acknowledgements. Authors are thankful to the Director General, Missiles and Strategic
Systems Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO), New Delhi and Director,
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad for extending full support in carrying out the
above research and for giving permission to publish the work.
References
1. Yamamoti, S., Tsupikawa, T., Nakaro, M., Veyana, H.: Acoustic emission testing of
pressure vessels made of 2¼ Cr – 1 Mo steel, Non-Destructive Examination in Relation to
Structural Integrity, pp. 19–39 (1980)
2. Chelladurai, T., et al.: Acoustic emission technique – an effective tool for the integrity
evaluation of M250 maraging steel aerospace pressure chambers. In: Trends in NDE Science
and Technology: Proceedings of the 14th WCNDT, 8–13 December 1996, vol. 4,
pp. 2409–2412 (1996)
3. Kumar, P., Saw, K., Kumar, U., et al.: Effect of laser power and welding speed on
microstructure and mechanical properties of fibre laser welded Inconel 617 thin sheet.
J. Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng. 39, 4579–4588 (2017)
4. Krolczyk, J.B., et al.: Topographic inspection as a method of weld joint diagnostic. Teh.
Vjesn. 23(1), 301–306 (2016)
5. Miller, R.K., McIntire, P. (eds.): Nondestructive Testing Handbook: Acoustic Emission
Testing, vol. 5, 2nd edn. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus (1987)
6. Hay, D.R., Chan, R.W.Y., Sharp, D., Siddiqui, K.J.: Classification of acoustic emission
signals from deformation mechanisms in aluminum alloys. J. Acoust. Emiss. 3(3), 118–129
(1984)
7. Pollock, A.A.: Acoustic emission amplitude distributions. Int. Adv. Nondestr. Test. 7,
215–239 (1981)
8. Gross, N.O., Loushin, L.L., Thompson, J.L.: Acoustic emission testing of pressure vessels
for petroleum refiners and chemical plants. In: ASTM STP, vol. 505, pp. 270–296 (1972)
9. Subba Rao, V. et al.: Analysis of acoustic emission data obtained during pressure testing of
M250 maraging steel rocket motor cases. In: Trends in NDE Science and Technology:
Proceeding of the 14th World Conference on NDT, vol. 4, pp. 2427–2450 (1996)
10. Chelladurai, T., et al.: Acoustic emission response of 18% Ni maraging steel weldment with
inserted cracks of varying depth to thickness ratio. J. Mater. Eval. 53, 742–746 (1995)
11. Krolczyk, G.M., Nieslony, P., Krolczyk, J.B., Samardzic, I., Legutko, S., Hloch, S.:
Influence of argon pollution on the weld surface morphology. Measurement 70, 203–213
(2015)
12. Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels and High performance Alloys. ASM Handbook,
vol. 1 (1990)
13. Inspection, Ultrasonic, of thin Materials 12.7 mm and under in cross-sectional thickness,
AMS 2632A, Aerospace Material Specification, SAE
14. Chelladurai, T., et al.: Micro structure studies on M 250 maraging steel weldment in relation
to acoustic emission. In: Trends in NDE Science and Technology: Proceedings of the 14th
WCNDT, vol. 4, pp. 2399–2403 (1996)
15. Walker, J. II.: Ultimate strength prediction of ASTM tensile specimens from acoustic
emission amplitude data. In: AIAA-92-0258, Proceedings of 30th Aerospace Sciences
Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV (1992)
16. Scheaffer, R.L., McClave, J.T.: Probability and Statistics -for Engineers, 2nd edn. Duxbury
Press, Boston (1986)
Measurements of the Friction Coefficient:
Discussion on the Results in the Framework
of the Time Series Analysis
Alessandro Ruggiero1(&), Roberto D’Amato2, Roque Calvo2,

Petr Valašek3, and Nicolae Ungureanu4
1
ruggiero@unisa.it
2
Technical University of Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain
{r.damato,roque.calvo}@upm.es
3
Technology, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
valasekp@tf.czu.cz
4
North University Center of Baia Mare, Technical University of Cluj Napoca,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
ungureanu.nicolae@gmail.com
Abstract. Tribology studies the interaction between surfaces in relative motion

with a particular focus on the principles of friction, wear and lubrication. The
measurement of the friction coefficient (COF) is extremely sensitive to experi-
mental friction force fluctuations thus making COF direct measurement not a
trivial task. In this manuscript, a novel approach toward the understanding of the
friction coefficient behavior during reciprocating tests is proposed. The proposed
procedure represents a first approach for a deep investigation about measured
COF distribution during tribological tests. It is based on the analysis of COF data
measured during the tests in the framework of time series analysis and it was
applied to several real tests in dry-friction showed as example of application.
Output parameters (i.e., friction, traction force) were investigated to detect trends,
connected to running-in period of the tribo-couple, seasonal, connected to the
periodicity induced from reciprocating motion, and residual components. After
“smoothing” the COF data set by removing the trend and seasonal components,
the residual component was analyzed to check the stationary of the COF data set
which represents the most characteristic interval in friction measurements.
1 Introduction
It is well known that dry friction represents the surface resistance to relative motion
between to body in contact. Frictional resistance force is proportional to the friction
coefficient and to the force perpendicular to the surface:
Ff ¼ lN ð1Þ

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_47
444 A. Ruggiero et al.
The measurement procedure foresees to impose a known normal force N to the

tribo-couple under investigation and to measure the friction force Ff, then the friction
coefficient is calculated by using 1). The measure of COF, even if rise up from a simple
equation, is not a trivial task due to many factors that influence the measurement as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Factors influenced on friction (and wear) measurement.

Item Contents
Material and Surface Material [1], tribo-system [2], surface preparation, surface
property roughness [3] waviness [4], work-hardened layer [5], oxide layer,
adsorbed layer, contaminant layer [6]
Tribological ageing Metal transfer [7], debris generation and interposition, surface
modifications [8]
Geometry of the Conformal or non-conformal
contact
Type of motion Sliding-rolling, unidirectional, reciprocating, etc.
Load Type, loading method
Environment Temperature [9], humidity, special atmosphere
Test apparatus Friction and wear measuring method [10], load detection method,
mechanical distortion, thermal distortion, vibrations
Person performing Character, ability, knowledge, strictness of measurement, judgment
measurement arrangement investigation of results
These factors are source of fluctuations of measured COF and they are difficult to
control and to eliminate.
The main novelty of this investigation is to consider the measured COF as time
series of data in order to achieve detailed information on the frictional force transitions
during its characteristic behavior [11].
2 Experimental Setup
In this paper, friction coefficient measurements were carried out by means of a

recipocating tribometer [12], where a sphere is pressed against a reciprocating flat
counter face in dry conditions, following a consolidated procedure.
The multichannel load cell, mounted under the flat, allows the continuous moni-
toring of the tangential variable contact force [13]. The reciprocating motion between
the reciprocating sphere and the fix counter-face is provided by an electric actuator.
A Ducom Tribometer (TR-Bio282) (Fig. 1) is used for performing the tests [14].
The used apparatus allows to simulate different load conditions [15], with different
reciprocating sliding motion frequency of the pin [16] and different coupled materials
[17] in dry and lubricated conditions [18].
TR-Bio 282 is comprised of a variable reciprocating motion by the ball/pin on to
the flat, with a point/line contact (Fig. 2).
Measurements of the Friction Coefficient 445
Fig. 1. TR.Bio282 @ Applied Mechanics Lab of the University of Salerno.
Fig. 2. Axially loaded ball/pin reciprocating over a fixed disc.
3 Methods
The time series is a time-oriented or a chronological sequence of observations on a

variable of interest and, in general, it has two main goals: identifying the nature of
phenomenon represented by the sequence of observations and, in general, forecasting
(predicting future values of the time series variable). Both these goals require that the
pattern of observed time series data is identified and more or less formally described.
The time series model may use simply to provide a compact description of the data.
A time series can be decomposed [19] as sum of:

• Trend s(t): is the long term tendency;
• Seasonality S(t): is the periodic component;
• Irregularity r(t): includes the random variations.
yðtÞ ¼ sðtÞ þ SðtÞ þ r ðtÞ ð2Þ
Stationary residuals are obtained by removing the trend and the seasonal compo-
nent. As a stationary process this component has the property that the mean, variance
and autocorrelation do not change over time.
E ðr ðt0 ÞÞ ¼ E ðr ðt00 ÞÞ ð3Þ
Var ðr ðt0 ÞÞ ¼ Var ðr ðt00 ÞÞ ð4Þ
Covðr ðt0 Þ; r ðt00 ÞÞ ¼ Covðr ðt0 þ hÞ; r ðt00 þ hÞÞ ð5Þ
The analysis of time series, in this study, is carried out by using the software R, that
is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. This software
provides a wide variety of statistical and graphical techniques, and it is highly exten-
sible; it was used for investigating COF variation during a reciprocating test as sum of
trend s(t), seasonality S(t) and irregularity r(t) components. The presence of a peri-
odicity in the time series was confirmed by means of the autocorrelation coefficient
evaluation [20]:
Pnk
t¼1 ðxt xs1 Þðxt þ k xs2 Þ
qðk Þ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pnk qP ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð6Þ
t¼1 ð x t
x s1 Þ 2 nk
t¼1 ðxt þ k xs2 Þ2
Where xt is the measurement value in t, n is the number of periods, k is the lag and
Pnk Pnk
xt xt þ k
xs1 ¼ ; xs2 ¼
1 1
ð7Þ
nk nk
These two means were calculated by excluding the first and the last k periods,
respectively. The lag value is evaluated by using the maximum of the autocorrelation.
While the trend of the data was studied by using the regressive tools (i.e. moving
average data set).
The application of Ljung-Box (LB) and Box-Pierce (BP) tests allowed to verify if
the data have an autocorrelation. Both tests adopt the autocorrelation coefficient,
showed in Eq. (8), in order to evaluate the presence and the value of the periodicity:
Pnk
ðxt xÞðxt þ k xÞ
r ðk Þ ¼ t¼1
Pn ð8Þ
t¼1 ðxt xÞ 2
Once the autocorrelation coefficient has been introduced the LB test can be per-
formed as follow:
Xh r 2 ðk Þ
v2LB ðhÞ ¼ nðn þ 2Þ k¼1 n k
ð9Þ
Where h varies according to the assumed lag and it is integer related to the number
of autocorrelation coefficients under test. If there is the absence of autocorrelation, the
LB statistics is distributed according to a random variable v2, with h degree of freedom.
As for the LB test, the BP test can be performed as follow:
Xh
v2BP ðhÞ ¼ n k¼1
r 2 ðk Þ ð10Þ
The two test differ only in the different weighting system adopted, but asymptot-
ically converge to the same distribution.
A measurement of model performance can be obtained by “coefficient of variation
of the error” (CVE). This model considers the variation from the reality in absolute
value. The mathematical expression is:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P ffi
n
ðet Þ2
t¼1
n1
CVE ¼ ð11Þ
A
where A is the mean value of the actual data in the considered range [19].
It is necessary to verify that the mean of the residual is not different from zero. In
this case the t-test was used:
e
t¼ pffiffiffi ð12Þ
s= n
where e is the mean of the error, s is the standard deviation and n is the amount of data.
It is important to check if the random errors have a normal distribution. The analysis
of QQ-normality and quantitative indices such skewness and kurtosis was carried out in
order to assess the normality of the distribution of the random errors. In particular, the
normal density plot was used as a graphical technique to assess if the random errors are
normally distributed. The data are plotted against a theoretical normal distribution in
such a way that the point should form an approximate straight line. Deviations from this
straight line indicate the deviation from normality. In addition, the statistical tests of
normality from Shapiro-Wilk and Jarque-Bera could be used.
The Shapiro-Wilk test (SW) is able to check the normality of a set of data even with
a small number of observations. The formula is:
Pn 2
ai x i
SW ¼ Pn i¼1
ð13Þ
i¼1 ðxi xÞ2
The Jarque-Bera test (JB) is often used for verify the hypothesis of normality in
econometric area. It is based on the measurements of the asymmetry and kurtosis of a
distribution. The null hypothesis of the test includes two conditions: the skewness and
the excess kurtosis should be zero. If this hypothesis is verified, the data can be con-
sidered as derived from a normal distribution, and the JB statistics tends to a chi-squared
distribution with two degrees of freedom. The test is based on the following expression:
" #
c23 ðc4 3Þ2
JB ¼ T þ ’ v22 ð14Þ
6 24
Where c3 and c4 are skewness and kurtosis index.
4 Data Analysis and Results
Four tests by using a sphere in steel AISI 52100 with diameter of 10 mm (Fig. 3) and a
circular flat made of steel X210 Cr12 with a diameter of 25 mm (Fig. 4) have been
carried out. The duration, the length of stroke and slip frequency were maintained
constant, while the closure loads were set equal to %N, 10 N, 17 N, 20 N. The tem-
perature and the humidity were controlled and set to environmental conditions
(20 ± 2 °C and 50 ± 5% RH) (Table 2).
Fig. 3. The ball using for the tests, assemble in the holder.
The Ljung-Box and Box-Pierce tests highlight the presence of autocorrelation in the
data. The test has been implemented in the “R” software framework and the results are
given in Table 3.
The small p-value in both tests indicates that the hypothesis of absence of auto-
correlation in the data must be rejected. The correlogram is reported in Fig. 5. The
highest autocorrelation value is obtained for a lag of 50 (Fig. 5). This value coincides
whit the “seasonality” and is fully in agreement with the consideration that the
reciprocating tribometer carries out a continuous alternative motion across the stroke
with a complete cycle (two strokes) of 100 points.
Fig. 4. The circular flat before (left) and after (right) the test.
Table 2. Parameters of the reciprocating tests.

Load Duration Length of stroke Frequency
5N 30 min 10 mm 5 Hz
10 N 30 min 10 mm 5 Hz
17 N 30 min 10 mm 5 Hz
20 N 30 min 10 mm 5 Hz
Table 3. Test for the presence of autocorrelation.

Type of test v2 h p-value
Ljung-Box 257342.5 1 \2:2e16
Box-Pierce 257340.4 1 \2:2e16
Fig. 5. Correlogramm for the test with the load of 10 N.

Fig. 6. Time-plot and the evidence of transient and steady part.
In the second time, the time series was divided in two parts: transient and steady
state (Fig. 6).
First the transient is analyzed. In Fig. 7 the time plot for different test cases with
different loads are reported. This time plot is obtained using the software Matlab®. It is
evident that increasing the load the transient ends earlier. A summary of the extension
time is reported in Table 4.
Fig. 7. Time-plot of the four tests.

Table 4. Transient time for the different tests.

Load Transient time
20 N 8 min
17 N 10 min
10 N 10 min
5N 12 min
By using a regression models we eliminate trend and seasonal components from a

time series.
Using the “.stl” function in R software we decomposed the time series in trend,
seasonal and residual part (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Example of decomposition of COF time series.
The new Time Series is stationary because we proved that the mean does not
depend on time and the auto-covariance function is independent on time for each lag.
Then, the residual was analyzed in order to verifying the normality of these data.
As example we considered two extreme conditions with reference to the tests with
load of 5 N and 20 N.
The Q-Q plots (Figs. 9 and 10) show in abscissa the theoretical quantiles and
ordered the same quantiles obtained from the sample data distribution. More the
quantiles are equal more the data are conforming to the Gaussian’s hypothesis; in this
case the Q-Q plot present a set of data with quite different behavior.
Observing Fig. 9 (test with 20 N load) and Fig. 10 (test with 5 N load) is possible
to underline that for the high load there is a normal distribution of the errors, but for a
little load this is not true. This is due to the fact that the fluctuations of friction
coefficients during tests with low load are more influenced from the coupled surfaces
metrology.
Fig. 9. Normal QQ-plot for a load of 20 N.
Fig. 10. Normal QQ-plot for a load of 5 N.

5 Conclusion
The analysis of the fluctuations of the friction coefficients (specially in dry conditions)
during tribological tests are strictly connected with changes which occur in the con-
ditions of the coupled surfaces. Generally, the evolution of the friction coefficient
during a reciprocating test (but also other tests) is characterized by an initial phase
(running-in) in which the change of the shape and surface morphology of the couple
under investigation change and causes the changing of the friction coefficient. After
that, the friction coefficient reaches a steady state, interesting for the tribological
characterization of the investigated system, but with the elapsing of the time tribody-
namic aging could occur [11] and the friction coefficient express high variations. At
moment in the scientific literature few attempts were made for the systematic analysis
of the variation of COF values during the tribological tests in order to describe exactly
running-in phase and steady state phase. This manuscript represents a first attempt for a
deep examination of the friction coefficient behavior obtained from tribological tests
and the main novelty is connected with the use of time series as investigation tool.
In this paper, by using a reciprocating tribometer, several tests were carry out in
dry-friction and some results of time series theory were applied to measured data set, in
order to gain detailed information on the tribological state of the investigated couple.
The analyzed contact was sphere-on-flat with constant duration tests, length of stroke
and alternative motion frequency, but changing the imposed normal load.
In this paper the authors studied the “story” of friction coefficient during tests using
a statistical methodology based on time series analysis which allowed to decompose the
measured data set in three main components: trend, seasonality and residual data set.
The trend give detailed information on the COF run-in conditions and the results of
the tests are in agreement with general theory on friction phenomena [11].
The presence of expected periodicity (due to reciprocating motion of the sphere) in
the time series was confirmed by means of autocorrelation coefficient evaluation of the
seasonality component. The small calculated p-value indicates that the hypothesis of
absence of autocorrelation in the data must be rejected and with the autocorrelogram it
is possible to evidence the presence of periodicity.
Finally, the analysis of the residual component, obtained by subtracting from the
original time series both the trend and the seasonal components, allows to individuate
the time interval in which is reasonable to attribute to the COF variation the steady state
conditions.
Finally, the Authors highlight that the proposed tool is extendible to other kind of
tribological tests in which a time history of friction coefficient is measured and rep-
resents a powerful methodology toward both the determination of accurate value of
friction coefficient characterizing the investigated tribo-system both the systematic
determination of the friction coefficient measurements uncertainty with reference to the
variation of the measurand component.
References
1. Ungureanu, M., Nasui, V.: Considerations on Certain Tribological Aspects of the System
Brake Shoe–Drum (2013)
2. Ungureanu, M., Ungureanu, N.S., Crăciun, I.: Study on friction behaviour of brake shoe
materials for mining hoist. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 174(1), 12016 (2017)
3. Jaber, S.A., Ruggiero, A., Battaglia, S., Affatato, S.: On the roughness measurement on knee
prostheses. Int. J. Artif. Organs 38(1), 39–44 (2015)
5. Nieslony, P., Krolczyk, G.M., Wojciechowski, S., Chudy, R., Zak, K., Maruda, R.W.:
Surface quality and topographic inspection of variable compliance part after precise turning.
Appl. Surf. Sci. 434, 91–101 (2018)
6. Krolczyk, G.M., Maruda, R.W., Krolczyk, J.B., Nieslony, P., Wojciechowski, S., Legutko,
S.: Parametric and nonparametric description of the surface topography in the dry and
MQCL cutting conditions. Measurement 121, 225–239 (2018)
7. Affatato, S., Ruggiero, A., De Mattia, J.S., Taddei, P.: Does metal transfer affect the
tribological behaviour of femoral heads? Roughness and phase transformation analyses on
retrieved zirconia and Biolox® Delta composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 92, 290–298 (2016)
8. Ruggiero, A., Merola, M., Affatato, S.: On the biotribology of total knee replacement: a new
roughness measurements protocol on in vivo condyles considering the dynamic loading from
musculoskeletal multibody model. Measurement 112, 22–28 (2017)
9. Krolczyk, G.M., Nieslony, P., Maruda, R.W., Wojciechowski, S.: Dry cutting effect in
turning of a duplex stainless steel as a key factor in clean production. J. Clean. Prod. 142,
3343–3354 (2017)
10. Valášek, P., Ruggiero, A., Müller, M.: Experimental description of strength and tribological
characteristic of EFB oil palm fibres/epoxy composites with technologically undemanding
preparation. Compos. Part B Eng. 122, 79–88 (2017)
11. Blau, P.J.: Friction Science and Technology: From Concepts to Applications. CRC Press,
Boca Raton (2009)
12. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Merola, M., Valašek, P., Müller, M.: Tribological character-
ization of vegetal lubricants: Comparative experimental investigation on Jatropha curcas L.
oil, Rapeseed Methyl Ester oil, Hydrotreated Rapeseed oil. Tribol. Int. 109, 529–540 (2017)
13. Schmitz, T.L., Action, J.E., Ziegert, J.C., Sawyer, W.G.: The difficulty of measuring low
friction: uncertainty analysis for friction coefficient measurements. J. Tribol. 127(3), 673
(2005)
14. Ruggiero, A., Mindas, M., Knapcíková, L.: Tribodiagnostic investigation on oil filtration:
results from a novel apparatus. Ind. Lubr. Tribol. 68(6), 689–695 (2016)
15. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Merola, M., Valášek, P., Müller, M.: On the tribological
performance of vegetal lubricants: experimental investigation on Jatropha Curcas L. oil.
Procedia Eng. 149, 431–437 (2016)
17. Ruggiero, A., Merola, M., Carlone, P., Archodoulaki, V.M.: Tribo-mechanical character-
ization of reinforced epoxy resin under dry and lubricated contact conditions. Compos.
Part B 79, 595–603 (2015)
18. Ruggiero, A., D‫׳‬Amato, R., Gómez, E., Merola, M.: Experimental comparison on
and UHMWPE/AL2O3 ceramic, under dry and lubricated conditions. Tribol. Int. 96,
349–360 (2016)
19. Tepedino, C., Guarnaccia, C., Iliev, S., Popova, S., Quartieri, J.: A forecasting model based
on time series analysis applied to electrical energy consumption. Int. J. Math. Model.
Methods Appl. Sci. 9, 432–445 (2015)
20. Guarnaccia, C., Quartieri, J., Rodrigues, E.R., Tepedino, C.: Acoustical noise analysis and
prediction by means of multiple seasonality time series model. Int. J. Math. Model. Methods
Appl. Sci. 8, 384–393 (2014)
Experimental Description of the Aging
of the Coconut Shell Powder/Epoxy Composite
Karolína Habrová1, Petr Valášek1(&), Miroslav Müller1,

Robert DÁmato2, and Alessandro Ruggiero3
1
Technology, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague,
Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
{habrovak,valasekp}@tf.czu.cz
2
Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
3
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
Abstract. The Substitution of synthetic filler with fillers prepared from

renewable sources is a current trend in the field of composite materials. Natural
plant sources provide a very interesting alternative to synthetic reinforcements.
They are economically acceptable and the resulting materials provide satisfac-
tory mechanical characteristics. The paper focuses on the description of adhesive
properties of epoxy resin filled with coconut microparticles – coconut shell
powder (CSP) in the range 0–100 lm and a description of aging of these
composites. Aging can be considered as one of the key factors that affects the
application area of composite materials. Adhesion and cohesion characteristics
were described by shear tensile strength on steel adherents and tensile strength.
The morphology of the particles used and the interfacial interaction were
described by electron microscopy. The presence of the used particles does not
significantly reduce the adhesion characteristics of the used epoxy resin.
Keywords: Cocos nucifera plant Microparticles Biocomposite

Green materials
1 Introduction
Composite materials are materials that combine the properties of their sub-components
and offer a wide use not only in engineering [1]. Important properties of materials
include their strength but also tribological characteristics [2]. In the field of processing
of biological commodities, a number of secondary materials are produced, the mean-
ingful use of which is desirable and can increase the profitability of this agricultural
process. An example of this is the use of EFF (empty fruit bunch) as a secondary
commodity that occurs during the processing/pressing of palm oil from the fruit of
Elaeis Guineensis [3]. A similar case is the processing of the fruits of the coconut.
During the processing of nuts, coir - cellulosic fibers and shell nuts are obtained as
secondary raw materials. Both of these secondary products can be used in the field of
material engineering [4–6].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_48
Experimental Description of the Aging of the CSP/Epoxy Composite 457
Powders prepared by grinding shell nuts (CSP) can be a very interesting filler for
material engineering, where they can, for example, substitute powdered wood-based
powders [7]. Leman et al. [8] states that coconut shells are a type of agricultural waste,
which can be converted into useful material. Teipel et al. [9] consider the CSP filler as a
renewable source of filler that is suitable for filling polymeric materials, in particular, a
unique combination of mechanical and physical properties - describes the filling of
polypropylene with corresponding increases in sustainability and performance in price
reduction, adding CSP has increased the stiffness by 137%. Singh et al. [10] state that
the coconut shell powder in conjunction with the epoxy polymer is suitable for use as
low-weight composite materials in engineering. Salmah et al. [11] demonstrated that
adding CSP to PLA biocomposites reduced tensile strength and elongation at break, but
the modulus of elasticity increased. Leman et al. [8] mention the use of coconut shell
powder as a concrete filler for the benefit of a more sustainable and greener material.
The degradation behaviour of natural filler materials is key to describing possible
application areas. Sreejith et al. [12] describe the degradation behaviour of styrene-
butadiene rubber reinforced with coconut powder - the extent of biodegradation of
composites was assessed by measuring weight loss, tensile strength and hardness, it
was found that the stability of the composites was remarkably dependent on filler
treatment, filler particle size, and filler content.
It is clear from the research that the issue of the use of secondary bio-residues,
including CSP, is a current topic, and the description of the degradation materials with
the phase in form of CSP will help to describe the possibilities of application of these
biocomposites.
The paper focuses on the description of the aging of CSP/epoxy composite through
a degradation chamber where the positive and negative temperatures (−40 to +70 °C)
were alternated along with the change in humidity. An experimental description of the
effect of this aging focuses primarily on shear strength on conventional carbon
adherents and the change in tensile strength of body test specimens, cut by water jet
from plates prepared with vacuum infusion. The paper describes a simple composite
system where CSPs were sized with sieves, but there was not a surface treatment
applied (for example, chemical).
2.1 Filler and Matrix

Cocos (Cocos nucifera) is a typical plant for Southeast Asia. An exemplary exporter of
coconuts in the region is the Philippines. This palm is grown primarily on a fruit-seed
coat, that is coconuts. Experimental nut shells from the Philippines were used in the
experiment. These shells were free of fibrous formations, dried at 105 °C and milled
with a knife mill with 20,000 rpm. Subsequently, they were subjected to screening
analysis where a fraction of 0–100 lm was obtained.
Two-component epoxy resin with a density of 1.15 gcm-3 was used to assess the
shear strength, which is commonly used for bonding in the field of engineering
458 K. Habrová et al.
technology. Composite systems applied to describe the influence of shear strength

change were prepared with 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 wt% of CPS filler.
2.2 Tensile Strength of Composite Systems

To assess the change in tensile strength due to degradation, test bodies (CSN EN ISO
3167,) which were cut from vacuum-prepared plates (board size: 300 400 4 mm,
parameters: capacity 55 lmin−1, the absolute pressure of 100 mbar abs). In the pro-
duction of the plates, the molds were treated with a particle separator (final concen-
tration 30 wt%), The molding space was vacuum sealed with sealing elements and
subsequently saturated with an extremely low viscosity resin with an added hardener
(based on the cycloaliphatic polyamine) - see Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Vacuum infusion: a-vacuum closed form, b-vacuum pump (left), plate from which the
test body was cut (right).
2.3 Tensile Shear Strength

Tensile shear strength (standard CSN EN 1465) has been evaluated for common carbon
steel S235J0. The surface of the adherent was blasted and degreased prior to appli-
cation of the composite system. The surface roughness was measured by surface
Surftest 301 touch probe. A composite mixture was applied to the treated steel sheet
and cured according to the resin manufacturer’s technological requirements.
2.4 Degradation
To assess the aging of testing specimens the degradation chamber was used according
to the standard CSN EN ISO 9142 - temperature (70 °C and – 40 °C) and humidity
(90% and 50%) were regulated during the degradation process. The test specimens
were removed from the chamber after each end of the 7 cycles (1 cycle - 24 h). Overall,
it was repeated 5 7 cycles (35 cycles - 840 h) - see Fig. 2. After removal from the
degradation chamber, the test specimens were for 24 h under laboratory conditions, and
Fig. 2. Description of the degradation cycle (CSN EN ISO 9142 - left), space of degradation
chamber with test specimens (right).
then the experimental determination of the measured mechanical characteristics was

performed.
Optical analysis of particle morphology was performed on the SEM electron
microscope (Tescan Mira 3 GXM), where the interfacial interaction was also evaluated.
For the statistical comparison, the T-test and ANOVA were used when the zero
hypothesis H0 (p > 0.05) states an agreement of the statistical sets of data (a = 0.05).
The validity of the zero hypothesis confirms that the inclusion of fillers did not sta-
tistically significantly change the values of observed parameter compared with the
unfilled resin.
Size, morphology, and particle concentration in the epoxy matrix are factors that
greatly affect the mechanical characteristics of the composite system. The morphology
of coconut-based particles (CSP) was evaluated by electron microscopy (see Figs. 3
and 4). The particles were first gold-plated to prevent their charging. Particle shape
analysis confirmed the predicted irregular shape of the particles. The irregular shape of
the particles promotes mechanical bonding - the wedging of the particle in the matrix,
of course, the good wetting (interaction) between the matrix and filler used is a
prerequisite.
Fig. 3. Electron microscopy - the morphology of CSP microparticles: Mag. 4.80 kx (left), Mag.
3.47 kx (right).
Fig. 4. Surface detail of CSP microparticles Mag. 7.96 kx (left), Mag. 10.2 kx (right).
To describe the particle size, laser diffraction was used by a dry way - a specific
surface area of 180.5 m2 kg−1, the particle distribution is evident from Fig. 5. More
than 84% were smaller than 98.11 lm. The average particle size was below 100 lm.
The cohesion and adhesion characteristics of the composite systems were assessed
through tensile strength and shear strength. Shear strength was performed on con-
ventional carbon steel, the area of application of the composite system was blasted and
degreased, the roughness parameter detected by the touch grinder corresponded to
Ra = 2.3 ± 0.3 lm and Rz = 10.7 ± 2.3 lm. The epoxy resin is commonly used for
conventional bonding of material in engineering. The shear strength of the non-filled
resin was 12.38 ± 0.38 MPa. Inclusion of the coconut powder filler in the 2.5%
inclusion range did not significantly affect the shear strength increase (p = 0.16), and in
the case of inclusion of 5.0% of the filler there was a statistically significant increase in
shear strength of 12% (1.5 MPa, p = 0.01), in the case of 10.0% inclusion there was no
Fig. 5. Laser Diffraction - Description of sizes of CSP microparticles by dry way.
statistically significant change (p = 0.28). For non-filled resin, the shear strength
decreased to 8.11 ± 0.85 MPa throughout the cycle due to degradation throughout the
cycle. For filled resin with coconut microparticles, the shear strength dropped to
8.81 ± 0.98 MPa (2.5%), 8.68 ± 0.74 MPa (5.0%) and 9.02 ± 0.48 MPa (10.0%),
see Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Influence of inclusion of CSP microparticles on the matrix: Shear Strength of epoxy used
for conventional bonding of material in engineering.
The dominant type of failure of the test specimens was the adhesive failure. During
the degradation, this type of violation did not change significantly. On degraded sheets,
however, the phenomenon of corrosion was observable with the increasing number of
degradation cycles, see Fig. 7 - Bonding area (25 12.5 mm) and detail of bonding
area (captured by stereoscopic microscope).
The tensile strength of the non-filled resin, which is used in the mechanical engi-
neering area for vacuum infusion, reached 44.00 ± 2.68 MPa. Due to the inclusion of
particles, the shear strength was reduced by 2.33 MPa to 41.67 ± 1.70 MPa, but
p = 0.13 (see Fig. 8).
The tensile strength of the resin for the vacuum infusion dropped to
26.08 ± 2.62 MPa after 5 weeks of degradation and to the CSP/epoxy composite to
Fig. 7. Comparison of adhesive type of disruption for test specimens - shear strength, given
number is the number of weeks of degradation.
Fig. 8. Effect of inclusion of CSP microparticles on the matrix: tensile strength of epoxy used
for vacuum infusion.
24.07 ± 2.53 MPa. The interfacial interactions between the particles and the epoxy
matrix were evaluated by electron microscopy (see Fig. 9).
The results confirm that organic particulate fillers can form appropriate interactions
with polymer matrices. In accordance with the conclusions of Renner et al. [13] and
Shivamurthy et al. [14] the organic fillers can reduce the resulting cost of material, as
demonstrated by the description of the interfacial interface by electron microscopy. The
experiments did not show a significant dependence of the aging of CSP composites
(shear strength) on the filler content described by Sreejith et al. [12]. The presence of
CSP microparticles did not significantly affect the change of the observed character-
istics during the degradation of CSP composites compared to the non-filled epoxies.
Fig. 9. CSP particles in the composite system Mag. 2.47 kx (left), detail of the interfacial
interaction Mag. 2.57 kx (right).
4 Conclusions
The experiment describes the aging of a biocomposite with a synthetic matrix and a
biological filler made from secondary materials that occurs during coconut processing -
shells. Conclusions resulting from the experiment can be summarised as follows:
• 5% inclusion of organic microparticles prepared from coconut resulted in an
increase in shear strength of 12%.
• Comparison of non-filled and filled resin for a vacuum infusion, a 5.3% decrease in
tensile strength occurred.
• Due to the change of temperature and humidity, the shear strength and tensile
strength of both non-filled resins (on average 34%) and filled resins decreased (by
35% - 2.5%, 37% - 5.0%, 29% - 10.0%).
• Due to changes in temperature and humidity, the tensile strength of the resin for the
vacuum infusion decreased by 40.7% and for the CSP/epoxy composite by 42.2%.
Acknowledgements. This paper has been made with the assistance of the grant CULS - IGA TF
2018.
References
1. Ruggiero, A., Merola, M., Carlone, P., Archodoulaki, V.M.: Tribo-mechanical characteri-
zation of reinforced epoxy resin under dry and lubricated contact conditions. Compos. Part B:
Eng. 79, 595–603 (2015)
360 (2016)
3. Valášek, P., Ruggiero, A., Müller, M.: Experimental description of strength and tribological
characteristic of EFB oil palm fibres/epoxy composites with technologically undjm-
00emanding preparation. Compos. Part B: Eng. 122, 79–88 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compositesb.2017.04.014
4. Jia, Y., Yingchang, H., Wen, L.: Performance research on coir fiber and wood debris hybrid
boards. BioRes. 7(3), 4262–4272 (2012)
5. Keerthika, B., Umayavalli, M., Jeyalalitha, T., Krishnaveni, N.: Coconut shell powder as
cost effective filler in copolymer of acrylonitrile and butadiene rubber. Ecotoxicol. Environ.
Saf. 130, 1–3 (2016)
6. Easwara Prasad, G.L., Keerthi Gowda, B.S., Velmurugan, R.A.: Study on impact strength
characteristics of coir polyester composites. Procedia Eng. 173, 771–777 (2017)
7. Kirby, M. Optimization of natural functional fillers created from bio-waste in polymeric
composites using coconut shell powder and MAPP SCONA®. In: Society of Plastics
Engineers - 2013 SPE International Polyolefins Conference (2013)
8. Leman, A.S., Shahidan, S., Nasir, A.J., Senin, M.S., Mohd Zuki, S.S., Wan Ibrahim, M.H.,
Deraman, R., Khalid, F.S., Azhar, A.T.S.: Properties of concrete containing coconut shell
powder (CSP) as a filler. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering.
Global Congress on Construction, Material and Structural Engineering 2017, vol. 271(1),
7 December 2017
9. Teipel, E.G., Conroy, S., Kirby, M., Bradley, W.: Natural functional fillers from agricultural
waste to reinforce polymeric composites: coconut shell powder technology. In: Society of
Plastics Engineers - SPE International Polyolefins Conference 2014, pp. 53–60 (2014)
10. Singh, S., Singh, A., Sharma, S.K.: Analytical modeling for mechanical strength prediction
with raman spectroscopy and fractured surface morphology of novel coconut shell powder
reinforced: epoxy composites. J. Inst. Eng. (India) Ser. C 98(3), 235–240 (2017)
11. Salmah, H., Koay, S.C., Hakimah, O.: Surface modification of coconut shell powder filled
polylactic acid biocomposites. J. Thermoplas. Compos. Mater. 26(6), 809–819 (2013)
12. Sreejith, M.P., Balan, A.K., et al.: Biodegradation behavior of styrene butadiene rubber
(SBR) reinforced with modified coconut shell powder. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, vol.
1849, p. 020047 (2017)
13. Renner, K., Kenyó, C., et al.: Micromechanical deformation processes in PP/wood
composites: particle characteristics, adhesion, mechanisms. Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci.
Manuf. 41(11), 1653–1661 (2010)
14. Shivamurthy, B., Murthy, K., et al. Mechanical properties and sliding wear behavior of
Jatropha seed cake waste/epoxy composites. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 1–13 (2014)
Fluid Film Pressure Description in Finite
Turbulent Lubricated Journal Bearings
by Using the Warner’s Theory
Alessandro Ruggiero1(&), Roberto D’Amato2,

and Nicolae Ungureanu3
1
ruggiero@unisa.it
2
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
r.damato@upm.es
3
Faculty of Engineering, North University Center of Baia Mare,
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Maramures, Romania
ungureanu.nicolae@gmail.com
Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to propose a method for the analytical
description of the non-steady fluid film for the liquid-lubricated finite journal
bearings operating in a fully developed turbulent regime. The analytical
description takes in account a symmetrical rigid rotor supported on two lubri-
cated journal bearings under the classical assumptions of the Reynolds theory.
The proposed methodology represents an extension of the Warner’s approach
and allows to solve analytically in approximate way the equation governing the
distribution of pressure in the bearing oil gap and then to obtain the analytical
expressions for the unsteady fluid film forces giving particular attention to their
continuity in the entire definition domain, introducing original analytical func-
tions called “jump function”. The proposed model allows not only to minimize
the computation time without any significant loss of accuracy in the nonlinear
dynamic analysis of rotors on turbulent journal bearings but also permits a better
readability of the parameter effects on the system unsteady behavior.
Keywords: Hydrodynamic lubrication Journal bearings Analytical method
1 Introduction
A wide variety of machines, such as pumps, turbines, compressors, work using

hydrodynamic journal bearings to support their rotating shafts, with high rotating speed
and subjected to high radial loads. Naturally, the modern high-speed rotating machines
require ever better performance in terms of high load capacity, noise reduction and high
stability. For this reason, many author in the last years have study the problem of
instability in order to eliminate undesired vibrations of rotor-bearing system and other
problem, like rubbing between journal and bearing and between blades and stator in
turbo-machines [1]. Ruggiero et al. in their works have presented the study of a flexible
rotor in Cylindrical Uncavitated and Cavitated Lubricated Journal Bearings [2] and the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_49
analytical calculation of the fluid film force in the case of short bearing with a fully
developed turbulent flow [3]. Childs has presented the modeling and analysis for the
turbomachinery rotordynamics phenomena [4] for Constantinescu in his book on the
sliding bearings [5]. In fact, it is well known that when turbo-machines work with high
shaft rotational speeds or with lubricants having low viscosity [6] (water, refrigerants,
liquid metals or liquefied gases, vegetal lubricants [7]) the action of fluid dynamic
forces produces a self-excited orbital motion. Furthermore, these phenomena are linked
to a series of parameters related to the tribo-system under study (relative velocity
between the two surfaces in contact [8], surface roughness, applied load and viscosity
of lubricant [9]). In their works several Authors, by using the classical theory of
lubrication, have neglected the inertia force with respect to the pressure forces and
viscous stresses [5]. However, in some journal bearings, like, for example, pumps
operating in atomic power plant, when the diameters are very large or when the rotating
bearings operate in high speed regime, the inertia force might become preponderant
due to large operating clearance, low kinematical viscosity of lubricants and high linear
speeds. In this case, when in lubricant films are present the inertia forces, the rigorous
use of the Reynolds equation is not allowed [10]. In fact, due to the change of the flow
structure produced by the inertia force, that reaches a certain value in the journal
bearing, progressively, appear turbulence phenomena. These turbulence phenomena
produce an increase of the load carrying capacity and simultaneously a sensible
increase of the friction. The occurrence of turbulence is due to the increase of the
journal bearing characteristic Reynolds number. When those occurs the Taylor’s vortex
pattern flow and the turbulent regime may occur [11]. In journal bearings, turbulence
makes its first appearance at Re = 2000 [12]. For this reason, several theoretical [1, 10]
and experimental studies [13] focused its attention to the study of dynamic charac-
teristic problems of journal bearings [14]. In fact, many authors have presented a
theoretical study on the vibration of a rigid shaft on short sleeve bearings [15] and a
numerical method for the calculation method of the dynamic coefficients of oil-
lubricated journal bearings [16].
Large part of these investigations has presented different methods in order to solve
the Reynolds’ equation and all were based on numerical methods, like the finite dif-
ference or the finite element technique, and all limited to the calculation of the bearing
linearized dynamic coefficients. The laminar lubrication conditions were the only
object under study of these investigations and, in the scientific literature, only few
papers have attempted to treat the turbulent lubrication conditions [16, 17].
Indeed, no Authors have tried to describe in a fully analytical way the fluid film
pressure and the fluid film forces acting in the lubricated gap in non-stationary con-
dition of the shaft in the case of finite length journal bearing. In fact, under these
conditions the unsteady and two-dimensional Reynold’s equation does not present a
closed analytical solution [18]. For this reason, the aim of this paper is to propose an
approximate analytical method in order to obtain the hydrodynamic pressure field in the
case of finite journal bearing in a fully developed turbulent flow regime.
Fluid Film Pressure Description in Finite Turbulent Lubricated Journal Bearings 467
2 Theoretical Analysis
The analyzed system consists into a rigid, symmetric balanced rotor supported in two
equal plain cylindrical journal bearings. The rotor possesses perfect axial symmetry; it
allows limit the analysis to one of the parts into which the system is subdivided.
Figure 1 shows the model and the coordinates x, y used.
Fig. 1. Journal bearing scheme.
It is assumed that the system is loaded in the y direction in the plane of symmetry
by a load W. With reference to the journal bearing [1] in Fig. 1, under the hypothesis of
hydrodynamic lubrication [19], the equation which governs the pressure in the lubri-
cant film is in dimensional form [20]:

1 @ h3 @p @ h3 @p 1 @
h @ h
þ ¼ x þ ð1Þ
R @h lkx @h
2 @z lkz @z 2 @h @t
Where R is the journal radius, x represents the angular speed, h is the film
thickness, e the eccentricity, t the time and l the viscosity of the lubricant. The weight
of the rotor imposes a load W on the bearing; and in order to taking in account the
turbulence effects the equations derived from the Constantinescu’s turbulent theory [5]
and based on the Prandtl’s mixing length hypothesis.
The coefficients kx and kz are known function depending, in a first an approxima-
tion, only on the local flow Reynolds number Re = qVh/µ and can be used in the
interval of 103 Re 5 104, i.e. for most self-acting bearing applications [5, 11].
kx ¼ 12 þ ax Rbe x ð2Þ
kz ¼ 12 þ az Rbe z ð3Þ
In the above expressions the values of the variables are: ax ¼ 0:0136, bx ¼ 0:9,
az ¼ 0:0043 and bz ¼ 0:96. In the laminar case kx ¼ kz ¼ 12.
Introducing the dimensionless quantities:
p
p¼ 2 ; ð4Þ
6lx CR
h
h¼ ; ð5Þ
C
s ¼ xt; ð6Þ
z
f¼ ; ð7Þ
R
e
e¼ ð8Þ
C
With:
h ¼ Cð1 þ e cos hÞ ð9Þ
It is possible to obtain the modified Reynolds’ equation in dimensionless form:

@ h3 @p @ h3 @p @h
þ ¼ ð1 2u_ Þ þ 2_e cos h ð10Þ
@h kxa @h @f kza @f @h
The analytical approximate solution, in the case of finite journal bearing, was found
by a novel model proposed by authors based on the Warners’ approach used in the
laminar case for partial arc journal bearings [21]. Thus, assuming a solution of the
Eq. (10) in the form:
pðh; zÞ ¼ f ðhÞ þ gðhÞkðfÞ ð11Þ
Where f(h), g(h) and k(z) are calculated from the ordinary differential equations:

d h3 df @h
¼ ð1 2u_ Þ þ 2_e cos h ð12Þ
dh kxa dh @h
3
kza d h @g d @k
h3 dh kxa @h df df
þ ¼0 ð13Þ
g k
Whence:
d2 k
k2 k ¼ 0 ð14Þ
df2

d h3 dg h3
þ k2 g ¼ 0 ð15Þ
dh kxa dh kza
The analytical expression for the f(h) function was obtained by integrating the
Eq. (12) with the continuity condition of the solution. A qualitative plot of f(h) is
reported in Fig. 2 for a typical set of parameters.
1.2
1
0.8
f(θ)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
f(θ)
Fig. 2. Qualitative plot of f(h).
In order to satisfy the boundary condition it is necessary expand f(h) in a series of

the functions gN(h), where gN(h) corresponds to the Nth characteristic value kN.
Neglecting the series terms greater than the first order, the solution takes the approx-
imate form:

k1 ðfÞ
pðh; fÞ ¼ 1 f ð hÞ ð16Þ
k1 ð1=2Þ
The solution of Eq. (14) is:
k1 ðfÞ ¼ coshðkfÞ ¼ k1 ðfÞ ð17Þ

which may be substituted into Eq. (16) giving:

cosh kf
pðh; fÞ ¼ 1 f ð hÞ ð18Þ
cosh ðk=2Þ
The characteristic value k may be calculated by solving the following integrals:
aR
þp
h3 dg1 2
kxa dh dh
a
k2 ¼ aR
þp
ð19Þ
2
h3 g1
kza 2 dh
a
where a is calculated in approximate way by using the relations obtained in the case of
laminar infinitely long bearing [5]:

ð2 þ e2 Þe _ cos a eð1 2u_ Þ sin a ¼ 0

ð20Þ
ð2 þ e2 Þe _ sin a eð1 2u_ Þ cos a 0
Further, assuming g1(h) f*(h), where f*(h) is the solution of the differential
equation:

d h3 df
¼ ð2u_ 1Þe sinðhÞ þ 2_e cosðhÞ ð21Þ
dh kxa dh
In order to evaluate the characteristic value k, the integral functions, of the

numerator and of the denominator, in Eq. (19) will be calculated as following
expression:

h3 dg1
¼ ð1 2u_ Þ
kxa dh
2 ð22Þ
4ax e Re 8 1 þ ax Rbx
4 bx
2e2 2 þ ax Rbx cos h þ e 3 4 þ ax ð4 þ 3e2 ÞRbx
e þ ax ð4 þ e ÞRe cos h
2 bx
e
2
e
3
4ð4 þ e Þ ð1 þ e cos hÞ 1 þ ax Re þ ax eRe cos h
2 bx bx

h3 g21 e þ 2e 1 þ ax ð2 þ e ÞRe cos hÞ sin h
ð4 þ ax ð4 þ 3e2 ÞRbx 2 bx
¼ ð1 2u_ Þ
kxa 2 2ð4 þ e2 Þð1 þ e cos hÞ
ð23Þ
The analytical solution of the integrals in Eq. (19) was performed by using
Mathematica (Wolfram) software. The obtained expressions however for brevity are
not reported in this paper.
In order to evaluate the characteristic value k as defined in Eq. (19) it has been
necessary to calculate the definite integrals in the numerator and denominator of the
equation. Due to a discontinuity point in p it was necessary to define two new novel
functions called “JUMP functions”. The JUMP functions were calculated analytically
and represent the difference between the right-hand limit and left-hand limit in the p
point. Then the new functions were defined by adding the JUMP functions at the
original functions in the domain [p, 2 p].
3 Results
The knowledge of the analytical expressions of the functions introduced in the theo-
retical analysis, make possible to obtain, even if not reported, the analytical expression
of the fluid film pressure in turbulent flow and in unsteady journal conditions. As
example of the results obtainable, by using the numerical values shown in Table 1 it is
possible to plot the hydrodynamic pressure in a fully developed turbulent flow regime.
Table 1. Numerical values of the Non-Dimensional parameters.

Non-Dimensional parameters Values
Re 2000
ax 0:0136
12
bx 0.9
az 0:0043
12
bz 0.96
e 0.6
u 0.1
Figures 3 and 4 show the evolution of the hydrodynamic pressure with respect to h
and to f by imposing generic kinematical values to the shaft motion.
Fig. 3. Evolution of the non-dimensional hydrodynamic pressure for finite journal bearing vs h
and to f using e = 10−6, u = 10−6 and Re number equal to 2000.
Fig. 4. Evolution of the non-dimensional hydrodynamic pressure for finite journal bearing vs h
and to f using e = 2, u = 1 and Re number equal to 2000.
The Figs. 5 and 6 show the evolution of the hydrodynamic pressure with respect to
h and to f by using the parameters values shown in Table 1, but with the Reynolds
number equal to 5000.
Fig. 5. Evolution of the hydrodynamic pressure for finite journal bearing with respect to h and
to f using e = 10−6, u = 10−6 and Re number equal to 5000.
Fig. 6. Evolution of the hydrodynamic for finite journal bearing pressure with respect to h and
to f using e = 2, u = 1 and Re number equal to 5000.
4 Conclusions
With the method shown in this paper it is possible to determine an analytical model for
describing the fluid film pressure field in turbulent conditions with reference to finite
length lubricated journal bearings. The closed form solution makes it possible the
analytical calculation of the unsteady fluid film force acting on the journal in unsteady
state and thus the rapid determination of the stiffness and damping coefficients which
allow the knowledge of the bearing response for any dynamic calculations. The use of
proposed method is recommended in all types of bearing analysis that favor an ana-
lytical approach, i.e., in all cases in which the aim is to obtain a better trade of between
accuracy and computational expense. Moreover, in the analysis of flexible rotors
supported by several bearings, it is possible to take in account the fluid film force
exerted from bearings by introducing opportunely the stiffness and damping expres-
sions in the structural stiffness and damping matrices of the entire system. The lin-
earized stability analysis can be seen as an effortless application of the present work
outcomes: in fact, the derivatives of the unsteady expressions of the oil film forces lead
to the stable/unstable onset values and stability map for each aspect ratio.
References
1. Lund, J.W.: Ph.d. thesis: Self-Excited, Stationary Whirl Orbits of a Journal in a sleeve
bearing. Inst. Dept. of mechanics, N.Y. Rensselaer Polytechnic institute (1966)
2. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Magliano, E., Kozak, D.: Dynamical simulations of a flexible
rotor in cylindrical uncavitated and cavitated lubricated journal bearings. Lubricants 6(2),
40–69 (2018)
3. Ruggiero, A., Hloch, S., Kozak, D., Velasek, P.: Analytical fluid film force calculation in the
case of short bearing with a fully developed turbulent flow. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J
J. Eng. Tribol. 230(4), 395–401 (2016)
4. Childs, D.: Turbomachinery Rotordynamics Phenomena, Modeling, and Analysis. Wiley,
New York (1993)
5. Constantinescu, V.N.: Sliding Bearings. Allerton Press (1985)
6. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Merola, M., Valášek, P., Müller, M.: Tribological character-
ization of vegetal lubricants: comparative experimental investigation on Jatropha curcas L.
oil, Rapeseed Methyl Ester oil, Hydrotreated Rapeseed oil. Tribol. Int. 109, 529–540 (2017)
7. Ruggiero, A., D’Amato, R., Merola, M., Valášek, P., Müller, M.: On the tribological
performance of vegetal lubricants: experimental investigation on Jatropha curcas L. oil.
Procedia Eng. 149, 431–437 (2016)
360 (2016)
10. Lahmar, M., Haddad, A., Nicolas, D.: An optimised short bearing theory for nonlinear
dynamic analysis of turbulent journal bearings. Eur. J. Mech. A/Solids 19(1), 151–177
(2000)
11. Frene, J., et al.: Hydrodynamic lubrication: bearings and thrust bearings, vol. 33. Elsevier
(1997)
12. D’Agostino, V., Ruggiero, A., Senatore, A.: Unsteady oil film forces in porous bearings:
analysis of permeability effect on the rotor linear stability. Meccanica 44(2), 207–214 (2009)
13. Kirk, R.G., Gunter, E.J.: Short bearing analysis applied to rotor dynamics-Part 2: results of
journal bearing response. J. Tribol. 98(2), 319–329 (1976)
14. Kirk, R.G., Gunter, E.J.: Short bearing analysis applied to rotor dynamics-Part I: theory.
J. Tribol. 98(1), 47–56 (1976)
15. D’Agostino, V., Ruggiero, A., Senatore, A.: Approximate model for unsteady finite porous
journal bearings fluid film force calculation. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J J. Eng. Tribol. 220
(3), 227–234 (2006)
16. Lund, J.W., Thomsen, K.K.: A calculation method and data for the dynamic coefficients of
oil-lubricated journal bearings. Topics in fluid film bearing and rotor bearing system design
and optimization 1000118 (1978)
17. Hashimoto, H., Wada, S.: Dynamic behavior of unbalanced rigid shaft supported on
turbulent journal bearings-theory and experiment. J. Tribol. 112(2), 404–408 (1990)
18. DuBois, G.B., Ocvirk, W.: Analytical derivation and experimental evaluation of short-
bearing approximation for full journal bearing. Naca-report-1157 (1953)
19. Ruggiero, A., Gòmez, E., D’Amato, R.: Approximate closed-form solution of the synovial
fluid film force in the human ankle joint with non-Newtonian lubricant. Tribol. Int. 157,
157–161 (2012)
20. Ruggiero, A., Gòmez, E., D’Amato, R.: Approximate analytical model for the squeeze-film
lubrication of the human ankle joint with synovial fluid filtrated by articular cartilage. Tribol.
Lett. 41(2), 337–343 (2011)
21. Warner, P.C.: Static and dynamic properties of partial journal bearings. J. Basic Eng. 85, 247
(1963)
Influence of Processing Parameters
on Residual Stress in Injection Molded Parts
Przemyslaw Poszwa(&), Pawel Muszynski, Pawel Brzek,

and Krzysztof Mrozek
Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznan, Poland

przemyslaw.b.poszwa@doctorate.put.poznan.pl
Abstract. Residual stresses are the source of shrinkage and warpage of the
parts manufactured with injection molding technology and strongly influences
its final dimensions. In complicated parts residual stresses are very difficult to
predict without numerical tools, along with the warpage, what leads to problems
with manufacturing parts that meet the expected tolerances. Residual stresses
have also strong influence on mechanical performance of the part, where its high
value can results with self-cracking during ejection from the mold. In this work
numerical simulations injection molding process were performed to analyze the
presence of residual stresses in manufactured plastic parts by this technology.
Numerical simulations were used to find the relations between the processing
parameters and the distribution and magnitude of residual stresses. Occurrence
of residual stresses were analyzed with new 3D residual stress model imple-
mented in Autodesk Moldflow® software. Qualitative strain-optics observations
were performed to verify the differences between different sets of processing
parameters. From investigated parameters the strongest influence on residual
stresses was observed with packing time, while the weakest influence was
observed with injection time.
Keywords: Injection molding Residual stress Autodesk Moldflow
1 Introduction
Injection molding is one of the most popular plastics processing method because of its
high versatility and quality of manufactured parts. It is a cyclical process, where first
step is injection of the plastic to the cavities of the mold. Afterwards the packing phase
has its place where empty spaces in the cavities that appears during the solidification of
polymers are filled with polymer to obtain good quality parts. Then during the cooling
phase the rest of heat is removed from the part and the mold and then part is ejected
from the mold.
Residual stresses are stresses that are frozen in molded parts, which were developed
during processing. They lead to warpage (or even buckling with very high residual
stresses) and even self-cracking of the part during ejection from the mold [1]. With very
high residual stresses that overcome structural integrity the void can be formed, what is
unacceptable defect in the manufactured part. Residual stresses can be divided in two
types of residual stresses: thermal-induced and flow-induced.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_50
Influence of Processing Parameters on Residual Stress 477
Flow-induced residual stresses come out when long-chain polymers molecules aim
to conform to state equilibrium. This state is achieved at temperatures higher than the
melt temperature of used polymers (this state is called as molten state). During the
process all molecules take orientation in accordance with direction of the flow. This
phenomenon occurs because polymer is shared and elongated. What is important, the
molecular orientation of polymers chain is locked within the molded part, when melted
material solidifies before the molecules of the polymer are fully relaxed to their state of
equilibrium. This type of frozen-in stressed state introduces anisotropic, non-uniform
shrinkage and mechanical properties in parallel and perpendicular directions to the
direction of the flow. It is caused by molecular orientation of the polymer, which is
stretched exactly in line with the flow direction [3].
The process conditions and design elements that reduce shear stress during cavity
filling will help to reduce flow-induced residual stress. Likewise, those that promote
sufficient packing and uniform mold cooling will reduce thermal-induced residual
stress. For fiber-filled materials, those process conditions that promote uniform
mechanical properties will reduce thermal-induced residual stresses. During the cooling
process different residual stress are formed and named as thermal-induced residual
stress. At the beginning the basis for this process should be mentioned, namely that
polymers are susceptible for contraction. The fact is that during the cooling stage
polymers cools at different rates from the cavity wall to the center. Hence, at first the
external surface layer is getting colder and starts to shrink, while the core of polymer is
still hot and free to contract. Next, after some time, the internal core cools and it’s
contraction is limited by external surfaces, which are already stiff. So unbalanced
cooling, non-uniform part thickness or improper packing pressure could be phenomena
which leads to the formation of the thermal-induced residual stress [2]. However, in
absolute values, the flow-induced stresses are usually one order of magnitude smaller
than the thermal-induced stresses [4]. To decrease the thermal-induced residual stress
some conditions which lead to sufficient packing and more uniform mold temperature
should be keep. For example these are: proper packing pressure and duration, uniform
and balanced cooling stage for all surfaces of the part, uniform heat removal from
mold, proper (well designed) wall-section thickness [5].
2 Simulation Research
In this paper new method was used to investigate residual stresses in injection molded
parts. Numerical simulations were performed with Autodesk Moldflow® software,
where its new 3D thermo-viscous-elastic residual stress has been implemented (3D
uncorrected residual stress model). It was introduced to Autodesk Moldflow software
for more precise evaluation of 3D shrinkage and warpage. In this model linear elastic
behavior was assumed in the solidified part and purely viscous behavior was assumed
in the melt. Autodesk Moldflow® software can also evaluate the residual stresses in
fiber-filled polymer composites. It delivers Young Modulus, Poisson’s ratio, thermal
expansion coefficients of material using previously obtained fiber orientation and
mechanical properties of composite [6–8]. Results are used to evaluate 3D orthotropic
stress-strain relation. Governing equations of this problem are presented below (1, 2).
478 P. Poszwa et al.
2 3
2 3 1myz mzy myz þ mzx myz mzx þ myz mzy 2 3
rxx 6 Ey Ez D Ey Ez D Ey Ez D 0 0 0 7 exx
6 ryy 7 6 mxy þ mxz mzx 1mzx mxz mzy þ mzx mxy
0 0 0 76 eyy 7
6 7 6 Ez Ex D Ez Ex D Ez Ex D 76 7
6 rzz 7 6 mxz þ mxy myz mzy þ mxz myz 1mxy myx 0 0 0 76 ezz 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 sxy 7 ¼ 6 Ex Ey D Ex Ey D Ex Ey D
Gxy 0 0 76 cxy 7 ð1Þ
6 7 6 0 0 0 76 7
4 syz 5 6 0 Gyz 0 74 cyz 5
4 0 0 0 5
szx 0 0 Gzx czx
0 0 0
1 mxy myx myz mzy mzx mxz mxy myz mzx

D¼ ð2Þ
Ex Ey Ez
To solve the problem of warpage, the equilibrium Eq. (3) is solved iteratively (at
time t + Dt, for iteration k = 1, 2, 3,…):
Z ðkÞ ðk1Þ R t þ Dt ðk1Þ ðkÞ
Cijrs Ders dDeij dV þ m Sij dDgij dV ¼
R t þ Dt ðk1Þ ðk1Þ iniðkÞ ðk1Þ ð3Þ
m m Sij dDeij dV þ Cijrs Ders dDeij dV
ðkÞ ðkÞ
where Cijrs – the stress-strain tensor, ers and gij – the linear and non-linear incre-
ðk1Þ ðkÞ
mental strain tensors for iteration k, eij and dDgij – the linear and non-linear
iniðkÞ
incremental strain tensors corresponding to virtual incremental displacement, ers –
ðk1Þ
the incremental initial strain tensor for iteration k, Sij – the second Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor after iteration (k − 1) at time t þ Dt.
Mathematical model was used to estimate the values of residual stresses and to
provide the validation of results obtained from Autodesk Moldflow®. The model was
developed by Osswald and was used to evaluate the thermal-induced residual stresses
[9]. No residual stress build-up that occurs during phase change is assumed.
2
2 3z 1
rðzÞ ¼ aEðTs Tf Þ ð4Þ
3 8b2 2
The equation presented at (4) can be applied for thin section, where: a – thermal
expansion coefficient, E – Young modulus, Ts – solidification temperature, Tf – final
part temperature, b – thickness, z – distance from the centerline of the cross section.
Stresses introduced to polymer parts have strong influence on optical properties of
transparent polymers. They can change its refractive index n in different directions
what lead to birefringence according to the stress-optic law equation [10]:
2pt
D¼ Cðr1 r2 Þ ð5Þ
k
where D – induced retardation, t – specimen thickness, k – vacuum wavelength, C –
stress-optics coefficient, r1 and r2 are the first and second principal stresses.
Relative phase retardation between the two components is observed due to the
difference in the refractive indices. Retardation leads to change of the polarization of
transmitted light. It can be observed with polariscope which uses optical interference of
light waves that have different polarization before/after passing through the part.
In this work transparent styrene-acrylonitrile resin (SAN) Lustran 31 produced by
Ineos was used to manufacture parts. Simulations were performed with general SAN
material, which has averaged material parameters. The geometry of runner system and
cavities used for simulations and photoelastic measurements is presented at Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Geometry of runner system and cavities of the mold.
Parts were manufactured with set of parameters. Simulations with adequate

parameters were performed: packing pressure equals to 80% of maximum injection
pressure, cooling time was set to 45 s, to be sure that the temperature of the mold in the
simulations and manufacturing would have the same temperature. In this work three
different injection times ti (0.86 s, 1 s, 1.25 s), three packing times tp (1 s, 3 s, 5 s), two
melt temperatures Tp (240 °C, 260 °C) and two mold temperatures Tm (20 °C, 60 °C)
were used and their influence on residual stress distribution and values was examined.
Validation of Autodesk Moldflow simulations were performed with analytical
residual stress model. Parameters needed for these models were obtained from Auto-
desk Moldflow software and are equal to: h = 2500 W/m2/°C (value set for packing
phase), k = 0.177 W/m/oC (value obtained by averaging k(T) diagram provided by
Moldflow software), E = 3570 MPa, N = 0,38, L = 0,004 m, a = 0,0000065 1/oC.
For qualitative validation of influence of processing parameters specific parts were
manufactured with Engel ES80/20 HLS injection molding machine. Temperatures at
barrel regions were 210 °C (rear), 225 °C (middle), 235 °C (front), and 240 °C
(nozzle). Screw rotational speed of the screw was 180 min−1 and absolute ram speed
was 80 mm/s (injection time 1.25 s), 100 mm/s (injection time 1 s) and 120 mm/s
(1.25 s). After manufacturing parts were investigated with polariscope, which allowed
only qualitative validation of the influence of the parameters. For deeper insight into
the relation between processing parameters and residual stresses more advanced strain-
optics tool or layer removal method must be used.
Specimens were examined with polariscope and the different patterns were observed
for different sets of parameters. Slight difference in pattern was observed at the ends of
the bars and no difference was observed in the middle of the parts. In the middle of the
parts the difference in colors was observed, what means that the processing parameters
have slight influence at stress distribution but have also influence on stress values.
Examples of the difference in patterns and colors are presented at Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Results of strain-optics observations. Specimens produced at different packing times tp

(from left: 1 s, 3 s, 5 s respectively, tm = 1 s, Tp = 240 °C, Tm = 20 °C).
Simulations performed with Autodesk Moldflow software provided several dif-

ferent results, such as: residual stresses tensor elements (Txx, Tyy, Tzz, Txy, Txz, Tyz),
principal stresses of residual stress tensor (T1, T2), maximum shear stress and Hencky-
Mises stress values at different points. In the beginning the differences between nodes
that were in short distance were analyzed with path plot through the thickness.
According to the Fig. 3 there are slight differences in maximum values are observed at
the surface of the specimen and around under 1 mm under the surface. For comparison
measurements at the same node in the middle of the specimen used for tensile test were
performed for confidence of the analysis (the same mesh was used in every simulation).
Results of Hencky-Mises stress that shows the influence of injection time (or absolute
ram speed) were investigated and insignificant influence of injection time on residual
stress was observed. In investigated range (from 0.86 s to 1.25 s) increase of the
injection time decreased the Hencky-Mises stress by around 0.2 MPa. It can be related
to significant thickness of the part where small orientation occurred. For more sig-
nificant flow-induced thinner specimen should be investigated. Further investigation of
processing parameters was done with injection time set to 1 s.
Second processing parameter that was investigated was packing time. In this case
first analyses were performed for Tp equals to 240 °C and Tm equals to 20 °C. Hencky-
Mises stress results are presented in Fig. 4 and they show strong influence of packing
time on obtained results. Increase of the packing time led to the significant decrease of
the stress in the region close to the surface (almost 3.5 MPa) and to significant increase
of the stress in the middle of the cross section (almost 3.5 MPa). Further increase of
packing time led to slight fall of the stress in the region close to the surface and in the
middle of the cross section. According to the governing equations the source of this
change is the packing pressure, that were frozen during cooling stage. Increase of the
packing time lead to more uniform Hencky-Mises stress distribution.
Fig. 3. Differences in Hencky – Mises stress between surrounding nodes.
Fig. 4. Hencky-Mises stress across the cross Fig. 5. Hencky-Mises stress across the cross
section of the specimen at different packing section of the specimen at melt temperatures Tp
times tp (ti = 1 s, Tm = 20 °C, Tp = 240 °C). and mold temperatures Tm (ti = 1 s, tp = 1 s).
Last two processing parameters that were investigated simultaneously were melt
temperature Tp and mold temperature Tm. Hencky-Mises stress distribution for different
sets of Tp and Tm are presented at Figs. 5, 6 and 7. In the beginning the influence of
previously mentioned parameters were verified for tp = 1 s. In this situation the
increase of the mold temperature led to slight decrease of the stress (around 1 MPa) in
the middle of the cross section. Insignificant influence of melt temperature was
observed for this packing time. Increase of packing time to 3 s resulted with higher
influence of mold and melt temperature. After increase of packing time the increase of
the temperature led to the significant decrease of the stress (around 3.5 MPa) in the
middle of the cross section. Increase of the melt temperature resulted with significant
rise of the stress at the region close to the surface of the part and slight increase of the
stress in the middle of the cross section. Further increase of the packing time to 5 s
resulted with more significant influence of mold and melt temperature on residual
stresses. In comparison to the previous packing time the rise of the mold temperature
lead to slight decrease of the Hencky-Mises stress in the middle of the cross section and
significant decrease (around 3.5 MPa) in the region close to the surface of the speci-
men. With longer packing time and higher mold temperature no stress increase at the
region close to the surface was observed, only small decrease of the residual stress in
the middle of the cross section was observed.
Fig. 6. Hencky-Mises stress across the cross Fig. 7. Hencky-Mises stress across the cross
section of the specimen at melt temperatures Tp section of the specimen at melt temperatures
and mold temperatures Tm (ti = 1 s, tp = 3 s). Tp and mold temperatures Tm (ti = 1 s,
tp = 5 s).
The cause of the residual stress decrease with the increase of the mold temperature
is the reduction of heat transfer from the part, which leads to slower solidification of the
layers of polymer. For short packing time high shrinkage occurs (no material is added
in packing phase), that is why the increase of packing time has crucial role in the
increase of the influence of mold temperature. The cause of the residual stress increase
with the increase of the mold is longer cooling phase (longer time needed to cool the
temperature below melting temperature or glass transition temperature) and smaller
viscosity of the polymer. Longer cooling phase leads to higher shrinkage of the part
and smaller viscosity leads to stronger orientation (flow-induced residual stress is
higher). The lowest and the most uniform Hencky-Mises stress was obtained with the
highest packing time, higher mold temperature and lower melt temperature.
Validation of the results with analytical models could be done by comparison with
the part of the tensor that is parallel to the flow (in this case Txx part). According to
Fig. 8 analytical model is a good approximation of the real residual stresses. In the
region closer to the skin small differences are observed, especially for short packing
time, so the source of the difference can be the limitation of the analytical model (it
does not take into account the residual stress from pressure). Consideration of packing
pressure leads to the decrease of the compression stresses near surface (negative) of the
specimen and tensile stresses (positive) in the internal part of the specimen.
Fig. 8. Values of Txx tensor across the cross section of the specimen at different packing times tp
and mold temperatures Tm (ti = 1 s, Tp = 240 °C).
4 Conclusions
In this work numerical simulations of injection molding process were performed with
Autodesk Moldflow® software to obtain information about residual stresses. Delivered
results were qualitatively compared with strain-optics observations and quantitatively
validated with analytical model. According to the results good agreement of results
were obtained, where the source of the difference was the limitations of analytical
model. The strongest influence on residual stresses had packing time, which was
strongly nonlinear and connected with melt and mold temperature. Besides, for the
specific packing time the increase of mold temperature led to the decrease of the
Hencky-Mises stresses, while the increase of melt temperature led to the increase of
stresses. For above presented specimen, investigated injection time range had negli-
gible influence on residual stresses. It is worth to mention that analytical model used in
this work can be only applied for simple parts, whereas plastic parts are often very
complicated (especially in automotive industry). That is why the application of
numerical simulations are the only option for investigation of the residual stresses that
are always present in plastic parts.
References
1. Postawa, P., Kwiatkowski, D.: Residual stress distribution in injection, molded parts.
J. Achiev. Mater. Manuf. Eng. 18(1–2), 171–174 (2006)
2. Zhang, X., Cheng, X., Stelson, K.A., Bhattacahry, M., Sen, A., Voller, V.R.: Approximate
model of thermal residual stress in an injection molded part. J. Therm. Stress. 25(6), 523–
538 (2002)
3. Pak, S.Y., Kim, S.Y., Kim, S.H., Youn, J.R.: Measurement of residual stresses in polymeric
parts by indentation method. Polym. Test. 32(5), 946–952 (2013)
4. Azdast, T., Behravesh, A.H., Mazaheri, K., Darvishi, M.M.: Numerical simulation and
experimental validation of residual stress induced constrained shrinkage of injection molded
parts. Polimery 53(4), 304–310 (2008)
5. http://www.dc.engr.scu.edu. 15.03.2017
6. Advani, S.G., Tucker III, C.L.: The use of tensors to describe and predict fiber orientation in
short fiber composites. J. Rheol. 31(8), 751–784 (1987)
7. Tandon, G.P., Weng, G.J.: The effect of aspect ratio of inclusions on the elastic properties of
unidirectional aligned composites. Polym. Compos. 5(4), 327–333 (1984)
8. Schapery, R.A.: Thermal expansion coefficients of composite materials based on energy
principles. J. Compos. Mater. 2(3), 380–404 (1968)
9. Osswald, T.A.: Polymer Processing Fundamentals. Hanser Publishers, Cincinnati,
Hanser/Gardner (1998)
10. Dally, J.W., Riley, W.F.: Experimental Stress Analysis, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill Inc., New
York (1991)
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) as a Potential
Damper in Structural Vibration Control
Sekhar Chandra Dutta1(&) and Rohan Majumder2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Dhanbad,
Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India
scdind2000@gmail.com
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University,
Udaipur 313601, Rajasthan, India
rohanmajumder1989@gmail.com
Abstract. The utilization of smart structure technologies to mitigate the

vibrations of structures have been the prime focus of numerous scientists
involved in the area of structural vibration control. Smart materials serve mul-
tiple purposes like that of sensing, actuation and also exhibit the capability of
modifying and adjusting the structural behavior when subjected to sudden
external shock like earthquake or blast. Smart materials are basically defined as
those materials possessing special features and can be applied in the design of
structures to enhance the structural performance. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)
are the most promising and prominent class of smart materials. When strained
beyond 6–8%, SMAs possess the ability to regain its original shape. Reversible
phase transformation is responsible for such sort of shape recovery. It can be
either stress induced (pseudo-elasticity) or temperature induced (shape memory
effect). This paper shows the potential of Nitinol (alloy of Ni and Ti) SMA
damper to control structural vibrations when subjected to underground blast
through a detailed computational study by considering a two-story steel frame as
an example problem. Different bracing configurations of the damper are taken
into account. A comparative study showing the effectiveness SMA braced
damper over the conventional steel bracing is also carried out.
Keywords: Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Nitinol Pseudo-elasticity

Shape memory effect
1 Introduction
Plastic deformation of Gold-Cadmium (Au-Cd) alloys take place when it becomes cold
and recovers its original shape upon heating. This phenomenon of solid phase trans-
formation was first observed by Olander [1] in SMA (1932). Vernon was the first to use
the term “shape memory” in 1941 [2]. Till date, various categories of SMAs have been
invented. But Nitinol (NiTi) is the most widely used SMA amongst all because of its
high thermo-mechanical and electrical properties. Some other examples of SMAs are
Cu-Al-Be and Cu-Al-Mn. Research on ferrous based SMA is also in progress. Greninger
and Mooradian [3] were the first to observe the phenomenon of SME for copper-zinc
(Cu-Zn) alloys and copper-tin (Cu-Sn) alloys in 1938. Kurdjumov and Khandros [4]
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_51
486 S. C. Dutta and R. Majumder
(1949) and Chang and Read [5] (1951), reported the shape memory effect on a large
scale after a long span of time. After 1962, SME in nickel-titanium was discovered by
Buehler and other co-researchers [6, 7]. The material was named as Nitinol after their
workplace. Similar effects were also discovered in other alloys as well. SMAs drew the
attention of many researchers and inventors but owing to its high material cost and
complexity in manufacturing its industrial and commercial applications could not be
enhanced. Graesser and Cozzarelli in 1991 were the first to present new results in the
field of hysteretic modelling and explained the characterization of Shape Memory
Alloys through experimental investigations [8] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Shape memory alloy damper device [9].
2 Material and Method
SMAs exist in two crystalline forms - austenite and martensite. The martensite is stable
at low temperature and high stresses whereas the austenite is stable at high temperature
and low stresses. Apart from Shape Memory Effect (SME) and pseudo or super-
elasticity, which occurs due to the reversible phase transformation between the
martensite and austenite phases, an outstanding re-centering capability is exhibited by
SMA owing to its hysteretic behavior. SMAs possess other properties which include
high strength, excellent resistance to fatigue and corrosion and also exhibits tremen-
dous damping capacity. A large number of investigations have been carried out to find
out the suitable utilization of SMAs in civil engineering structures over the last few
years. Although the use of SMAs is still in its initial phase in the field of civil
engineering, but it has shown tremendous potential in controlling structural vibrations
when subjected to seismic excitation as well as blast load. The response and the
subsequent plastic deformation in structures due to extreme loadings can be mitigated
SMA as a Potential Damper in Structural Vibration Control 487
in the passive structural control technique using SMA since it possess excellent
damping property. Ground isolation system and energy dissipation system are the two
mechanisms by which SMAs could be utilized in an effective manner for the purpose of
passive control technique. Super-elastic SMAs are the most suitable for isolators and on
the other hand both the martensite and super-elastic SMAs may be utilized as energy
dissipators (Figs. 2 and 3).
Fig. 2. SMA wire as re-centering device. Fig. 3. SMA as spring isolation system.
The SMA energy dissipaters are used in the form of bracings in framed structures
and also in bridges as dampers. They find applications as connecting elements in
columns and also as devices for retrofitting in old historic buildings.
A time domain based blast input model is presented in brief. An empirical formulae
given by Wu and Hao [10] is used to compute the ground motion generated from
underground blast. The average empirical attenuation relation for peak particle velocity
PPVs along the ground is given below:
1:3375
R
PPV s ¼ 2:981 f1s ð1Þ
Q0:33
and,
f1s ¼ 0:121ðQ=VÞ0:2872 ; ð2Þ
where
f1s = Factor of decoupling for PPV s ,
R = distance (meters) taken from the charge center,
Q = TNT charge weight (kg or tons), and

V = Volume of the charge chamber (m3).
The blast induced ground acceleration given by Carvalho and Battista [11] is as
follows.

1 1
€ug ðtÞ ¼ PPV exp
S
ð3Þ
td td
Here, td ¼ R=Cp = time for arrival and Cp = Propagation velocity of wave in the
rock.
A two-story steel frame installed with Nitinol SMA wire is considered for the
study. SMA wire bracing of / = 1 mm is taken. The frame is 2 m high, 1 m in length,
0.25 m wide and incorporated with SMA dampers as diagonal and X-bracings as
shown in Figs. 4 and 5 respectively. Circular columns and floor beams of diameter
8 mm and 10 mm are used at the upper and lower storey respectively.
Fig. 4. Frame with diagonal bracing (unit: m). Fig. 5. Frame with X-bracing (unit: m).
The non-linear hysteretic behavior of the Nitinol damper is taken into account as
shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Stress-strain curves of SMAs showing non-linear hysteretic behavior: (a) at low
temperature and (b) at high temperature [12].
The framed structure is subjected to ground acceleration due to underground blast,

which is a function of R, Q, Cp and V respectively as stated earlier in accordance with
Eq. (3). The displacement time-histories are then obtained for R = 50 m and
Q = 50 tons at the top as shown in Figs. 7 and 8 respectively. A comparative study of
the results with that of the traditional steel braced frame is also done.
Fig. 7. Displacement time-history at top (diagonally braced damper) (R = 50 m and

Q = 50 tons).
Fig. 8. Displacement time-history at top (X-braced damper) (R = 50 m and Q = 50 tons).
The results indicate that the SMA braced frame performs much better than the
traditional steel braced frame when subjected to the same acceleration due to under-
ground Blast Induced Ground Motion (BIGM) (Table 1).
Table 1. Peak displacement at top with steel and SMA braces.

Bracing R (m) Q (tons) Peak displacement with Peak displacement with
type steel braces (mm) SMA braces (mm)
Diagonal 50 50 12 2
bracing
X-bracing 50 50 1.3 0.8
Majumder et al. (2015) also studied the performance of SMA wire braces in another
three-storey steel frame subjected to underground blast [13].
4 Conclusions
The results have revealed the suitability of SMA as a device to mitigate the vibration of
framed structure when subjected to ground acceleration due to BIGM. The performance
of SMA as a damper has been evaluated by modeling the framed structure in standard
finite element software.
SMA Nitinol dampers have reduced the response to about 90% over the steel
bracings which have reduced the response to about 75% of that of the uncontrolled
structural response. The structural response time histories also show an excellent re-
centering capability of SMA as the response dies down only in a fraction of a second.
As a result, the structure regains its original configuration after the blasting effect in
almost no time.
If the Nitinol-based SMAs are used as small devices or if they are applied judi-
ciously over certain selected portions of a structure economically feasible solutions can
be obtained. Also extra fabrication costs can be avoided as SMA device has a very
straight and simple method of design. So the SMAs have huge potential in reducing the
structural response due to underground blast induced support motions of structures.
Future Scope. For further accurate evaluation of the effectiveness of the damper, the
research may be extended through a large number of case studies to see the extent of
similar effects on space frame under unidirectional and bidirectional ground motions.
The number of storeys and number of bays may be varied further to have an idea about
the variation of the effect in general multi-storied structures.
Acknowledgement. The authors acknowledge a part of the idea generated during the second
author’s (Rohan Majumder) Masters thesis carried out under the guidance of Dr. Aparna
(Dey) Ghosh at Department of Civil Engineering, IIEST Shibpur, Howrah- 711103, India.
References
1. Olander, A.: An electrochemical investigation of solid Cadmium-gold alloys. Am. Chem.
Soc. 54, 3819–3833 (1932)
2. Vernon, L.B., Vernon H.M.: Process of manufacturing articles of thermoplastic synthetic
resins. US Patent 2234993 (1941)
3. Greninger, A.B., Mooradian, V.G.: Strain transformation in metastable beta copper-zinc and
beta copper-Ti alloys. AIMETRANS 128, 337–369 (1938)
4. Kurdjumov, G.V., Khandros, L.G.: First reports of the thermoelastic behavior of the
martensitic phase of Au-Cd alloys. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSR 66, 211–213 (1949)
5. Chang, L.C., Read, T.A.: Behavior of the elastic properties of AuCd. Trans Met Soc. AIME
191, 47–52 (1951)
6. Buehler, W.J., Gilfrich, J.V., Wiley, R.C.: Effect of low-temperature phase changes on the
mechanical properties of alloys near composition TiNi. Appl. Phys. 34, 1475–1477 (1963)
7. Kauffman, G., Mayo, I.: The story of Nitinol: the serendipitous discovery of the memory
metal and its applications. Chem. Educ. 2, 1–21 (1997)
8. Graesser, E.J., Cozzarelli, F.A.: Shape-memory alloys as new materials for aseismic
isolation. J. Eng. Mech. (ASCE) 117(11), 2590–2608 (1991)
9. Parulekar, Y.M., Reddy, G.R.: Nonlinear model of pseudoelastic shape memory alloy
damper considering residual martensite strain effect. Adv. Acoust. Vib. (2012). https://doi.
org/10.1155/2012/261896
10. Wu, C., Hao, H., Lu, Y., Sun, S.: Numerical simulation of structural response on a sand layer
to blast induced ground excitations. J. Comput. Struct. 82, 799–814 (2004)
11. Carvalho, E.M.L., Battista, R.C.: Response characteristics of structures subjected to blasting-
induced ground motion. Int. J. Impact Eng. 28, 813–828 (2003)
12. Corbi, O.: Shape memory alloys and their application in structural oscillations attenuation.
Simul. Model. Pract. Theor. 11(5–6), 387–402 (2003)
13. Majumder, R., Ghosh, A.: Performance study of a SMA bracing system for control of
vibration due to underground blast induced ground motion. structural engineering
convention (SEC 2014), IIT Delhi, India. Advances in Structural Engineering: Mechanics,
vol. 1, pp. 393–404. Springer (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/9798-81-322-2190-6_34
Study of Cutting Tool Durability
at a Short-Term Discontinuous Turning Test
Peter Pastucha1(&), Vidosav Majstorovic2, Marián Kučera3,

Pavel Beno3, and Srecko Krile4
1
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with the seat in Presov,
Technical University of Kosice, Sturova 31, 080 01 Presov, Slovakia
peter.pastucha007@gmail.com
2
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, University of Belgrade,
Kraljice Marije 16, 111 20 Belgrade, Serbia
3
Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology,
Technical University in Zvolen, Študentská 26, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia
4
University of Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, Croatia
Abstract. The article deals with study of cutting performance and its impact on
durability of cutting tool in a short-term alternate turning test. The short-time test
was carried out at discontinuous machining to increase an intensity of tool wear
and to reduce the time of the test. Two types of workpieces in shape of circular
segments with angles of 45° and 180° were prepared from material DIN 17200
that correspond to the STN 41 1373 (11 373) steel. Cutting plates, type of SPUN
120504, from the 19 830 steels with the tool holder type of CSSPR 2525
M12 KT 716 were used at the machining. The tests were realized based on the
standard ISO 3685 without cutting fluid. The process of machining and tool
wear was evaluated from the energy point of view. The machine input power
was measured by means of measuring equipment UNI-T UT232. The results
were statistically processed. Based on the results it can be said that the durability
of tools at the machining the 45° segment was higher. Also, the hypothesis
considering that the work of cutting wedge is constant during machining up to
the achievement of critical tool has not been confirmed.
Keywords: Tool life Durability Short-term test Discontinuous cutting

Energy
1 Introduction
Despite the emergence of new technologies in recent decades, the machining tech-
nology is still actual and widely used in technical practice. Progress in the development
of new materials has also contributed to the intensive development of chip machining.
Basic principles and physical phenomena (plastic deformation, friction, heat transfer,
etc.) occurring in a cutting zone have been studied by many researchers for a long time.
Many experiments have been done to analyze relations and interactions between cut-
ting tool and a workpiece. It has been found that surface quality after machining and
tool durability are very important indicators of machining efficiency and they depends
on technological conditions [1, 2].
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_52
494 P. Pastucha et al.
There are several variables in the cutting process, which need to be in balance to be
the best durability of tool achieved. They are normal and shear stresses along with
material, tool geometry, technological and thermal conditions, etc. [3]. The researchers
have found out that the minimal tool wear occurs at the lowest friction coefficient using
optimal cutting speed, taking into account the fact that the values of normal and shear
stresses, which appear in a contact area, change during the machining [4, 5]. The tool
wear can be defined as a loss of its cutting ability that is usually connected with the loss
of material at the cutting edge of tool, with formation built-up edge or with change in
geometry of tool. It is also related to tribological processes occurring in the cutting area
as an outcome of chemical and thermal impacts [6–8]. The material of a tool needs to
have a specific set of attributes such as temperature ability, strength, hardness and
thermal conductivity, but one of the most important properties of tool life is its wear
resistance. The selection of material for a suitable tool is dependent on the method of its
wear or destruction. This selection is given by the tool material and work conditions,
which affect the method of the tool wear [9].
Researcher Wagner with his colleagues [10] studied conditions of the tool wear.
They have found out that the process of tool wear is divided in several phases, which
are related not only to the cutting process, but also to the chip formation. Heat transfer
and temperature in the cutting zone along with attrition between the cutting tool and
removed material affect the built-up emergence and its growth rate, what has a great
impact on the tool wear and subsequently also on the quality of machined surface [11].
The relation for durability according to EN ISO 3685 is defined as follows: [12]
CISO ¼ vc :T 1=m ð1Þ
– CISO is a constant corresponding to cutting speed at tool life T = 1 min,

– m expresses the “sensitivity” of the cutting edge to wear - it varies for different types
of tool materials (for tool steels is m = 8−10, for HSS is m = 5–8, for sintered
carbide is m = 3–5 and for ceramics m = 1.5−1.25). The lower m means the better
the material of the cutting wedge.
– vC is a cutting speed.
It has been found that the greatest impact on the durability of the cutting tool has a
cutting speed, a smaller feed rate and the least impact on durability has the cutting
depth [13, 14].
Presented research is based on knowledge that instrument in the process of
machining shows a cutting performance. The dependency of durability on performance
can be expressed by the Eq. (2), validity of which was confirmed by [15].

E
ln T ¼ A B ; ð2Þ
Q
where A, B are experimental coefficients depending on the manufacturing conditions;

E is a cutting performance and Q is a temperature. The ratio of E/Q is the rate of
entropy creation named S. It follows from Eq. (2) that the durability is affected by the
cutting performance.
Study of Cutting Tool Durability at a Short-Term Discontinuous Turning Test 495
Durability tests are usually divided into two categories: short-term and long-term
tests. In practice, short-term durability tests are used more frequently due to the time
saving and economy. They are often used for input checks of workpiece materials,
respectively for fast comparing durability of tested cutting tool with an etalon [16].
Base on the theory mentioned above, the objective of this paper was specified. It is
focused on determination of the cutting performance and its impact on the durability of
the cutting tool in a short-term alternate turning test.
2 Conditions of Experiments
The short-term test, at which the material is removed by facing, appears as one of the
effective method to find out the durability of the cutting tool. It is based on the
machining a disk with larger diameter (Dmax is about 300 mm). Cutting is carried out in
radial direction, from the pre-drilled coaxial hole in centre of the disc, towards the
periphery of the disk. It means that the cutting speed gradually increases and at a
specific diameter Dn the cutting speed reaches a maximum value vn, at which the
cutting ability of the tool material is lost. The basic necessities for the procedure of
cutting life testing by facing are: [17]
– every experimental tool has to be designed with the same cutting wedge geometry,
– new cutting wedge is used at every test,
– cutting depth ap and feed per revolution f are constant,
– it is needed to specify correctly number of tools to be a relevant statistical signif-
icance has been reached.
The short-term tests are characterized by high efficiency, short time needed for
experiments, by material saving, sufficient accuracy and undemanding request for
measuring facilities. The principle of short-term durability test by facing is shown in
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. The principle of short-term durability test by facing.

A possible alternative of the short-term test by facing described above is the method
of discontinuous cut (Fig. 2) that lead to the higher intensity of tool wear. The
workpiece (3) is radially positioned on a disc with large diameter (1). The cutting tool
(5) cuts off the material from the workpiece in circular sections [12].
Fig. 2. The principle of alternative short-term test of durability by discontinuous cutting (1

– disc, 2 - prismatic fixture, 3 – workpiece, 4 – cross machine support, 5 – tested tool) [12].
Two workpieces prepared in shapes of circular segments with angles of 45° and
180° were clamped on the disc by means of dovetail groove and secured by bolts. They
are shown in Fig. 3. The disc was clamped into the lathe spindle.
Fig. 3. Experimental set of workpieces for discontinuous machining.
The lathe SV 18 RA was used during the experiments, because it was able to
ensure: adequate rigidity of technological set, stability of operating speed frequency,
sufficient power output, sufficient rigidity and clamping range of jaw and sufficient
maximal diameter of the workpiece.
Machined material was DIN 17200 that correspond to the STN 41 1373 (11 373)
steel. Tools from High Speed Steels were used during the experiments. More specif-
ically, they are five cutting plates (marked P1–P5), type of SPUN 120504 made from
the 19 830 steels, geometry and dimensions of which are determined by standard ISO.
Gradually all four corners of cutting plate (labelled A, B, C and D) were used at the
machining. The shape and labelling of cutting plate is shown in Fig. 4 [18].
Fig. 4. The shape and labelling of a cutting plate [18].
The tool holder type of CSSPR 2525 M12 KT 716 was selected for these cutting
plates. The tests were realized based on the standard ISO 3685 at the following cutting
conditions: feed rate: 0.2 mm per revolution, depth of cut: 1 mm, frequency of spindle
speed for a short-term test: 180, 224 and 280 min−1.
Tests have been carried out without using cutting fluid what caused a faster wear of
cutting edges of the tool. The process of machining and tool wear was also evaluated
from the energy point of view. Due to this reason, the machine input power was
measured within the research and it was done by means of measuring equipment UNI-
T UT232. The results were statistically processed, while the data were evaluated by
means of the Grubs´ tests and the statistical significance along with quality of
regression function were evaluated by Fisher - Snedecor testing criterion.
The criterion for the cutting tool wear at the short-term durability test realized through
discontinuous machining was a reduction of the cut depth by more than 20%,
respectively complete destruction of the cutting edge. Measured diameters, at which the
critical wear has been occurred, are arranged in Table 1. Cutting feed 0.2 mm/rev was
the same at all tests.
Table 1. Measured values of diameters at critical wear.

Cutting Corner N0 Angle of The diameter at which the critical
plate [min−1] machined wear is achieved Dn [mm]
segment [°]
P1 C 180 45 / 444
D 224 45 /346
P2 A 280 45 / 278
B 180 45 / 445
C 224 45 / 353
D 280 45 / 258
(continued)
Cutting Corner N0 Angle of The diameter at which the critical
plate [min−1] machined wear is achieved Dn [mm]
segment [°]
P3 A 180 45 / 443
B 224 45 / 352
C 280 45 / 278
D 180 180 / 410
P4 A 224 180 / 206
B 280 180 / 198
C 180 180 / 398
D 224 180 / 168
P5 A 280 180 / 157
B 180 180 / 374
C 224 180 / 356
D 280 180 / 168
The dependencies of radius Dn and cutting speed vC on the spindle speed for both
segments are presented in Figs. 5 and 6. The radius and cutting speed vC represent the
values, at which the critical wear has been occurred. It is clear from the graphs in
Figs. 5 and 6 that the dependencies of critical radius on spindle speed have decreasing
tendencies, similarly as it is at the dependency of critical cutting speed on spindle
speed, but the trend at 45° segment is very weak. The graphs also show that the cutting
tools´ wears have occurred at higher values of critical diameter Dn (or at critical cutting
speed vn respectively) during machining of 45° segment, so it can be said that the
durability of tools at the machining of material segment with angle 45° was higher.
Fig. 5. The dependency of critical radius Rn= Dn/2 and cutting speed vC on the spindle speed.
The measured input power of the turning machine was multiplied by its efficiency
to obtain the dependency of cutting performance on time. The example of one of these
dependencies, plotted for the cutting plate P4 at the machining with corner “C”, is
shown in Fig. 7. It can be said (based on dependency plotted in Fig. 7) that cutting
performance linearly increasing with time increasing.
Fig. 6. The dependency of cutting speed vC on the spindle speed.
Fig. 7. The example of dependency of cutting performance on time.
The area bounded by the curve in the graph above specifies the work (energy) that
the tool has performed until complete losing of its cutting ability. The work was
calculated for all cutting plates in dependency on spindle revolution and it was done
during “effective cutting time”. The effective cutting time is the time, during which the
tool was in contact with the workpiece. The results are presented in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. The dependency of cutting work on spindle revolution.

4 Conclusion
The experiments presented in the article were carried out at discontinuous machining,
what is a special type of short-term test of tool durability. During the research, the
hypothesis considering that the work of cutting wedge is constant during machining up
to the achievement of critical tool, has been verified wear. This hypothesis has not been
confirmed, because the amount of work has increased with the cutting speed up to tool
wear.
Based on the results it can be said that less energy was spent at the machining of the
45° segment than at machining of 180° segment, what resulted in higher durability of
cutting tool at machining of 45° segment. The important effect on tool durability
probably had a temperature. At machining of 45° segment, the cutting tool was
engaged in machining process only the 1/8 of spindle revolution, so the tool could be
cooled more intensively during the rest of spindle revolution than it was at machining
of 180° segment. Due to these reasons, the objective of authors´ research in a close
future is to realize new short-term tests of tool durability, at which the temperature in
cutting area will be observed.
Acknowledgement. The paper originates with the direct support of Ministry of Education of
Slovak republic by grants VEGA 1/0795/19, KEGA 001TUZ-4/2017 and APVV-17-0380.
References
1. Petru, J., et al.: Influence of cutting parameters on heat-affected zone after laser cutting.
Techn. Gaz. 20(2), 225230 (2013)
2. Monka, P., et al.: Multivariant process plans design in relation to the European market. In:
DAAAM Symposium, Trnava, Slovakia, pp. 901–902 (2008)
3. Baksa, T., et al.: Durability of cutting tools during machining of very hard and solid
materials. In: 25th DAAAM International Symposium, Vienna, vol. 100, pp. 1405–1413
(2015)
4. Smeringiova, A., et al.: Experimental analysis of the dynamics of gear boxes - Part 1. Tech.
Mess. 82(2), 57–64 (2015)
5. Zetek, M., Zetkova, I.: Increasing of the cutting tool efficiency from tool steel by using
fluidization method. In: 25th DAAAM International Symposium, Vienna, vol. 100,
pp. 912–917 (2015)
6. Monka, P., et al.: Design and experimental study of turning tools with linear cutting edges
and comparison to commercial tools. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 85(9–12), 2325–2343
(2016)
7. Malotova, S., et al.: Roughness evaluation of the machined surface at interrupted cutting
process. Manuf. Technol. 16(1), 168–173 (2016)
8. Misik, L., et al.: Side milling factors analysis affecting the surface irregularities of high-grade
steel E295. Techn. Gaz. 15(2), 19–23 (2008)
9. Jurko, J., et al.: Verification of cutting zone machinability during the turning of a new
austenitic stainless steel. Adv. Comp. Sci. Edu. Appl. 202(2), 338–345 (2011)
10. Wagner V., et al.: The relationship between the cutting speed, tool wear, and chip formation
during Ti-5553 dry cutting. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 76(5–8), 893–912 (2015)
11. Monkova, K., et al.: Inverse processing of undefined complex shape parts from structural
high alloyed tool steel. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, art. num. 478748 (2014)
12. Vasilko, K.: Theory and practice of machining, FMT TU Kosice, p. 532 (2009). ISBN 978-
80-553-0152-5
13. Twardowski, P., et al.: Investigation of wear and tool life of coated carbide and cubic boron
nitride cutting tools in high speed milling. Advances in Mechanical Engineering 7(6), 1–9
(2015)
14. Monkova, K., et al.: Newly developed software application for multiple access process
planning. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, pp. 39071–39071 (2014)
15. Kazimir, I., Paulikova, A.: Cutting tools durability and reliability of their evaluation, Cutting
tools – internal documents, Computer Technology Company, Bratislava, division Presov,
Slovakia, pp. 35–37 (2010)
16. Cep, R., et al.: Surface roughness after machining and influence of feed rate on process. Key
Eng. Mater. 581, 341–347 (2014)
17. Monkova, K., et al.: The research of the high speed steels produced by powder and casting
metallurgy from the view of tool cutting life. Appl. Mech. Mater. 302, 269–274 (2013)
18. Somsak, M.: Results correlation of short-term and long-term test characteristics of cutting
tools durability, Diploma thesis, p. 72 (2011)
Behavior of the Beam with a Lightweight
Porous Structure in Its Core
Jozef Tkáč(&) and Martin Pollák
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with Seat in Presov,

Technical University of Kosice, Sturova 31, 080 01 Presov, Slovakia
jozef.tkac@tuke.sk
Abstract. Structures, porosity of which have been modified, show special

properties and functions that cannot be achieved by common conventional tools.
A combination of the most suitable properties can be utilized in a particular
application by controlling the composition of the porous structure. The article
deals with the research of the influence of the volume ratio of the material on
a behavior of the beam with the lightweight porous structure. For this research,
the core inside the beam shell made of 1.431 steel was filled with a simple lattice
structure with regular geometry. The beam was built-in on one side and loaded
on the other. Using the finite element method, a static analysis of the beam was
performed in the PTC Creo Simulate software, where the volume ratio of the
material was controlled by the “struts” diameter, while the thickness of the beam
shell remained constant. The analysis has shown that with an increasing volume
ratio of the beam material, a stress value of the beam drops more sharply than a
displacement value of the beam. The modal analysis of the beam was performed
at the volume ratio 44.53%. Individual modes and obtained values of the natural
frequencies were compared to the full-volume beam in order to evaluate the
behavior of the lightweight beam under dynamic load. The results of the anal-
ysis have shown that the values of the natural frequencies of the lightweight
beam are comparable to those of the solid beam and the deformation behavior of
the both beams in the first six modes is similar.
Keywords: Beam Lattice structures Analysis Behavior

DMLS technology
1 Introduction
New, more lightweight materials with better mechanical properties have started to be
used in practice with an effort to reduce costs and make production more effective. In
terms of their use in technical practice, the most important property is their correct rate
of compressive strength to weight [1]. At the same time, the component has to meet
specific criteria to avoid premature damage and thus the failure of the whole device.
The properties of these materials offer a wide range of porous structures applications, at
which the classical materials would be difficult to use [2].
Low density and a weight allow the creation of light and rigid components such are
filled profiles and large portable structures in the automotive, aviation and construction
industries [3]. Production of such structures is allowed by the current development of
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_53
Behavior of the Beam with a Lightweight Porous Structure in Its Core 503
the 3D printing technology of metallic and non-metallic materials, while the per-
spective of their use in the aerospace, automotive or engineering industries as well as in
other sectors of the economy is indisputable [4]. The rocket engine with porous
structures designed by Mr. Jurg and manufactured by the AMAERO Company is
presented in Fig. 1. Structural optimization has ensured weight savings while main-
taining the desired stiffness. This lattice structure also promotes an even cooling of the
engine and its contents, typically fueled by liquid hydrogen that must be stored at
−252.882 °C [5].
Fig. 1. Application of a fine lattice into the wall of an engine’s shell [5].
Regarding the facts mentioned above, the research within the presented article was
aimed to determine the influence of the volume ratio of the solid phase on the behavior
of the simple beam with the lightweight porous structure. This is so-called lattice
structure that is defined by a set of struts oriented in different directions with a different
cross-section. The struts with a circular cross-section have been selected within the
research. The shape, size, and density of the grid structure are important parameters that
have to be kept so the component handles load [6].
2 State of the Art
Currently, there are many articles dealing with the topic of porous structures.
Researchers in these articles investigate not only mechanical but also physical prop-
erties of different types of porous structures, which are made from various materials.
Porous structures are divided into several groups. They can be geometrically
defined or undefined with random geometry. The second type are usually called foams.
Another parameter is a topology of the structures, which can be open or close. Closed
structures are characterized by completely impassable cavities [7]. Contrary, open
structures have cavities which are interconnected and therefore allow a flow of liquids
through their volume. Geometrically defined porous structure is a structure that is
504 J. Tkáč and M. Pollák
geometrically or mathematically definable and due to this property, they are repro-
ducible in one, two or three non-collinear directions [8]. This group of porous materials
can also be distinguished according to the type of a matrix which indicates the location
of series of basic units (cells) in space. The most common matrix form is cubic, but
there are also circular, polygonal, cylindrical and other matrixes [9]. One of the
advantages of the geometrically defined structures is a fact that their mechanical
properties can be influenced not only by the appropriate choice of material, but also by
the topology of the structure and volume ratio, which can be advantageously used in
designing the component for a specific application [10].
In 2013 Mr. Hussein has investigated the manufacturability and mechanical
behavior of advanced lightweight cellular structures in metal AM processes. The cel-
lular structures used in his research were based on Triple Periodic Minimal Surface
(TPMS) cell topologies. Comprehensive experimental tests were conducted at different
cell topologies using commercially available 316L stainless steel, Titanium alloy (Ti-
6Al-4V), and Aluminum alloy (AlSi10Mg) metal powders. Research has revealed that
the use of graded cellular support structures has improved the manufacturability of the
supported part. The potential material saving combined with multi-functionalities make
the structures suitable for internal lightweight and external support structure applica-
tions at metal additive manufacturing [11].
In 2016, Mr. Hanzl dealt with the influence of volume ratio of special type of the
porous structure, made from tool steel by DMLS technology, on its loading capacity. In
the final measures, he found out that there is a dependence between the volume ratio of
solid phase and the bearing capacity of this special structure [12].
In 2018 Koehnen and others dealt with mechanical properties and deformation
behavior of additively manufactured lattice structures of stainless steel. They used the
powder bed fusion selective laser melting (SLM) technique to build two different lattice
structures showed comparable specific energy absorption with respect to volume ref-
erence samples. The plastic deformation behavior of various lattice structures was
assessed by considering the geometric and microstructural aspects [13].
Regarding the fact that majority of the papers presented so far have dealt with the
properties of the porous structures under pressure load or tension load, the originality of
this research lies in investigation of the behavior of the porous structure at the bending.
3 Research Conditions
The static stress analysis and the modal analysis using the finite element method
(FEM) were selected as a preliminary study of the dynamic analysis to determine the
behavior of the selected porous structure. Static analysis is usually used for specifi-
cation of model stresses and deformations of in response to loads and subject to
specified constraints [14].
A static analysis can provide to the researcher following information [15]:
• whether the material in the model will handle stress,
• whether the part might break (stress analysis),
• at which place the component might break (strain analysis),
• how much the model could deform (deformation analysis) and

• how the load affects the contact places (contact analysis).
Currently, an irreplaceable place for the vibration diagnostics of machinery has the
modal analysis. For description of modal parameters and behavior of mechanical
structures, the possibilities of decomposition of complex oscillation processes into
partial processes are used, each of which is characterized by natural frequency and its
natural shapes of oscillations, also called natural modes [16].
For this research, a simple beam was modelled in the CAD system PTC Creo
Parametric 4.0, whose dimensions are shown in Fig. 2. Stainless steel with material
characteristics Poisson’s Ratio = 0.28, Tensile Yield Stress = 700 MPa and Tensile
Ultimate Stress = 900 MPa was selected as material of investigated beam [17].
Fig. 2. Beam dimensions and structure type.
The thickness of the beam shell was constant with the value of 2.5 mm and its core
was filled with the porous structure. Since it is a basic research, the simple lattice
structure (Fig. 1) was chosen with a cell size of 25 25 25 mm. The change of the
volume ratio was controlled by the change of the circular cross-section size of the
struts, which were in the range from / 3 mm to / 8 mm.
The beam was designed in accordance with the requirements of the DMLS tech-
nology so that the residual metal powder from inside of the beam could be removed
after the completion of the production. One end of the beam was built-in and the other
was loaded with the static force of 1500 N. The size of the elements at the network
creation within the FEM analysis has been modified in regard to the cross-section of the
struts (the size of the elements has reduced with the reduction of the cross-section). At
the full-volume solid beam, the maximum element size was 5 mm. Usually about
218 000 finite elements have been created and the analysis takes about 4 h. The
boundary conditions of the analysis are shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Boundary conditions of the analysis.
All the beams that differ only in volume ratios were analyzed in the same conditions.
The volume ratio of the beam is given by the equation [18]
Vcss
V¼ 100 ½% ð1Þ
VFull
where V is a value of the volume ratio in [%]; VCSS is a volume of solid phase in a beam
with a porous structure; VFULL is a volume of a beam that did not contain porous
structure. The example of static analysis result of the beam with the cross-section size
of 3 mm is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Static analysis result.
The final values of stresses and displacements after static analyses of beams with
different volume ratios are recorded in Table 1.
The processed results of the static analysis are plotted in Fig. 5. It is clear from the
graph that with volume ratio increasing, the stress value drops more significantly than
the displacement.
Table 1. Static analysis results.

Cross section size Volume Volume ratio Stress Displacement
[mm] [cm3] [%] [MPa] [mm]
/3 743.614 29.744 769.148 37.091
/5 971.734 38.869 557.395 35.731
/6 1113.261 44.530 498.674 34.585
/7 1226.559 50.662 456.085 33.151
/8 1426.824 57.072 370.564 31.267
full-volume 2500 100 282.083 19.084
Fig. 5. Graph of the static analysis results.
The dependency of stress per the unit of solid phase is plotted in Fig. 6. It is clear
from the graph that the volume unit of solid phase with lower volume ratio is able to
handle a greater load than volume unit with higher volume ratio. With increasing
volume fraction, the value of stress per unit volume of solid material decreases
exponentially. This finding is similar to the result of Mr. Hanzl [12].
Modal properties of two beams were analyzed within the research. The first one
was the beam with volume ratio of the 44.53% at the cross-section size of strut 6 mm
and the second one was the full-volume beam. The first 6 modes with their natural
frequencies are shown in Table 2.
Fig. 6. Graph of the dependency of stress the unit volume.
Table 2. Modal analysis results.
Volume ratio 44.53 [%] Volume ratio 100 [%]
22.72 Hz 20.59 Hz
72.51 Hz 81.59 Hz
141.67 Hz 128.69 Hz
372.53 Hz 360.56 Hz
432.92 Hz 489.52 Hz
5 Conclusion
Additive manufacturing technology can make products of arbitrary shapes, greatly

expanding the design space of lattice structures. Compared with porous structures, the
lattice structures with hollow struts have higher flexural strength, which arouses
interests of designers recently [19].
The main objective of this article was to specify the influence of the volume ratio of
the material on the behavior of the beam with the lightweight porous structure.
The results of the static analysis have shown that with the volume ratio of solid
phase increasing, the magnitude of stress as well as the magnitude of deformation
decrease. At the same time, it can be stated that stress with increasing volume ratio
decreases faster than the deformation magnitude.
Regarding the porosity, the total stress has been re-computed per volume unit. It is
clear that the volume unit of solid phase with lower volume ratio is able to handle
a greater load than volume unit with higher volume ratio. With increasing volume
fraction, the value of stress per unit volume of solid material decreases exponentially.
Based the results of modal analysis it can be said that the deformation behavior of
both lightweight and full-volume beams is similar. However, by comparing the values
of natural frequencies at the same deformation it has been found that some of natural
frequencies are higher at the full-volume solid beam, some at the beam with porous
structure. This finding is an interesting result that need to be verified by authors in
a close future considering next values of volume ratio or other types of structures.
Acknowledgment. The present contribution has been prepared with direct support of Ministry
of Education of Slovak Republic by the projects KEGA 007TUKE-4/2018, VEGA 1/0795/19
and APVV-17-0380.
References
1. Misik, L., et al.: Side milling factors analysis affecting the surface irregularities of high-grade
steel E295. Tech. Gaz. 15(2), 19–23 (2008)
2. POSTERUS Homepage. http://www.posterus.sk/?p=7861. Accessed 15 May 2018
3. Monkova, K., et al.: Inverse processing of undefined complex shape parts from structural
high alloyed tool steel. Adv. Mech. Eng. 6, 478748 (2014)
4. Petru, J., et al.: Influence of cutting parameters on heat-affected zone after laser cutting.
Tech. Gaz. 20(2), 225–230 (2013)
5. 3D Printing Industry Homepage. https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/monash-additive-
manufacturing-postdoc-reimagines-rocket-engine-design-betatype-118049/. Accessed 15
May 2018
6. SCULPTEO Homepage. https://www.sculpteo.com/blog/2017/05/24/optimize-your-3d-
printed-parts-with-lattice-structures. Accessed 15 May 2018
7. Monkova, K., Monka, P.: Qualitative parameters of complex part produced by additive
approach. In: ICMAE 2017, Prague, Czech Republic, pp. 130–134 (2017)
8. Challis, V.J., et al.: High specific strength and stiffness structures produced using selective
laser melting. Mater. Des. 63, 783–788 (2014)
9. Saranathan, V., et al.: Structure, function, and self-assembly of single network gyroid
(I4132) photonic crystals in butterfly wing scales. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107(26),
11676–11681 (2010)
10. Monkova, K., et al.: Study of 3D printing direction and effects of heat treatment on
mechanical properties of MS1 maraging steel. Arch. Appl. Mech., 1–14 (2018, in press)
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00419-018-1389-3
11. Hussein, A.Y.: The development of lightweight cellular structures for metal additive
manufacturing, Ph.D. thesis, 228 p. (2013)
12. Hanzl, P., et al.: Cellular lattice structure produced by selective laser melting and its
mechanical properties. In: Proceedings of the 26th DAAAM International Symposium,
Vienna, Austria, pp. 748–752 (2016)
13. Kohnen, P., et al.: Mechanical properties and deformation behavior of additively
manufactured lattice structures of stainless steel. Mater. Des. 145, 205–217 (2018)
14. Cizikova, A., et al.: Numerical and experimental modal analysis of gear wheel. MM Sci. J.,
1232–1236 (2016). https://doi.org/10.17973/mmsj.2016_11_201654
15. Beards, C.: Structural Vibration: Analysis and Damping, 286 p. Arnold, London (1996).
ISBN 340-64580-6
16. Valicek, J., et al.: Analysis of signals obtained from surfaces created by abrasive waterjet by
means of amplitude-frequency spectra and autocorrelation function. Tech. Gaz. 15(1), 25–31
(2008)
17. Make it from Homepage. https://www.makeitfrom.com/material-properties/AISI-415-1.
4313-X3CrNiMo13-4-S41500-Stainless-Steel. Accessed 15 May 2018
18. Monkova, K., et al.: Three approaches to the gyroid structure modelling as a base of
lightweight component produced by additive technology. In: CMSAM 2017, pp. 124–129.
DEStech Publications, Lancaster (2017)
19. Dobransky, J., et al.: Monitoring diagnostic indicators during operation of a print machine.
Adv. Sci. Tech. Res. J. 9(28), 34–39 (2015)
Advanced Preparation of the NC Programs
with Usage of Strategy Manager
Tomáš Dodok(&), Nadežda Čuboňová, and Ivan Kuric
Department of Automation and Production Systems,

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina,
Univerzitná 1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovak Republic
{tomas.dodok,nadezda.cubonova,
ivan.kuric}@fstroj.uniza.sk
Abstract. The article deals with the possibilities of automate creation of NC

programs by using the NC strategies in CAD/CAM system Edgecam 2017 R2.
Emphasis is placed on the suitability of use, the limitation of the creation, and
application of the NC strategies. The experiments deal with the comparison of
effectiveness of the NC strategies applied especially to the components with
different geometric features. The results obtained allow determining the appli-
cability of experimental NC strategies in the process of NC programs
preparation.
The motivation for this type of research is a gap between levels of automation
in fields of machining and pre-production stages. The research is focused on
current possibilities of increasing efficiency of the machining processes creation
by its automation in CAD/CAM system Edgecam.
Keywords: Strategy manager Optimization Machining processes

Edgecam 2017 R2
1 Introduction
Optimizing of the machining processes can be done in various types of applications

from several companies. Those application or programs can be divided into two basic
groups, add-on modules for CAD/CAM systems and stand-alone software solutions
[1]. These optimization programs and modules allow user to optimize toolpaths, cutting
parameters, NC programs, and more. By using such software tools, it is possible to
shorten the machining time, increase tool life, increase the machining efficiency,
machine stability and others [2]. There are currently a number of optimization pro-
grams and modules that can be divided into three categories:
1. Separate optimization programs - development and creation requires knowledge
from multiple domains and use mathematical methods of determination, for
example, cutting parameters. Such software can either directly modify NC program
and change cutting parameters in code or the NC code have to be edited manually
according to results of optimization procedure [4].
2. Collaborative optimization programs - allow user to directly analyze the created NC
programs and then optimize them. They use virtual simulation of machined
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_54
512 T. Dodok et al.
workpieces to control the immediate cross-section of the removed layer and apply
the optimal feedrate within the specified feed rate range. They can also optimize
spindle speed or cutting velocity [7].
3. Optimization programs integrated into CAM systems - optimization program
resp. the module is directly integrated into the CAD/CAM system. Their main
functions include motion detection and movement of tool movements, machining
analysis, optimization of cutting conditions. It also allows user to reduce machine
time, wear machines and tools, and improve the quality of machined surfaces [1].
These optimization programs and modules are at the most of times designated
exclusively to optimizing of NC programs. However, there is also other group of
applications which allow to optimize process of NC program preparation. Those
programs are described in following chapter.
2 Optimization of the Machining Processes
Main focus of this type of optimization is to reduce time necessary to prepare

machining processes in CAD/CAM system, to eliminate repetitive tasks, and to min-
imize inconsistencies [3]. This type of optimization uses feature recognition and cre-
ation of NC strategies Currently, there are several CAD/CAM systems that are capable
to optimize the creation of machining processes via built-in software modules [5]. For
purposes of this article was described only CAD/CAM system: Edgecam 2017 R2. The
main difference between CAD/CAM systems lies in how NC strategies are created [6].
The process of creation of NC Strategies consist of several steps in Strategy Manager
(Edgecam 2017). To create a simple strategy, it is necessary to define:
1. The Feature - definition of the feature, for which the strategy will be used, e.g.
pocket.
2. Machining process - the machining cycles for manufacturing selected feature e.g.
roughing cycle with proper tool definition.
3. Commands - command to update the workpiece or commands for change of the
tool.
4. The Flowchart - the blocks with define the conditions and decide how the strategy
works.
3 Features and NC Strategies
The features are standardized shapes, that can be used for analysis, assembly, function,
design and manufacturing. From a machining point of view, the features are generally
defined as a set of related geometric elements that correspond to certain production
process or which may be used to select suitable manufacturing procedures for creating
this geometry. Essentially, the process of recognition is done by comparing information
with a database containing the conditions for the definition of the features. The Features
for manufacturing can be divided into several basic groups: surfaces, steps, pockets,
Advanced Preparation of the NC Programs with Usage of Strategy Manager 513
holes, bosses, slots, chamfers/fillets. Based on these properties, it is possible to

determine the parameters for the correct creation of a universal NC strategy. Example
of holes with different parameters can be seen of Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Strategy manager (Edegcam2017 R2) with roughing NC strategy for pockets.
The NC strategy can be defined as an algorithm containing conditions that define

the features and the machining cycles (e.g. roughing, finishing or drilling). The features
define types and subtypes of features for which the NC strategy will be used. The NC
strategies must include the conditions necessary to select correct tool and additional
information such as commands for change of the tools. Figure 3 shows different types
of the NC strategies for machining holes. The first NC strategy (on Fig. 3A) can be
used only for drilling basic types of holes. The second NC strategy (on Fig. 3B)
contains also countersink cycle. Figure 4 shows the modified NC strategy so that it can
be applied for all holes in Fig. 2.
For purpose of this article, universal NC strategies for machining specific 2D
features were created.
514 T. Dodok et al.
Fig. 2. Countersink and counterbore holes with characteristic dimensions.
Fig. 3. Basic NC strategies for A-drilling holes, B-drilling and countersinking holes, C-drilling,
counterboring and countersinking holes.
Fig. 4. Universal NC strategy for machining holes.
4 Application
For experiments were chosen six different models of components. These parts share
several similar features that differs by dimensions. First four components contain only
2D features (on Fig. 5), last two components contain complex 3D surfaces (on Fig. 6)
(Figs. 7 and 8).
Fig. 5. Components with 2D features.

516 T. Dodok et al.
Fig. 6. Components with 3D surfaces.
Fig. 7. Time required to create complete machining sequence with and without the strategies
use for components 1–4.
Fig. 8. Time required to create complete machining sequence with and without the strategies
use for components 5 and 6.
5 Conclusion
Deployment of NC strategy allows rationalizing the process of creation of the NC

programs and removing a repetitive tasks. Base on application of the NC strategies on
components with 2D and 3D features, the following results can be formulated:
• Preservation knowledge of the technologist. The NC strategies can be created
from existing parts (machining processes) or for specific types of shapes on the
components.
• Increase effectiveness of creation of machining processes. The main advantages
of creating strategies belong speed of creation of NC program and the versatility of
use.
• Reduction of time depends on complexity of manufactured components. For
components with 2D features, time necessary for creation of machining processes
can be reduced to a 50%. For components with 3D features, time necessary for
creation of machining processes can be reduced by 20 or 30%.
• 2D and 3D features have the same parameters to define their shape in the Edgecam
2017 R2. Parameters of 3D features are therefore only partially applicable for
selecting the right conditions for universal NC strategies.
References
1. Císar, M., Kuric, I., Čuboňová, N., Kandera, M.: Design of the clamping system for the CNC
machine tool. In: MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 137, p. 01003. EDP Sciences (2017)
2. Čuboňová, N.: Genetic algorithms implemented for optimization of technological processes.
In: Chosen Applications of Computer Modelling in Mechanical Engineering, pp. 157–181.
Pearson Education Limited, London (2015)
3. Dodok, T., Čuboňová, N., Rudawska, A.: Creation of strategies by use of edgecam strategy
manager. In: Strojírenská technologie: časopis pro vědu, výzkum a výrobu. Roč. 21, č.
1 (2016)
4. Kuric, I.: Dynamic classification system. In: Chosen Applications of Computer Modelling in
Mechanical Engineering, pp. 135–154. Pearson Education Limited, London (2015)
5. Dodok, T., Čuboňová, N., Rudawska, A.: Analysis of shapes for the development of
algorithms for strategies of machining process in the CAM system. In: Computing and
Solutions in Manufacturing Engineering, Braşov, Romania (2016)
6. Dodok, T., Čuboňová, N., Kuric, I.: Workshop programming as a part of technological
preparation of production. Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J. 11(1), 111–116 (2017)
7. Kuric, I., Zajačko, I., Císar, M.: Analytical intelligence tools for multicriterial diagnostics of
CNC machines. Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J. 10(32), 59–64 (2016)
Modeling and Validation of Spindle Shaft
Followed by Goal Driven Optimization
Kahane Roshan1(&), Somnath Chattopadhyaya1, Shrikant Bhise2,

and Dattatraya Parle3
1
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, India
roshankahane99@gmail.com
2
Bosch India Ltd., Nashik, India
3
Simulation Center, Pune, India
Abstract. The spindle bearing system is critical component in any machining

center due to its complexity and it directly affects design or selection of com-
ponents. Fail-safe design is traditional design philosophy of the machine centers
which leads to over-sized machine tool design including spindle bearing system.
Over-sized spindle design affects the performance characteristics of the machine
center and should be optimized. Therefore, this work presents a methodology
for design optimization of spindle shaft that is subjected to uniformly distributed
load. The deflection distribution of shaft due to given loading condition is a way
for controlling the stability of spindle and its failure. In this work analytical
as well as numerical methodology is presented for modeling and validation
of spindle shaft deflection. The analytical modeling of spindle uses conventional
beam theory whereas numerical modeling uses finite element analysis
(FEA) software ANSYS. Analytical model is validated by performing static
structural analysis using BEAM188 element and used further to calculate
optimum bearing spacing for minimum deflection. Finally, analytically calcu-
lated optimum bearing span is used as design variable with specific range. Thus,
a goal driven optimization (GDO) is performed in ANSYS with mass reduction
as an objective function and deflection as design constraint.
Keywords: Spindle shaft Finite element analysis Optimization
1 Introduction
The spindle bearing system is one of the most critical mechanical components in
machining center. The machine tool spindle not only supports the work piece and
cutting tool but also rotates at very high speed. Therefore, the spindle design has a
direct impact on material removal rate and the accuracy of the finished part. The
structural properties of the spindle directly affect the machining productivity and finish
quality of the work pieces. The spindle structural properties depend on parameters of
the shaft, bearings, drive, tool holder, and the design configuration of the overall
spindle assembly. The effects of variations of structural parameters on static and
dynamic properties of spindle is well studied [1]. Study by Vadgeri et al. [2] shows that
static and fatigue analysis should take into account different cutting forces and belt

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_55
Modeling and Validation of Spindle Shaft 519
tensions in the drive for safer spindle design. Today’s modern machine tool demands
the capabilities to produce parts of high accuracy and precision. Therefore, researchers
have studied the concept of intelligent spindle to investigate monitoring and control of
tool condition, spindle balance, spindle collision, temperature/thermal error, chatter,
and spindle health [3]. Thermal distortion of spindle is another factor leading to con-
siderable dimensional errors on machined components. Experiments are conducted to
study the effect of spindle rotational speed and corresponding thermal distortion of the
tool center point [4]. In past, thermal errors in spindle have been investigated by
developing analytical models and it is observed that thermal loads have significant
effect on spindle design. Moreover, these analytical models have been used for spindle
design optimization subjected to thermal loads [5]. Researchers not only used exper-
imental and analytical methods but also used numerical methods to perform spindle
design calculations due to increased complexity of the system. Altintas and Cao pre-
dicted the static and dynamic deflections of spindle shaft including contact forces on
the bearings using numerical simulations before physical building and testing of the
spindles [6]. Numerical optimization studies for spindle design are used to obtain a
smooth cutting operation at the desired speed and depth of cut for a given cutter [7].
Over the years, spindle system has evolved and it is one of the complex and critical
system. Moreover, there is thrust on making light weight machine tools. Traditional
approach of fail-safe design for machine centers leads to over-sized machine tool
design including spindle bearing system. Over-sized spindle design affects the per-
formance characteristics of the machine center and should be optimized. Therefore, this
work presents a methodology for design optimization of spindle shaft that is subjected
to uniformly distributed load. In this work analytical as well as numerical methodology
is presented for a goal driven optimization of spindle shaft design. The approach is
called goal driven because analytically calculated bearing span is used as a design
variable with specific range to minimize mass within permissible deflection limits.
Bosch India Ltd., is designing and developing a new grinding machine (see Fig. 1a)
to use for surface finishing of plunger body (one of the Bosch Company’s product)
as a preparatory procedure for C-coating. This new machine is expected to reduce
cycle time as well as space occupied, by providing multi stations for plunger body
using indexer unit. The indexer unit has four stations to reduce cycle time. While
grinding operation is in progress, loading of plunger body is performed at two other
stations using indexer plate. One of the critical aspects in this machine tool design is to
maintain the deflection of spindle shaft within permissible limit at plunger body.
Moreover, another objective is to reduce mass of spindle bearing system as much as
possible to readily mount four such systems on indexer plate.
For predicting the performance characteristics of the spindles accurately requires
integrated modeling of all spindle elements and mounting on the machine tool [8].
Initially, analytical model for spindle design subjected to uniformly distributed pressure
on work piece (or plunger body) has been developed based on conventional beam
theory to predict the deflection distribution of the shaft as it controls the stability of
spindle. In this work, the stepped spindle is transformed into uniform spindle with
cross-section of the largest value of stepped spindle as proposed by Ai-Shareef and
Brandon [9]. This analytical model is validated by performing structural analysis using
BEAM188 element in ANSYS. Thereafter, analytical model is used to calculate
520 K. Roshan et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Machine Tool, (b) Spindle shaft system.
optimum bearing spacing for minimum deflection. Further, optimization studies are
performed using several spindle design parameters as variables in order to obtain
a chatter/vibration-free cutting operation at the desired speed and depth of cut for
a given cutter. The GDO model uses mass reduction as an objective function and
deflection as design constraint within ANSYS.
2 Spindle Bearing System
The spindle bearing system consists of spindle shaft bolted with spindle nose, gear
drive, bearing support and spindle housing. Cylindrical plunger body is subjected
to uniformly distributed load for finishing purpose and held rigidly in position between
collet and dead center. Figure 1b shows the spindle shaft system used in present study.
Table 1 lists geometrical parameters and dimensional values used in this study.
The free body diagram (FBD) of spindle system is shown in Fig. 2 along with
plunger body for the given loading condition. The shaft is subjected to radial load (wg )
due to gear drive system and uniformly distributed pressure (w=l) on plunger body and
Table 1. Geometric parameters used in this study.

Parameter Description Value
Di2 Spindle inner diameter 32.0
Do2 Spindle outer diameter 50.0
D3 Spindle nose diameter 58.0
Di1 Rear portion inner diameter for gear mounting 15.0
Do1 Rear portion outer diameter for gear mounting 30.0
D4 Plunger body diameter 7.13
l Plunger body length 51.0
l1 Distance of first step from rear end 37.0
l2 Distance of second step from rear end 132.0
l3 Distance of spindle nose from rear end 182.0
L Bearing span 49.0
A Length of overhung portion at front end 58.0
B Distance between rear bearing and gear 46.0
C Length of the overhung portion at rear end 29.0
Fig. 2. FBD for spindle shaft system.
Rr & Rf are reactions at bearings R & F respectively. The shaft is considered as simply
supported and reaction Rh is due to dead center as hinge point at H i.e. end of the
plunger. The spindle system is in static indeterminate form as there are three unknown
reactions. Therefore, superposition principle must be used to find the reactions Rr ; Rf
and reaction Rh .
The spindle design should be checked for lateral deflection considering it as a beam
where the resultant/total defection d of the spindle system comprises the deflection
of the spindle due to bending moment db , and the yield of the bearing due to elastic
deformation dy . These deflections are superimposed to calculate the overall deflection
of the spindle (d) [10].
3 Mathematical Modeling for Spindle Shaft
The process of mathematical modeling for spindle shaft involves three stages [10, 11]:
1. Calculation of deflection distribution of spindle axis due to bending (see Fig. 3),
2. Calculation of deflection due to compliance of spindle supports (See Fig. 4), and
3. Superposition of the spindle deflections to calculate total deflection.
Fig. 3. Elastic deflection of spindle.
Fig. 4. Elastic deflection of spindle at bearings.
3.1 Deflection of Spindle Axis Due to Bending

The procedure for calculation of lateral deflection of the spindle is explained in this
section with the following assumptions [11, 12]:
• The spindle shaft is assumed to be an Euler-Bernoulli Beam.
• Torsional and axial deflections of the spindle shaft are neglected.
• No contribution to the lateral deflection due to manufacturing misalignment
between spindle shaft and bearings.
• The spindle housing and the dead center assumed to have an infinite stiffness.
• The wok piece (or cylindrical plunger body) is held rigidly.
• The plunger body is considered as integral part of spindle nose.
• Bearings are anti-friction bearings and are assumed as a simply supported hinge.
• The contribution of transverse shear to the overall lateral deflection is assumed to be
negligible.
To develop mathematical model for spindle deflection due to bending, stepped

spindle is transformed into uniform spindle which enables use of conventional beam
theory. Al-Shareef and Brandon [9] proposed a method to transform the stepped spindle
shaft to a uniform shaft. Similar methodology is adopted in this work. In addition to
geometrical transformation, the applied forces and reactions must be transformed into
equivalent forces applied to beam segments with larger bending moments of inertia.
These equivalent forces are noted using the subscript “e” (i.e. Wg ! Wge ). The
moment, Mind and shear force, Vind is obtained from shear force diagrams (SFD) and
bending moment diagrams (BMD) and given by Eqs. 1 and 2:

1 1
Vind ¼ In Vr ð1Þ
I1 I2

1 1
Mind ¼ In Mr ð2Þ
I1 I2
Where, Vind,, Mind are induced shear force and moment at each step of the shaft
Vr, Mr are actual shear force and moment acting upto each step of the shaft
In is the moment of inertia of largest diameter of stepped shaft
I1, I2 are the two succeeding moment of inertia at each step of the shaft
This analysis is repeated to find an induced shear and bending moment at each step
in the shaft. The induced force and moment becomes applied forces to a uniform shaft
with a moment of inertia I n . The loading and reaction forces from the stepped spindle
shaft must be scaled to provide equivalent applied forces on the uniform shaft.
The calculated equivalent applied forces Wge and We are given by Eqs. 3–4. Similarly,
the calculated equivalent reactions Rre ; Rfe and Rhe are given by Eqs. 5–7:
I3
Wge ¼ Wg ð3Þ
I1
We ¼ ðI3 =I4 Þ ¼ W l ð4Þ
I3
Rre ¼ Rr ð5Þ
I2
I3
Rfe ¼ Rf ð6Þ
I2
I3
Rhe ¼ Rh ð7Þ
I4
The uniform beam shown in Fig. 5 can be easily analyzed to find deflection dis-
tribution using conventional beam theory and singularity functions. The singularity
functions are represented by expressions in < >. If the value of the expression within
these brackets is less than zero the function becomes zero (i.e. <2–4> 2 = 0).
Fig. 5. Model of uniform beam after transformation.
Using Macaulay’s method,

ZZ
EIyðxÞ ¼ MðxÞdx ð8Þ
Equation 9 is obtained by integrating twice Eq. 8,

h
Wge 3 Rre 3 Rfe 3
dy ðxÞ ¼ EI1 6 hx Ci þ C1 x þ C2 þ 6 hx B Ci þ 6 hx L B Ci
D 3
E4 P
W l
24 x 2 A L B C
e
þ R6he hx l A L B Ci3 þ nk¼1 V6 k hx lk i3 ð9Þ
P i
þ n Mk hl i2
k¼1 2 k
The integration constants C1 & C2 are obtained by applying the following boundary
conditions dy ¼ 0 at x ¼ B þ C and dy ¼ 0 at x ¼ L þ B þ C:
h i h i
W
C1 ¼ 6Lge ðB þ LÞ3 B3 V 6L
1
ðB þ L þ C l1 Þ3 ðB þ C l1 Þ3 M
2L
1
½ðB þ L
i 2 ð10Þ
þ C l1 Þ2 ðB þ C l1 Þ2 Rre6L
Wge 3 V1 M1
C2 ¼ B ðB þ C l1 Þ3 C1 ðB þ CÞ ðB þ C l 1 Þ2 ð11Þ
6 6 2
3.2 Deflection of Spindle Axis Due to Compliance of Spindle Supports

The deflection contribution of the spindle support bearings assumes that a rigid shaft
supported by linear springs. The reaction forces yields the deflection at each of the
springs. Essentially, the deflection contribution of the bearings is a straight line fit
between the resulting deformed positions of the springs as shown in Fig. 6 and given
by Eq. 12:
Fig. 6. Detail view of deflection due to bearings.
ðdf þ dr Þ ðx B CÞ ðdr LÞ
db ¼ ð12Þ
L
The values of elastic deformation at bearings due to loading given by df & dr are
calculated using formulations as given in handbook [11].
After individual contribution of deflections i.e. elastic spindle deflection dy (Eq. 9)
and deflection due to bearing compliance db (Eq. 12), total deflection is calculated
using method of superposition and given by Eq. 13.
dT ¼ dy þ db ð13Þ
h
Wge 3 Rre 3 Rfe 3
dT ¼ EI1 6 hx Ci þ C1 x þ C2 þ 6 hx B Ci þ 6 hx L B Ci
D3 E4 P
W l
24 x 2 A L B C
e
þ R6he hx l A L B Ci3 þ nk¼1 V6 k hx lk i3 ð14Þ
P i ðd þ d Þ xBC d L
ð Þ ðr Þ
þ nk¼1 M2 k hlk i2 þ
f r
L
4 FEA Modeling and Validation of Mathematical Model
The FEA model is developed to validate the mathematical model derived in earlier
section for calculating the lateral deformation of the spindle. The model of spindle is
created using BEAM188 element in ANSYS. There are 80 beam elements in the
meshed model which are good enough to obtain accurate solution for deflection of
spindle. The dimensions of model are given in Table 1. Hinge supports are created at
bearing and dead center locations. The plunger body is considered as integral part of
spindle and applied with line pressure as w=l and point load at gear position as wg .
Figure 7 shows detailed FEA model used in the present study. The deflection of beam
obtained by FEA solution at any particular section is compared with calculated values
obtained by mathematical model at same location (see Table 2) and percentage error
doesn’t exceed 8%. Therefore, it can be concluded that the FEA approach used in this
section is reasonably accurate and can be further used for FEA based goal driven
optimization of spindle shaft.
Fig. 7. FE model of spindle shaft with loads and boundary conditions.
Table 2. Comparisons of Analytical and FEM Model Results.

Location Deflection % Error
FEA Analytical
X = 0 mm 1.2 µm 1.11 µm 7.50
X = 182 mm 28.4 µm 26.5 µm 6.69
5 Goal Driven Optimization (GDO) of Spindle Shaft Design
This section presents a Goal Driven Optimization (GDO) of spindle shaft design.
The objective of study is to minimize the spindle mass. GDO is carried out using
Design Exploration module within ANSYS [13]. Table 3 shows design variables and
constraints used in the present work. Among several design variables, the spacing
of the bearings (L) is one of the important parameter. Either it minimizes deflection
or maximizes chatter free machining at the desired speed region for a given geometry
and work piece material [4]. In the present work, range of L is obtained by differen-
tiating dT with respect to L and equated to zero.
ddT
¼0 ð15Þ
dL
h 3
We V2 V3
0¼ 6 x 2l A L B C þ 2 hx b=2 L B C i2 þ 2 hx A L
2 2 2
B Ci þ M2 hx b=2 L B C i þ M3 hx A L B Ci ð16Þ
ðdf þ dr ÞðxBCÞÞ

L2
Table 3, Equation 16 is very complex and manual differentiation is very difficult.

Therefore, MATLAB is used to differentiate and obtain minimum value of L i.e.
bearing spacing. The value of L can be increased up to 20% [11], which gives upper
Table 3. Design variables and constraints used in optimization of spindle.

ANSYS Mathematical Description Range
Parameter Symbol (mm)
Objective P7 Spindle Mass
Function
Design P1 L1 Position of first bearing 65–85
parameters from rear end
P2 L2 Position of second bearing 114–134
from rear end
P3 A Tip of spindle nose from 162–190
rear end
P4 Do2 Spindle shaft Outer 46–56
diameter
P5 Di2 Spindle shaft Inner diameter 20–36
P6 D3 Spindle nose diameter 44–64
Design P8 Total deformation 0.020
Constraint Maximum
bound of L. Moreover, spindle should have stiffness (SL ) greater than 35 kgf/micron
[11]. This can be ensured by satisfying the following condition.
D1:33
L 2
ð17Þ
k0:33
Where,
D2 diameter of the spindle between bearing
k = 0.05 for average accuracy
k = 0.1 for high precision machines
After creating parametric model of spindle in ANSYS using parameters shown
in Table 3, a GDO is initiated. The first step towards GDO is to create a DOE followed
by response surface and optimization [13]. The final results obtained by optimizing
parametric values are candidate points which fulfill the objective function. Figure 8
shows sensitivity bar chart obtained from ANSYS. From sensitivity chart, it is con-
cluded that spindle nose diameter affects geometrical mass of system and spindle nose
length affects total deflection. In the bar chart negative values of sensitivities indicates
inverse relation for corresponding parameters.
Figure 9 shows response surfaces representing variation of geometric mass as a
function of two most sensitive parameters i.e. spindle shaft inner diameter (P5) and
spindle nose diameter (P6). It shows P5 should be increased and P6 should be
decreased to minimize the mass.
Figure 10 shows the trade-off chart between geometric mass and total deflection
which both of them are contradictory to each other. The feasible points are shown as
green points which give minimum mass range with permissible deformation.
Fig. 8. Sensitivity bar chart.
Fig. 9. Response surface.
Table 4 shows the three candidate points as optimum solution and their mutual
variation with design parameters. The objective function of mass reduction is suc-
cessfully achieved with deformation less than the permissible values. The initial mass
of the spindle was 2.3 kg which is reduced to 1.4 kg and by mounting such four
spindles gives mass reduction of 39.1%.
Fig. 10. Trade-off chart.
Table 4. Feasible optimum solution obtained from GDO.

Parameters P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
Candidate Point 3 67 134 190 23 18 22 1.465 0.0158
Candidate Point 2 82 114 190 23 18 22 1.433 0.0172
Candidate Point 1 67 114 190 23 18 22 1.433 0.0173
6 Conclusions
This work presents methodology for design optimization of spindle shaft that is sub-
jected to uniformly distributed load. In this work analytical as well as numerical
methodology is presented for a goal driven optimization (GDO) of spindle shaft design.
Some of the main conclusions of this study are:
• The analytical model for deflection distribution of spindle shaft gives a generalized
equation. This model is verified successfully by performing FEA using ANSYS.
Percentage error between analytical model and FEA model doesn’t exceed 8%.
• Further MATLAB based technique is used to obtain minimum value of bearing
spacing (L) which is one of the critical design variables.
• A Goal Driven Optimization (GDO) is proposed as an optimization method with
spindle mass as an objective function and total deflection as a design constraint.
• GDO yields three optimum solutions which reduces spindle mass by 39.1%.
This compact design has helped to select smaller size of indexing unit which leads
to cost benefits to the company.
• GDO technique also allows designer to know the critical design parameters
affecting mass and total deflection. In the present study spindle nose diameter affects
geometrical mass of and spindle nose length affects total deflection
• The proposed method allows the designers to virtually test the spindle model
and improve design parameters to cope with targeted machining applications.
• This technique would be much helpful for designing of high speed spindles required
in most of advanced manufacturing operations.
References
1. Reddy, V.R., Sharan, A.M.: The finite element modelled design of lathe spindles. Static
Dyn. Anal. 109, 407–415 (1987)
2. Vadgeri, S.S., Patil, S.R., Chavan, S.T.: Static and fatigue analysis of lathe spindle for
maximum cutting force. Mater. Today Proc. 5, 4438–4444 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2017.12.012
3. Cao, H., Zhang, X., Chen, X.: The concept and progress of intelligent spindles: a review.
Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 112, 21–52 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2016.
10.005
4. Grama, S.N., Mathur, A., Aralaguppi, R., Subramanian, T.: Optimization of high speed
machine tool spindle to minimize thermal distortion. Procedia CIRP 58, 457–462 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2017.03.253
5. Liu, T., Gao, W., Zhang, D., Zhang, Y., Chang, W., Liang, C., Tian, Y.: Analytical modeling
for thermal errors of motorized spindle unit. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 112, 53–70 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2016.09.008
6. Altintas, Y., Cao, Y.: Virtual design and optimization of machine tool spindles. CIRP Ann.
Manuf. Technol. 54, 379–382 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-8506(07)60127-9
7. Gagnol, V., Bouzgarrou, B.C., Ray, P., Barra, C.: Stability-based spindle design, vol. 129,
pp. 407–415 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2673400
8. Cao, Y., Altintas, Y.: Modeling of spindle-bearing and machine tool systems for virtual
simulation of milling operations. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 47, 1342–1350 (2007). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2006.08.006
9. Brandon, J.A.: On the quasi-static design of machine tool spindles, 204 (1990)
10. T.I. Central Machine, CMTI.pdf, 1st Editio, Mcgraw Higher Ed. (2001)
11. Joshi, P.H.: Machine Tools Handbook - Design and Operation (2007). https://doi.org/10.
1036/0071494359
12. Maeda, O., Cao, Y., Altintas, Y.: Expert spindle design system. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf
45, 537–548 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.08.021
13. Canonsburg, T.D.: ANSYS Mechanical User’s Guide, 15317, pp .724–746 (2013)
Modeling and Simulation of Technological
Factors in Bakery Industry
Adrian Dan Pop(&) , Gabriel Rus, and Raul Florentin Drența
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

adriandanpop@gmail.com
Abstract. From our early stages of research on industrial logistics particular-

ities of baked products distribution we concluded that the bakery industry in
Romania is based on a management system that does not have enough scientific
research in the industrial logistics field.
Managers have to make decisions based only on their own experience.
Our goal is to determine and write new algorithms that can improve the
physical distribution of bakery products. A clear algorithm that correlates the
production with the distribution process will be improving the company’s
logistics management and reduce the costs.
The multitude of factors that influence the distribution of baked products
raises the risk that the management decisions at current level will not be the
most appropriate or efficient. Taking into account the diversity, complexity and
specificity of the bakery industry, in this paper we conducted a theoretical study
to identify the most widespread distribution channels in this industry, stating the
factors that influence the physical distribution of bakery products. Four variants,
representing a direct distribution channel and three indirect ones, analyzed in
parallel, have led to the conclusion that the most complex distribution channel
identified was the distribution by personal car, through daily delivery of the
products on predetermined routes.
In a further stage, the identified factors with the highest competitiveness will
play a key role in the final algorithm that enable managers in bakery industry to
track and improve much faster the gaps in the distribution chain.
Keywords: Bakery industry Logistics Distribution optimization
1 Introduction
1.1 Bakery Industry

In a very specific field as bakery, the issue of the physical distribution of finished
products is not scientifically addressed.
Awareness of the fact that a growing portion of sales profits is absorbed by dis-
tribution costs has led to a reemergence of interest in the logistics of commodities.
The physical distribution of bakery products is currently based only on experience,
and from my professional work in this field, trying to improve the factors that nega-
tively influenced the entire process, separately, we came to the conclusion that a

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_56
532 A. D. Pop et al.
profound and aggregate analysis could lead to vital measures and possibilities for
optimization targeting the performance of the bakery industry in Romania.
It is very appropriate for Romanian entrepreneurs in the field to quickly change
their philosophy if they want to adapt to the managerial “war” that moves from the
traditional industry into the distribution and service industry, from west to east, and
from north to south. It is vital for businesses to associate in networks capable of
meeting the interests and expectations of consumers [1]. There are mutations of phi-
losophy, from information sharing and added value, to trust in a partnership by power
transfer to retailers. The transfer does not stop here. It is an evolution towards the full
power of the consumer, awaiting permanent satisfaction - enthusiasm - by the
location/entity that gives him/her the maximum of functional and especially emotional
characteristics.
World experience shows that the strategic solution is the partnership on the logistics
distribution/supply chain. The shift of power to retailers forces manufacturers to change
their strategy, starting from the technological and communications revolution that has
brought greater informational advantages to EPOS holders (Electronic Point of Sale –
electronic registers), which, based on ultra-fast and detailed processing, through the bar
code and soon with the radio frequency label (RFID), can show the brand of products,
orders, create customer segments, can automate the shop, with great customer benefits
through prices and food safety, but also for the organization, through costs, inventory,
business security.
Purchasing management plays an important role in creating value, ensuring con-
tinuity of supply, efficient and economical purchasing, inventory management, in order
to deliver high customer service and low storage costs [2].
Order management includes cargo inventory verification activities and determining
the quantities to be ordered in response to customer needs or strategy policies [1].
However, from the point of view of the bakery products market, this is currently the
most used distribution model for finished products and, at the same time, it is the model
that allows use without negative consequences on other distribution models, in its own
shops or through distributors on certain routes on which the manufacturer does not
activate.
The power of retailers is not only due to their association or growth through
investments, mergers or acquisitions. When we talk about the new power of retailers as
a new strategic direction in business, we start from the very low profitability they have,
namely 1–2% on turnover (with a few exceptions, like WallMart, with a return of 3–
4%), which, on the reverse side, forces partners (wholesalers, manufacturers or sup-
pliers) to dramatically reduce their costs, working together to meet any buyer/consumer
requirement as quickly as possible and at a very low price. At this time, the power of
bargaining of retailers, which are comprised in different competing logistics chains, has
increased and is increasing considerably. Retail has become an industry in most
developed countries [8]. Big transnational firms that have also entered the Romanian
market have had a delicate start in the past 1–2 years.
Modeling and Simulation of Technological Factors in Bakery Industry 533
1.2 Distribution Channels Used in the Bakery Industry

In theory, companies can choose from a large variety of distribution channels and
strategies but in practice, particular in the bakery industry, there were observed 4
channels of distribution commonly utilized in the distribution of bakery products. Two
direct channels where the bakery factory sells the products on the spot, in the bakery
store or in a larger network of bakery owned stores spread not very far away from the
factory. Two indirect channels identified in bakery industries refer to bakeries using
specialized distribution companies or they organize the distribution with their own vans
on predefined routes.
The SWOT analysis for each identified variant gives us an overview, as well as the
advantages and disadvantages of each option compared to the other.
By the comparative analysis of the 4 distribution channels of common bakery
factories found in the industry, as shown in Fig. 1, the most complex activity is
reflected by Variant 4, the Distribution Channel by predetermined routes, this channel
also offering the possibility of the integration of mixed solutions, servicing a chain of
own stores or contracting specialized distributors for areas which the enterprise does
not cover.
Fig. 1. SWOT analysis of distribution channels.

2 Factors That Influence the Bakery Products Distribution
In order to analyze all the factors influencing the production and distribution of fresh
baked products in the bakery industry, aimed at improving physical production, we
chose to group the factors with significant impact in the following categories: supply,
storage, production, consumers, marketing, maintenance, transport and human
resources.
The dominant feature of all identified factors is the competitiveness and the added
value to the company in the market.
All given data, monetary sums, percentages and analyses are done in close col-
laboration with a local manufacturer from bakery industry. Analyzed company is
operating a distribution channel as presented in the Variant 4, with predetermined
routes. All the results are subject of further research on industry level both locally and
nationally.
Supply
Depending on the financial situation of the company, suppliers are willing to collab-
orate and offer different offers both in terms of freight transport and sufficiently large
payment terms. However, there must be a set of conditions to be able to benefit from
these offers: accessibility with large scale means of transport up to the factory, avail-
ability to purchase larger quantities and a lower frequency, which also means more
storage space [10]. These factors are met only by large factories, located predominantly
in the city outskirts.
Storage of Raw Materials and Materials
All factors that influence the storage of raw materials such as warehouse capacity,
receipt of goods, handling of raw materials, except for a low number of raw materials
requiring special storage conditions and direct consumption of electricity for storage at
the recommended temperature, the other inventories do not generate direct costs and,
having the necessary storage space at hand, we can assume that they are insignificant or
are found in the costs of the TESA (technical, economical, social and administrative)
staff of the receiving company and the directly productive personnel who handles them
from the warehouses to production.
Production
Production volume is a factor that directly influences unit cost per product but also has
a chain-reaction effect in terms of impact on transport costs.
A diversified assortment reduces productivity due to the operations before pro-
duction, but increases the management costs related to supply and storage, inventory,
etc.
The company’s flexibility to adapt to market requirements is very low and the time
needed for compliance is long, generating additional costs and investment [9]. In terms
of product range, it takes weeks or even months for a new product to be prepared and
marketed, compared to the direct sale that allows the factory to put the new product on
the shelf and available to consumers on the same day.
Machinery currently used in bakeries are powered by gas or electricity, so in total
production costs we can identify significant expenses with gas and electricity.
According to the information from the analyzed unit, they amount to a total of about 5–
7% of the price of the finished product.
Marketing
The long payment terms used by the increased competition in this field lead to situa-
tions that affect the conduct of the company’s business. Basically, if a factory credits its
customers for more than 7–10 days, talking about products that cannot be stored and
which have been sold from the shelf, and the stores must be constantly supplied, then it
needs to borrow money from suppliers and from banks in order to carry on its business.
Thus, we can consider that a percentage of the product’s price is represented by this
cost generated by the need for money, both through long payment terms, low cash
flow, or inefficient stock management.
Large firms are exposed to a real danger, i.e. that of focusing on large customers,
which also account for a large share in total sales. This can cause sudden and drastic
changes in production [5].
For companies that opt for their own distribution system, the real advantage is
accessing a large market and supplying all communities in a particular area, even if
they are not merged into one place [7]. Also, by working with a large number of
customers, identifying and replacing one does not cause problems for production and
does not jeopardize the profitability of the distribution route. However, there is a
continuing need for promotion and investment in a brand that is recognized and
appreciated by consumers and customers, ensuring its presence on store shelves.
The costs of promoting and investing in one’s own brand can reach up to 10% of
the income, but in Romania, small and medium bakery resort to the minimum nec-
essary to carry out their business, preferring to offer a price that is as small as possible.
Thus, we shall consider a marketing cost with the promotion of the company, the
products and the brand of 1% of the total price of the product.
Maintenance
The total costs of maintaining the storage and production areas, maintenance of the
fleet and the IT equipment within the company at optimal parameters at represent 2.5%
of the factory’s monthly turnover. This is average, and it can be reflected over time in
various forms, by replacing equipment and making new acquisitions, general renova-
tions or leasing of new vans when maintenance costs are unjustified, given the situation
in which operating the machines in an emergency state or stopping production or
distribution causes considerably greater losses than replacing these machines.
Starting from the necessity to renew the car fleet with a frequency of 10 years/car,
we can determine a cost that will be reflected in the price of the products. Thus, a van
that transports daily products worth a total of 1600 lei, has a value of about 150 000 lei
which, distributed over the entire 10-year life span, represents a daily cost of 50 lei. As
a percentage, the cost of amortization of the transport vans is 3%.
Transport of Bakery Products
According to the information provided by a local manufacturer using the preset dis-
tribution channel, transport costs for bakery/pastry products are significant.
In relative terms, the percentage may vary between 4 and 5% (the cost of fuel
consumption in the price of the finished product).
Human Resources
In a bakery production unit, 3 large categories of employees can be identified: auxiliary
staff, represented by administrators, accountants, management and directly productive
staff: production and packaging, distribution drivers.
In the analyzed unit, TESA staff is represented by 8 people with a cost of about
10% of the finished product price.
Also, the personnel carrying out the production and packaging activities is repre-
sented by 26 persons, the cost of which represents 25% of the final product price.
Drivers distributing finished products contribute 5% of the total cost of finished
products.
From this analysis we can see that a bakery unit has very high staff costs, which
account for over 40% of the total cost of the finished product.
A visual presentation of all identified factors can be seen below in the form of
an Ishikawa fish bone chart
See Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Ishikawa diagram - fish bone influence of factors in V4.
3 Conclusions
Competitiveness Advantages of This Distribution Model in the Bakery Industry

The location of the factory may be in an easily accessible area for supply and is
specifically separate from the sales areas of finished products and/or consumers and
merchants. This may reduce or increase factory costs.
Great bargaining power with suppliers can be attributed primarily to a higher

production capacity and a storage space that allows the purchase of lots large enough to
benefit from discount and efficiency in transport.
Increased production volume, with a higher production capacity and a wider range
of products for sale.
An increased degree of technology and the serial production of products lead to the
possibility of streamlining and reducing production and personnel costs, so that the
profit margin remains a motivating one.
Product assortment is not limited to a small number of products because in a
strategically located factory there is no risk of overloading production and supply
diversification may be part of the company’s strategy to gain market share, but also to
balance and streamline production.
With its own distribution network, employees who transport and deliver the
products to customers, it is also advisable to invest in a brand that is known and sought
by customers, even willing to pay more for the products that bear the company brand.
Factory relocation for cost optimization has no negative impact on sales because
both customers and consumers of products are not directly attached to the plant
location, but to shelf products.
4 Research Directions
Once we identify the factors that influence the entire distribution process, based on the
analysis presented, we can also identify the existing algorithms and write the algo-
rithms that can be used to improve the production and physical distribution in the
bakery field, to be tested in practice on companies operating in production and dis-
tribution of bakery products.
Our immediate steps in the current research is to test the identified factors and
determine the relevance of their influence on a larger scale among the bakeries that use
their own distribution system based on predefined routes.
The factors that most influence the entire production and distribution process
specific to the bakery industry must be found in a mathematical algorithm designed to
identify deficiencies in a production unit, based on the input given by its management.
The validation of the proposed algorithm and formalizing the entire experiment in a
software program accessible to bakeries.
Factors with the highest competitiveness level will play a key role in the final
algorithm that enable managers in bakery industry to track and improve much faster the
gaps in the distribution chain.
References
1. Acu, D., Acu, M., Dicu, P., Dicu, A.M.: Matematici Aplicate in Economie (Mathematics
Applied in the Economy). Universitatea Lucian Blaga, Sibiu (2015)
2. Bayles, D.: E-commerce Logistics and Fulfillment: Delivering the Goods. Prentice Hall,
New York (2001)
3. Baramel, J., Simchi-Levi, D.: The Logistic of Logistics. Theory, Algorithms, and
Applications for Logistics Management. Springer, New York (1997)
4. Breuer, R., Winter, K.H.: Marketing Management. Editura Gabler, Wiesbaden (2000)
5. Benoun, M., Héliès Hassid, M.L.: Category mangement: mythes et réatités, art. Revue
Française du Marketing. nr. 198 (2004)
6. Oliver, R.K., Webber, M.D.: Supply Chain Management: Logistics Catches Up with
Strategy. Logistics, London (1992)
7. Stern, L.W.: Marketing Channels, 7th edn. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (2006)
8. Ţole, A., Zirra, D.: Analiza Economico – Financiară. Editura ProUniversitaria, Bucureşti
(2006)
9. Ungureanu, M., Pop, N., Ungureanu, N.: Innovation and technology transfer for business
development. Procedia Eng. 149, 495–500 (2016)
10. Ungureanu, M.: A model for product innovation project. In: International Conference on
Production Research - Regional Conference Africa, Europe and the Middle East and 3rd
International Conference on Quality and Innovation in Engineering and Management (ICPR-
AEM 2014), pp. 489–492. (2014). http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=
UA&search_mode=CitationReport&qid=24&SID=N243zW8iJdxxZfytkRA&page=1&
doc=2. (ISI Proceedings)
11. Ungureanu, N., Duval, P., Mocan, M.L., Tăucean, I.M.: Logistica Activităților de
Mentenanță. Editura Universității de Nord, Baia Mare (2010)
12. Vişean, M.O.: Tehnologii comerciale. Editura ASE, București (2004)
Numerical Study of Rapid Cooling
of Injection Molds
Pawel Muszynski(&), Przemyslaw Poszwa, and Pawel Brzek

pawel.h.muszynski@doctorate.put.poznan.pl
Abstract. Rapid heat cycle molding (RHCM) technology has become an

alternative for classic injection molding and it is consist of the rapid control of
the temperature of mold or forming surfaces. Despite widely used in the plastics
industry, there are some problems with rapid, balanced cooling. The primary
problem during the cooling stage is to ensure the balanced and uniform heat
removal from cooled material and suitable dynamic of the entire process, as to
avoid molding’s defects. This article presents the simulation research of various
geometry of cooling channels, which can be used in RHCM technology to
improve the efficiency of a cooling process. Authors proposed the use of finned
channels, which can guarantee the most effective heat transfer. The analysis and
comparison of proposed channels show the advantage over conventional
channels commonly used in injection molds. To more clearly show the corre-
lation between the geometry of cooling channels, the flow state of working fluid
and the heat transfer, the dependencies of the Nusselt and the Reynolds number
are evaluated and presented. The investigation results lead to possibility of
reducing the cooling phase and thus the production time of entire injection
cycle.
Keywords: Injection molding Cooling RHCM Plastics Heat transfer
1 Introduction
Injection molding technology is one of the most dynamically developing manufac-

turing technology of plastics. It can be used in many branches of manufacturing
industry such as electronics, toys production, medical equipment, household items,
automotive industry, aerospace and chemical industry. In the conventional injection
process it is assumed that the temperature of a forming walls and flowing coolant is
constant [1], and depends on the type of injected material. The forming surface is
usually heated up to the temperature that is lower than injection temperature (ther-
moplastics) or to temperature, that allows the crosslinking process (thermosetting
plastics). The cooling process of moldings and the entire volume of the mold follows
during the production process – after every injection phase. The primary task of the
injection mold cooling system is to remove as much heat as possible, so that plastic
parts can be ejected without damages [2]. Simultaneously the cooling process has to
ensure balanced and uniform heat removal from the cooled molding. The cooling phase
is the longest stage in the conventional injection process and lasts between 50% to 80%

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_57
540 P. Muszynski et al.
of the entire cycle time [2, 3]. For this reason there has been a growing tendency to
minimize the cooling time by lowering the mold temperature. This approach would
allow reducing the cooling time and in consequence, an increase the production effi-
ciency [2]. On the other hand too low temperature of forming walls is the main cause of
molding’s defects, including short shots, visible joining lines and sink marks, defor-
mations, excessive internal stresses, diesel effect, warp and others [4].
Mentioned factors has a huge impact on necessity of looking for new methods of
molds cooling systems with possibility of its rapid temperature control. For this reason
engineers invented technology called Rapid heat cycle molding (RHCM), that has been
dynamically developing around the world for over a dozen years [5, 6]. In the RHCM
the forming surfaces are rapidly heated to a high temperature (even melt filling tem-
perature) in key places and next quickly cooled after melt filling [7]. Increasing the
temperature of forming surfaces can be achieved by applying various methods such as
induction heating, infrared heating, resistance heating, hot – gas heating or steam
heating [8]. In the case of such a process control, contact of the hot, liquid plastic with
the cold forming wall is avoided, what limits or even eliminates the molding’s defects
[8]. High temperature of forming walls makes it possible to accurately replicate the
surface topography of the mold cavity through the melted polymer [9]. Described
activities allow to avoid previously presented problems, however they negatively
influence the cycle time. This is why the development of an effective cooling system
that will overcome the additional time for heating is so important aspect.
Modern development trends in the field of plastic industry, like RHCM technology,
result from a desire to improve the quality of manufactured parts with simultaneous
minimizing costs and production time. In consequence, the factors that play essential
role in the abovementioned process are the proper selection of cooling method and
designing the cooling system, which provides effective heat transfer.
Within this paper, there are undertaken the simulation research under the problem of
efficiency of the cooling channels with various geometry, to test their applicability in
the RHCM technology. The main aim of this study is to present the investigation
process and obtained results, that allow comparing the effectiveness of cooling process
with commonly used drilled channels. Simulation research are performed by using the
Finite element method (FEM) in the commercial software environment ANSYS Fluent.
The analysis establish the Transient State and the turbulent models (k-e).
2.1 Physical Model

Figure 1 shows the 3D model of cavity insert with the examined cooling channels (in
this exemplary case drilled channels). It is assumed that smooth channel is the base
channel for further analysis of cooling efficiency. All considered geometries of chan-
nels in this study are presented in Fig. 2. What is important to say, that the finned
cooling channels are well-known in energetic industry (heat exchangers), but their use
for the cooling of injection molds has not been considered yet.
Numerical Study of Rapid Cooling of Injection Molds 541
Fig. 1. Geometry of examined cavity insert.
Fig. 2. Geometries of considered cooling channels: (a) smooth drilled Ø8, (b) ellipse, (c) square,
(d) finned M4H08, (e) finned M8H08.
It is assumed that the diameter of smooth channel equals Ø8 mm (rn = 4 mm), the
angle b of the fin is 3°, the cross-sectional area of fluid flow A is constant for each
shape and equals 50.264 mm2 and cavity insert is made of steel 1.2311. The ther-
mophysical properties of steel and water (chosen coolant), are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Thermophysical properties of materials used in simulation.

Thermophysical Properties Steel 1.2311 Water
Density, q (kg/m3) 7800 998.2
Specific heat, Cp (J/kgK) 460 4186
Thermal conductivity, k (W/mK) 30 0.6
Viscosity, µ (Pas) – 0.00079
2.2 Governing Equations

To describe the flow of the fluid through cooling channels (Fig. 2) several assumptions
are made on the operating conditions: (i) fluid is Newtonian and incompressible, (ii) the
properties of the fluid and channel (cavity insert) material are temperature independent
(iii) the viscous dissipation within the fluid is neglected, (iv) flow is turbulent. The
governing equations for this case, continuity Eq. (1), momentum Eq. (2) and energy
Eq. (3), can be written respectively as [10]:
@q
þ r ðquÞ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
@t
where q-density of the fluid; u-axial velocity.
@u
q þ u r ðquÞ ¼ rp þ lr2
uþF ð2Þ
@t
where µ-fluid dynamic-viscosity; F-body forces; p-pressure.
@
ðqEÞ þ r ðuðqE þ pÞ ¼ r ½keff rT h þ ðseff
uÞ ð3Þ
@t
where keff-effective conductivity; h-sensible enthalpy; T-temperature; seff-stress tensor;
E-total energy.
2.3 Parameter Definitions

To analyze, compare and evaluate the flow characteristics and the heat transfer of
different channels geometries parameters as the Nusselt number (4), the Reynolds
number (5) and the Fanning friction factor are given as follows [11]:
qw D h
Nu ¼ ð4Þ
kðTw Tb Þ
where Dh-hydraulic diameter; qw-the average heat flux at outer tube wall; k-thermal
conductivity of the fluid; Tw-tube-wall temperature; Tb-bulk temperature.
qum Dh
Re ¼ ð5Þ
l
2ss
f ¼ ð6Þ
qu2m
where ss-wall shear stress.
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

For considered issue (Fig. 1) due to geometric symmetry of the cavity insert the
solution to the problem is sought only for a half of the cavity insert cross section. The
fluid temperature at the inlet is assumed to be Tin = 30 °C, whereas the value of fluid
velocity at the inlet is Uin = 2.28 m/s, which can be express as the flow rate and gives
approximately 6,8 L/min. The outlet relative pressure is assumed to Pout = 0 Pa.
Because calculations are time-dependent, it is assumed that the initial temperature for
the insert is set to Ti = 150 °C. The turbulence intensity for the considered model is
calculated and equals 4.56%. The cooling time is set to 20 s.
Like was said before the numerical transient state simulation of the flow through
various cooling channels is considered to investigate and solve the fluid flow and the
heat transfer in injection mold. The commercial available CFD software, Fluent is used
to solve the governing equations of continuity, momentum and energy. The standard
k-e turbulence model is selected. Further, a Second Order Upwind scheme is assumed
to discretize momentum, Turbulent Kinetic Energy, Turbulent Dissipation Rate and
Energy equation. The flow distribution is solved by using the Semi-Implicit Method for
Pressure-Linked Equations iterative algorithm.
The purpose of conducted investigation is to compare the efficiency of the cooling

process of injection molds depending on the geometry of the cooling channels. The
temperature distribution on the surface of inserts (in specified point B – Fig. 1) and
average temperature of the entire volume of inserts are selected as a comparative
criterion. Furthermore, the Nusselt number, the Reynolds number and the friction factor
are determined. During the investigation, five inserts with different channels geometries
are tested. The results of 20 s. cooling process are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Results of cooling process for different channels after 20 s of cooling.

Geometry of channel Temperature in point [°C] Average temperature of insert [°C]
Ø8 103.58 115.2
Ellipse 101.02 114.9
Square 100.03 114.26
M4H08 98.68 112.71
M8H08 97.33 110.18
The temperature responses of the point ‘B’ on mold cavity Surface (Fig. 1) for
various geometries of cooling channels are shown in Fig. 3. However, Fig. 4 presents
the cooling profile of average temperature of the entire insert. It can be observed that in
both cases the lowest temperature is noted for channel with 8 fins. By contrasting
cooling process for smooth channel and for channel with eight fins, it can be find that
the difference of the temperature is around 6 °C/20 s, that gives approximately 2.7 °C/s
for finned and 2.3 °C/s for smooth channel. Slightly higher temperatures are seen for
channel with four fins, which lead to conclude that the configuration of eight fins
ensures higher efficiency of the heat transfer. Moreover, it can be stated that the cooling
dynamics decline with the passage of time. After analyzing results received for
channels Ø8, ellipse and square (Fig. 4) it is clearly seen that differences of the tem-
perature are insignificant.
Like was said before, temperature uniformity of the cavity insert surface during and
at the end of the cooling phase is desired factor. The temperature distribution along the
cavity surface for all considered cases is shown in Fig. 5. As was mentioned earlier, the
minimal temperature for smooth channel achieved a value of 103.58 °C, while for the
Fig. 3. Results of cooling process obtained Fig. 4. Average temperature of cooling inserts
at the measuring point (B). with different channels.
Fig. 5. Results of temperature distribution along the cavity surface of points C – D.
finned channel M8H08 is 97.33 °C. Furthermore, a thermal distribution on the surface
of the cooling insert with the finned channel is characterized by higher uniformity and
lower temperature gradients in selected zones. However, the results are not spectacular
because the model of simulation insert is equipped with only two channels due to limits
the number of numerical calculations. In general, more cooling channels are used to
ensure high uniformity and balanced heat removal.
To more clearly show the correlation between the geometry of the cooling chan-
nels, flow state of working fluid and the heat transfer, the dependencies of the Nusselt
number (Nu) on the Reynolds number are plotted in Fig. 6. It can be observed that as
the Reynolds number increase from 2000 to 24000, the Nu rises for each cases. The
maximum Nu is reached in case of using finned channels (M8H08) and it increases
from 14.9 to 182.3. In contrast, the maximum Nu for smooth channel reaches 93.30
which is two times smaller than in the channel with fins. These are quite high results of
Nu but some other researchers proved, that it can reach very high level, before the flow
of the fluid reaches a fully developed state in a short inlet range [11, 12]. It shows that
fins, which are used in channels, are good solution to enhance the convective heat
transfer in injection molds working in the RHCM.
Fig. 6. The Nu number on the Re number. Fig. 7. The friction factor (f) on the Re number.
Figure 7 presents the correlation of the friction factor on the Reynolds number.
It can be observed that the value of f decreases with the rise of Re for all examined
channels, which is consistent with the moody diagram. On this basis, it can be con-
cluded, that the fins cause the increase of friction factor, what can lead to increase of
flow resistance and thus adversely affects the pressure loss in the cooling system.
4 Conclusions
The simulation research of the cooling channels of various geometry, which can be
implemented in injection molds working in Rapid Heat Cycle Molding technology,
was showed and discussed in this paper. For this purpose, a series of simulation studies
on the efficiency of the heat transfer exchange process were made. Based on obtained
results, the following conclusions were made.
The most effective cooling process was noted in case of using channels with eight
fins. Comparing the obtained results of the temperature for insert M8H08 with insert
with conventional channel a difference of approximately 6 °C/20 s was recorded (about
2.7 °C/s for finned channel and 2.3 °C/s for drilled channel). The above dependence
allows to conclude, that the use of finned channels increases the efficiency of the
cooling process in the injections molds working in RHCM technology, and thus it will
enable the reduction of the production cycle time. This treatment will significantly
improve the economics of entire injection process and thus allows the increase of
profits of companies, which deal in plastic injection industry. In the cases of channels
of elliptical and square cross-section, the obtained results were similar to the results of
the conventional cooling channel.
The maximum Nusselt number was reached in case of using finned channels
(M8H08) and equals 182.3. In contrast, the maximum Nusselt number for smooth
channel reached 93.30. It shows the advantage of using finned channels over the
smooth ones.
The implementation of finned cooling channels in cavity inserts requires the use of
WEDM (Wire Discharge Electric Machining) technology, which may increase the cost
of the cooling system. On the other hand the application of WEDM technology allows
to control the surface texture, what may have an impact on increasing the efficiency of
the heat transfer.
In order to verify the results of the simulation research, the injection mold with
cavity inserts equipped with the finned cooling channels should be designed and built.
It is necessary to carry out the injection molding process in a mold equipped with the
proposed cooling system in order to perform a series of tests of the manufactured
plastic moldings. First of all, the analysis of the influence of rapid cooling on the
mechanical properties of the moldings should be done. Furthermore, an analysis of the
impact of improving the efficiency and uniformity of cooling on the aesthetic properties
of the moldings will be also performed. Particular attention should be paid to the
stresses and deformations of the injected parts after it has been completely cooled.
References
1. Kurt, M., Kamber, S., Kaynak, Y., Atakok, G., Girit, O.: Experimental investigation of
plastic injection molding: Assessment of the effects of cavity pressure and mold temperature
on the quality of the final products. Mater. Des. 30(8), 3217–3224 (2009)
2. Chen, S.C., Jong, W.R., Chang, J.A.: Dynamic mold surface temperature control using
induction heating and its effects on the surface appearance of weld line. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
101(2), 1174–1180 (2006)
3. Hassan, H., Regnier, N., Le Bot, C., Defaye, G.: 3D study of cooling system effect on the
heat transfer during polymer injection molding. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 49(1), 161–169 (2010)
4. Dawkins, E., Engelmann, P., Horton, K.: Color and gloss – the connection to process
conditions. J. Injection Molding Technol. 2(1), 1–7 (1998)
5. Guilong, W., Guoqun, Z., Huiping, L., Yanjin, G.: Analysis of thermal cycling efficiency
and optimal design of heating/cooling systems for rapid heat cycle injection molding
process. Mater. Des. 31(7), 3426–3441 (2010)
6. Lucchetta, G., Fiorotto, M.: Influence of rapid mould temperature variation on the
appearance of injection moulded parts. Strojniski Vestnik J. Mech. Eng. 59(11), 683–688
(2013)
7. Mrozek, K., Chen, S.C.: Selective induction heating to eliminate the fundamental defects of
thin – walled moldings used in electrical industry. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 134(26), 44992
(2017)
8. Guilong, W., Yang, H., Lei, Z., Guoqun, Z.: Research on temperature and pressure responses
in the rapid mold heating and cooling method based on annular cooling channels and electric
heating. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 116, 1192–1203 (2018)
9. Chen, S., Chang, Y., Chang, T., Chien, R.: Influence of using pulsed cooling for mold
temperature control on microgroove duplication accuracy and warpage of the Blu-ray Disc.
Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 35, 130–138 (2008)
10. Vanaki, Sh.M., Mohammed, H.A.: Numerical study of nanofluid forced convection flow in
channels using different shaped traverse ribs. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 67, 176–188
(2015)
11. Dirker, J., Meyer, J., Kohlmeyer, B.: Local heat transfer coefficients at the inlet of an annular
flow passage. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 113, 268–280 (2017)
12. Fenot, M., Dorignac, E., Giret, A., Lalizel, G.: Convective heat transfer in the entry region of
an annular channel with slotted rotating inner cylinder. Appl. Therm. Eng. 54, 345–358
(2013)
Influence of Fill Imbalance on Pressure Drop
in Injection Molding
Przemyslaw Poszwa(&), Pawel Brzek,

Pawel Muszynski, and Marek Szostak

przemyslaw.b.poszwa@doctorate.put.poznan.pl
Abstract. During injection molding process melted polymer is introduced into

mold cavity due to the pressure delivered from injection unit. Mold design
principles suggests that filling of the cavity should be balanced. It means that the
furthest regions of cavity (measured from injection point) should be filled at the
same time to avoid problems with differential shrinkage and injection pressure
drop. Fill imbalance can lead to the significant increase of pressure drop and
needed clamp force, that can be compensated with more powereful injection
molding machines. In this paper the relation between fill imbalance and injection
pressure needed for cavity filling were investigated with Autodesk Moldflow
Insight software. In this research several different shapes with thickness change
of analyzed parts were performed to measure the significance of imbalance on
injection pressure drop. It was found that it is possible to find a gate location
even for geometrically imbalanced part, where significant pressure drop
reduction can be obtained. Additionally, It was found that lowering V/P
switchover point can provide significant reduction of needed injection pressure
even if gate location must be placed in unfavorable location
Keywords: Injection molding Fill imbalance Cavity pressure

Plastics
1 Introduction
Injection molding is one of the most dynamically developing manufacturing technol-

ogy of plastics. It can be used in many branches of manufacturing industry such as
electronics, toys production, medical equipment, household items, automotive industry,
aerospace and chemical industry. The whole process is cyclic and consists of several
steps, such injection, filling of melted polymer, packing and cooling [1].
In order to produce high quality moldings, it is very important to design well-
functioning runner system and identify the optimum gate location for the manufactured
part. Badly designed runner system and gate location may affect the imbalanced flow
and uneven pressure distribution in cavity [2], what lead to many moldings problems
such as flashing, warpage, short shots, high cycle time, density differences throughout

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_58
Influence of Fill Imbalance on Pressure Drop in Injection Molding 549
the part, air traps and extra weld lines [2]. Hence, the molding engineers attaches great
importance to establishing proper process of filling and packing phases and the
switchover point between them. The switchover filling-to-packing point problem was
presented by Huang et al. [3], Kazmer et al. [4] and Wang et al. [5].
In recent years, many engineers have been considering the imbalance flow in
injection molds, like in [6] or [7], wherein the most comprehensive studies have been
made by Beaumont [8]. Geometrically imbalance can occurs in the cavity or the entire
injection mold. In the case of cavity, the reason is the wrong choice of gate position,
what results that all the extremities of the cavity are not fill at the same time. However,
in the case of mold filling imbalances (in multi-cavity injection molds) the main cause
lies with the erroneously designed runner system, which does not ensure uniform filling
of all cavities. Furthermore, the flow of melted plastic in the runner system is quite
complex, because of its Non-Newtonian characteristic. The viscosity decreases with an
increase of the shear rate and temperature, what causes the second type of imbalance
fill, shear-induced [9].
Fig. 1. Typical cavity pressure profile during injection molding [3].
The imbalance filling also results from the cavity pressure drops and the wrong
selection of filling-to-packing switchover moment. Like was said before, injection
molding is a cyclic process, which can be shown in the form of cavity pressure profile
(Fig. 1). The filling process starts at point 1 and is completed at point 3 – the moment
the cavity is volumetrically filled by the melted plastic without being compressed. At
point 3 there is a switchover from the filling phase to compression phase, what causes a
rapid pressure increase to peak value at point 4. Then the holding phase occurs, in
which an additional melted plastic can be pressed into the cavity to compensate for
material shrinkage during the cooling phase. The holding phase lasts until the moment
when the gate is frozen, as showed at point 5. The process ends with the cooling phase
during which in the heat is removed from the manufactured part [3]. To ensure the
quality of the molded parts the crucial role during this process plays the switchover
from filling to packing point (point 3, Fig. 1). The significance of the switchover point
can be best presented by considering of switching too early or too late. Switching to
early can lead to the formations of burn marks as the plastic traps into the extremities of
the cavity wall, the opening of the mold, damage to the molding machine and mold as
well [10]. On the other side switching to early can lead to short shots due to insufficient
ram displacement and extends the entire injection process [10].
Considering above, mold filling imbalances and improper cavity pressure control
might be the most costly and misunderstood sources of problems in injection molding
industry today. Despite the fact that these phenomena are well known and undesirable,
they have not been examined in the proposed way yet, where pressure drop was
precisely estimated for different cases of fill imbalance.
In this paper the relation between fill imbalance and injection pressure needed for
cavity filling were investigated with Autodesk Moldflow Insight software. In this
research several different shapes with thickness equal to 3 mm were analyzed: square
(100 100 mm), rectangle (50 200 mm), circle (100 mm) and modified square with
additional 25 25 mm square region located near one of the corners. Analyzed
geometries are presented at Fig. 2. Simulations were performed with Moplen HP500U,
where melt temperature was set to 240 °C, mold temperature was set to 30 °C and
injection time was set to 1 s. In case of square-shaped part two different thicknesses
were studied (1 mm and 5 mm). To analyze the effect of fill imbalance different
moments of V/P switch-over point were used (90%, 95% and 100% for different
thicknesses, 90%, 92%, 94%, 96%, 98% and 100% for different shapes).
Fig. 2. Investigated geometries with marked gate locations.
In this study gates were singly placed at locations presented at Fig. 2 and were
marked in (X,Y) system with unitary increment: from the center of the part (0,0) to the
midpoint of the edge (5,0), from the midpoint of the edge to the corner (5,5).
Fig. 3. Relation between pressure drop and gate location for different V/P switchover for circle
geometry (left), relation between pressure drop and V/P switchover for different injection
locations for circle geometry (right).
The analysis was started from circle-shaped part, because it is possible to reach every
edge of the part in the same time. The lowest pressure drop was observed for gate
location at the center of the part. Move of the gate location led to almost 100% increase
of pressure drop. Significant rise of pressure drop was observed when gate was moved
to the edge (from point 4 to point 5). V/P switch-over point has insignificant influence
for gate localized in the center of the part. Fill imbalance led to significant increase of
pressure drop for V/P switch-over point above 98% of cavity fill (Fig. 3).
Fig. 4. Pressure drop for different gate locations of square geometry (thickness equal to 3 mm).
Each bar presents different V/P switchover (the thickest bar – 90%, the thinnest bar – 100%).
Next investigated geometry was square-shaped part. In this case only quarter of the
part were analyzed (Fig. 4) because of its symmetry. This part was investigated for 3
different thicknesses. For gate located in the center of the part and the lowest V/P
switch-over point pressure drop had almost the same value as for circle geometry.
When V/P switchover was equal to 100% pressure drop for square part was higher by
15% in comparison to circle geometry. With shift of the gate location to the edge of the
part pressure drop rose linearly by almost 100% to 4,9 MPa. Shifting of the gate to the
corner of the part led to increase of pressure drop to 6,7 MPa. It means that the
strongest increase of the pressure drop is along the line from the center of the part to its
corner. The most significant influence of V/P switchover was observed along the line
from the center of the part to its corner and from the middle of the edge to the corner of
the part. The strongest increase of the pressure drop was observed when V/P switch-
over point was increased from 98% to 100%, especially at point (4,4) and (5,5). V/P
switchover has slight influence between 90 and 98%.
For the thinnest variant (Fig. 5) the insignificant increase of pressure drop was
observed along the line from the center of the part to its edge. For thin parts late V/P
switchover can drastically increase the pressure drop when fill imbalance is present.
For the thickest version (5 mm) the slight increase of pressure drop was observed
along the line from the center of the part to its edge and from the center to the corner of
the part. Huge increase was observed when gate was placed at the edge of part. It
means that the source of the pressure drop was not the flow length but fill instability
when the gate was at the edge (Fig. 6).
Next investigated part was the rectangle-shaped part. In this case the rise of
pressure drop was almost equal when the gate was moved to the shorter edge and when
the gate was moved to the corner. Shift of the gate along the shorter edge will not have
any significant impact on pressure drop of the part. In this case small influence is
observed when V/P switchover is moved from 90% to 100%.
The last analyzed part is modified square-shaped part ith natural fill imbalance
when gate is located at the center of base square. Addition of small square region has
significant impact at maximum pressure drop – the lowest observed value rose by
Fig. 7. Pressure drop for different gate locations of rectangle geometry. Each bar presents
different V/P switchover (the thickest bar – 90%, the thinnest bar – 100%).
Fig. 8. Pressure drop (MPa) for different gate locations of modified square geometry for V/P
switchover equal to 90%.
around 30%. The regions where the lowest pressure drop occurred are placed around
(Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10).
Points (0,1), (−1,1), (−1,0) instead of point (0,0) – what depended on V/P switch-
over point. Highest pressure drop was obtained when gate was located at (5, −5)
because of fill imbalance and the longest flow length. For this gate location V/P switch-
over point should be moved even to 96%. There are insignificant differences in pressure
drops along the edges and in the internal region of the part when mirrored regions are
considered.
4 Conclusions
In this paper the influence of geometry and gate location (as the source of fill imbal-
ance) on pressure drop was investigated. According to obtained results even for simple
parts (square in comparison to circle) fill imbalance can lead to significant increase of
pressure drop during filling of the cavity. This effect is visible when V/P switch-over
point is higher than 98%. For long parts insignificant difference was observed when
gate was moved along the shorter edge of the part. Addition of small regions can lead
to significant increase of needed injection pressure, especially for thin parts. For thick
parts the influence of gate location on pressure drop is visible, but its values are very
low and the effect can be neglected.
It was found that even slight imbalance can lead to the increase of pressure drop by
at least 20% and can be increased even to 100% if gate is placed in “unfavourable”
location (sometimes gate must be located in “unfavourable” region because of mold
limitations or optimal warpage by such operation). In such case more powerful
injection molding machine (with higher clamp force) becomes necessity, what
increases cost of the production. Additionally, higher injection pressure results with
higher power consumption during injection molding.
In many cases application of lower V/P switch-over point can be used to reduce
pressure drop. As presented in this paper, small shift of V/P switch-over point below
98% can reduce the pressure drop even by 25%, what is significant benefit for bigger
parts, especially when clamp forces are measured in hundreds of tonnes.
Future research will be concentrated on parts with additional features (ribs, bosses,
holes), more complex shapes and nonuniform part thickness. Further investigation of
fill imbalance phenomenon can provide the guidelines for injection pressure reduction
what will improve cost-efficiency of part manufacturing.
References
1. Mrozek, K., Chen, S.C.: Selective induction heating to eliminate the fundamental defects of
thin-walled moldings used in electrical industry. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 134(26), 44992 (2017)
2. Baesso, R., Salvador, M., Lucchetta, G.: Filling balance optimization for plastics injection
molding. In: Advanced Manufacturing Systems and Technology, AMST 2005, pp. 617–624
(2005)
3. Huang, M.S.: Cavity pressure based grey prediction of the filling-to-packing switchover
point for injection molding. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 183(2–3), 419–424 (2007)
4. Kazmer, D.O., Velusamy, S., Westerdale, S., Johnston, S., Gao, R.X.: A comparison of
seven filling to packing switchover methods for injection molding. Polym. Eng. Sci. 50(10),
2031–2043 (2010)
5. Chen, Z., Turng, L.H., Wang, K.K.: Adaptive online quality control for injection-molding by
monitoring and controlling mold separation. Polym. Eng. Sci. 46(5), 569–580 (2006)
6. Kim, J., Ahn, S., Atre, S.V., Park, S.J., Kang, T.G., German, R.M.: Imbalance filling of
multi-cavity tooling during powder injection molding. Powder Technol. 257, 124–131
(2014)
7. Kazmer, O.D.: Injection Mold Desing Engineering. Hanser, Munich (2007)
8. Beamont, J.P.: Runner and Gating Design Handbook – Tool for Successful Injection
Molding, 2nd edn. Hanser, Munich (2007)
9. Poszwa, P., Brzek, P., Szostak, M.: Influence of proces parameters and runner geometry on
shear heating effect. Mechanik 1, 36–38 (2018)
10. Autodesk Inc. Moldflow Insight – Process Simulation Software. https://knowledge.autodesk.
com. Accessed 17 Mar 2018
Assessment of the Production Reducer
for Clamping the Drilling Tools
Peter Michalik1, Vieroslav Molnár2(&), Martin Ambrozy2,

Michal Petruš3, and Peter Tirpak4
1
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with Seat in Presov, Technical
University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, 08001 Košice, Slovak Republic
peter.michalik@tuke.sk
2
Francisciho 33, 082 71 Levoča, Slovak Republic
vieroslav.molnar@tuke.sk, martin.ambrozy@gmail.com
3
082 71 Milpoš 177, Slovak Republic
Michal.petrus4@gmail.com
4
07205 Ložin 177, Slovak Republic
tirpak@centrum.sk
Abstract. The article deals with the evaluation of the production of the
reduction clamping mandrel on the milling machine. The reducer is designed to
clamp the drill tool with a 16 mm diameter cylindrical shank so that it can be
clamped into the clamping head of the drill with a maximum diameter of
13 mm. The clamping tool itself is secured with two screws. The billets of the
reducer are selected from the available manufactured steel parts, allowing it to
be maximally fast and meet the production criteria. The material of the joined
parts guarantees guaranteed weldability. The technological process, the method
of clamping and setting of the tooling was chosen so as to achieve the desired
deviations of co-ordination of the two coupled cylindrical components. Mea-
surement of the produced diameter of the reducer and evaluation of co-
ordination was done on the THOME 3D measuring instrument. It has been
measured the diameter and the deviation of the co-ordinates of the produced
cylindrical surfaces with a maximum value of 0.0053 mm, with a maximum
quadratic error of 0.003543 mm. The produced reducer clamp was tested for the
production of cylindrical holes by a 25 mm diameter drill. By measuring,
stamping and practical application of the clamping mandrel, the possibility of
replacing turning operations at the CNC milling center was confirmed.
Keywords: Reducer Drilling tools Turning Milling
1 Introduction
The cutting tool was generally perceived as a body whose surface is identical to the
machined surface and which has cutting edges on the surface to be able to cut off the
layers of material in the form of chips during the working movement. The functional
principle of all cutting tools consists in removing the layer of cutting material.
Wedge-shaped wedge. The work with chase removal is different in particular by the
kinematics of the machining process and the way the tool is used. He work with chase

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_59
558 P. Michalik et al.
removal is different in particular by the kinematics of the machining process and the
way the tool is used [1]. There are a variety of machining methods that was used to
remove chippings (drilling, milling, turning, drilling, etc.) [2]. Clamping tools were
used to clamp the tools. The most common method of clamping is by means of conical
and cylindrical stems [3]. Depending on the type of the spindle, the metric [4] and
Morse cones are used [5]. Important feature of the fasteners is their self-confident. This
is achieved either by shape surface [6], which is conical or coupling [8] is achieved by
means of a coupling [9].
Tangential water jet abrasion of the hybrid alumina matrix composite made by
electromagnetic blending technology from A359 aluminum alloy with a final work-
piece diameter of 14.5 mm was evaluated. The lowest average roughness value of
6.64 lm was obtained using olivine grains at an abrasive mass flow rate of 400 g/min.
The topographical detail of the machined surface revealed several cutting traces,
grooves and furrows which show the ploughing nature [10].
The untraditional construction of the turning tool has been carried out [11], com-
pared with the construction of commercial lathe tools to find new non-traditional tools.
Turning the metal matrix composites and surface quality evaluation has also been
dealt with [12] where they evaluated the impact of the feed rate, the depth of cut and the
surface roughness, which reached max. a value of 1.544 lm.
2 Select the Method of Production
The thin-walled reducing clamping mandrel was did not made from full circular cross-
sectional material and was did not produced by turning technology. Reasons are the
subject of other chapters.
2.1 Material of Thin-Walled Reducer for Clamping Mandrel

The material for the production of the thin-walled reducer was designed based on the
available functional thread elements freely found in ironware stores. A threaded rod
M16 with a length of 55 mm was used Fig. 1 and threaded connector M16 with
a length of 50 mm Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Threaded rod M16 – 55 mm.

Assessment of the Production Reducer for Clamping the Drilling Tools 559
Fig. 2. Threade coupling M16 – 50 mm.
After alignment of the M16 threaded rod to 50 mm, and after the two ends were
bridged at 2 45°, the two components were screwed together, centered and welded
by an arc welding machine GAMA 166 OMICRON with an electrode EB 121 with
a diameter of 2.5 mm. After the weld was welded to the desired shape Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Weldment threaded rod and threaded coupling.
2.2 Technology of the Production of Thin-Walled Clamping Mandrel

The technology of producing a thin-walled reducer was designed based on available
functional production facilities. Due to the general overhaul of the conventional lathe,
Fig. 4. The technology for the production of the stopwatch was chosen with diameter
D12f8 milling technology on a CNC machining center Fig. 5. The welded piece was
clamped into a flat-headed jaw.
The production of the D16 H8 bore continued on a milling CNC machining center,
and the semi-product was clamped in a clamp in a short clamping pin Fig. 6 with a
pinch pin, where the D12f8 clamping shank was inserted (Fig. 8).
The production of the D16 H8 bore continued on a milling CNC machining center,
and the semi-product was clamped in a clamp in a short clamping pin Fig. 7 with
a pinch pin, where the D12f8 clamping shank was inserted.
Fig. 4. General overhaul of the conventional lathe.
Fig. 5. CNC milling machine.

Fig. 6. Short clamping mandrel with collet.
Fig. 7. Adjusting and clamping drill.
The last operation on the milling CNC machining center was the setting, clamping
of the reamer D16H8 Fig. 9 and reaming of the D16H8 hole Fig. 10.
Fig. 8. Drilling of diameter D15.5 mm.
Fig. 9. Adjusting and clamping reamer. Fig. 10. Reaming of diameter D16H8.
2.3 Measurement of Co-axial Alignment of Cylindrical Surfaces

Measurement of co-axial alignment was performed on the THOME 3D measuring
device Fig. 11.
The working environment of a 3D measuring device after measuring the diameter
D16H8 is in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11. Measurement alignment on the 3D measuring device.
Fig. 12. Measurement of diameter D16H8.

The measured values of the diameters D12f8 and D16H8 are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
1 2 3 4 5
D12f8 11.934 11.945 11.947 11.948 11.946
D16H8 16.015 16.016 16.0168 16.0148 16.0155
6 7 8 9 10
D12f8 11.985 11.938 11.939 11.974 11.944
D16H8 16.0149 16.0163 16.01585 16.0168 16.0153
The co-axial alignment was evaluated based on the measured D12 and D16
diameters using the Thome Fig. 13 3D measuring device.
Fig. 13. Deviation of alignment D12f8 and D16H8.
Fig. 14. The assembled thin wall reducing the arbor of a drilling tool with diameter 25 mm.
3 Discussion
The article deals with the design and assessment of nuclear production using milling
technology. Machining technology has been replaced by milling technology as a result
of a general overhaul of the lathe. The clamping mandrel of the reducer allows drilling
of a 16 mm drill bit with a diameter of 12 mm. The technological process, setting and
clamping of tools in the production of the reducer has been selected and executed in
order to achieve a tolerance for IT 8 accuracy.
4 Conclusion
For the production of a reduction mandrel, an unusual method of clamping the tools
and choosing a blank for the welding was used. The design of the reduction mandrel
was supplemented with M8 bore holes and then with a clamping tool with a diameter D
25 mm Fig. 14. Derived values of the measured values of the diameters for D12f8
where the left lower deviation is −34 lm the minimum difference of the deviation is
1.2 lm, a maximum difference of 6.6 lm. D16H8 where the upper deviation is
+28 lm, the minimum variation difference is 11.2 lm, the maximum difference is
13.2 lm. The maximum deviation of alignment 5.5 lm with quadratic error of
3.54 lm corresponds to the functionality of this production run. Practical use has
confirmed the correctness of production and the of measurement a reducer.
Acknowledgements. This work is a part of research project VEGA 1/0045/18.
References
1. Murčinková, Z., et al.: Research and analysis of stress distribution in multilayers of coated
tools. Int. J. Mater. Res. 108, 495–506 (2017)
2. Fedorko, G., et al.: Failure analysis of textile rubber conveyor belt damaged by dynamic
wear. Eng. Fail. Anal. 28, 103–114 (2013)
3. Hosovsky, A., et al.: Preliminary investigation of static and dynamic hysteresis of DMSP-5
fluidic muscle. MM Sci. J. (2018)
4. Miko, E., Nowakowski, L.: Analysis and verification of surface roughness constitution
model after machining process. Procedia Eng. 39, 395–404 (2012)
5. Mantic, M., et al.: Influence of selected digitization methods on final accuracy of 3D model,
pp. 475–480 (2016)
6. Straka, Ľ., et al.: Properties evaluation of thin microhardened surface layer of tool steel after
wire EDM. Metals (Basel) 6, 95 (2016)
7. Liptai, P., et al.: Check measurements of magnetic flux density: equipment design and the
determination of the confidence interval for EFA 300 measuring devices. Meas. J. Int. Meas.
Confed. 111, 51–59 (2017)
8. Baron, P., et al.: Research and application of methods of technical diagnostics for the
verification of the design node. Measurement 94, 245–253 (2016)
9. Lehocka, D., et al.: Comparison of the influence of acoustically enhanced pulsating water jet
on selected surface integrity characteristics of CW004A copper and CW614N brass.
Measurement 110, 230–238 (2017)
10. Nag, A., et al.: Hybrid aluminium matrix composite AWJ turning using olivine and Barton
garnet. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 94, 293–2300 (2018)
11. Monka, P., et al.: Design and experimental study of turning tools with linear cutting edges
and comparison to commercial tools. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 85, 2325–2343 (2016)
12. Srivastava, V.S., et al.: Surface roughness a measurement of in-situ metal matrix composite
Al7075/B4C, vol. 6, pp. 358–362 (2017)
Evaluation of Damage of Almandine Garnet
Grains by N2 Adsorption Method
Lucie Ruppenthalova(&), Petr Martinec, and Lucie Gurková

Studentska 1768, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
lucie.ruppenthalova@ugn.cas.cz
Abstract. Damage of abrasives (e.g. garnet abrasive) represents a current

problem in the AWJ technology. Due to this, possible reuse of the garnet
recyclated from sludge after the cutting by the AWJ technology is investigated.
Geological origin and material properties of almandine garnets (mineralogy,
granularity, grain shape and others) influence this technology significantly. New
parameters of input materials, such as the specific surface area and pore dis-
tribution (criterion of the internal grain damage), are examined by the N2
adsorption method for the evaluation of damage of abrasives.
Parameters of the input abrasive of almandine garnet AG80 and its recyclates
AGR1 and AGR2 were compared in order to determine the degree of the
internal grain damage. Results of measurement of the input abrasive AG80
showed that it is a nonporous or macroporous material with minimal damage of
grains. For the recyclates, the damage of grains was evident. After cutting and
subsequent recycling of garnet grains, the pore structure occurred probably due
to drop out of inclusions from the garnet structure or development of a network
of slits/cracks.
Keywords: Almandine garnet N2 adsorption method Pore distribution

Abrasive water jet
1 Introduction
Natural origin of almandine garnets and their properties are associated with the genesis
of these minerals, e.g. occurrence of primary cracks of natural origin, mineral inclu-
sions and others [1]. These properties influence the use of garnets in the AWJ tech-
nology, e.g. it influences the intensity of abrasive disintegration after passing through
the mixing chamber as described previously [2]. Further disintegration follows after the
interaction of garnet grains with a cutting material. This interaction has influence on the
cutting performance [2].
From the eco-technological and economical point of view, AWJ technologists are
interested in recycling of garnet of suitable grain shape and granularity. Therefore, the
sedimented disintegration slurry is removed after the AWJ cutting process and used for
recycling. Resulting recyclates that are reused during the AWJ cutting can have new
defects in the garnet structure either of the natural or technological origin [1]. These can
be cracks or inclusions which can have influence on the cutting performance [2].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9_60
568 L. Ruppenthalova et al.
In our previous studies, the evaluation of sustainability and damage of grains was
performed by classical methods - optical microscopy [3], density [2, 3], morphology
[2], grain size [3], shape etc. [3] However, these methods are not entirely sufficient for
quantitative evaluation of these damages.
The method we used allows quick quantitative measurement of some surface
parameters and obtained results provide better information about the damage of
material than some traditionally used methods.
The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of application of a simple N2
adsorption method for determination of the type and intensity of internal grain damage
of industrial garnet abrasives. Specific surface area, pore volume and pore distribution
can be used as potential parameters for this determination.
2 Experimental Method
Low-temperature (77.15 K at 101.3 kPa) N2 adsorption method is the method com-

monly used for characterization of pore structures [4]. Analysis of pore structures
was performed using this method on degassed samples (105 °C/24 h, 10 g) of garnet
grains – commercial abrasive of the almandine garnet separated from the rock (AG80)
and its recyclates (AGR1 Recyclate 1 and AGR2 Recyclate 2). The samples were
measured using ASAP 2060 (Micromeritics, USA). The specific surface area (SBET)
was obtained using the Brunauer - Emmett - Teller method [5, 6]. The pore volume and
pore distribution were calculated using the Barrett – Joyner - Halenda theory [7] from
the adsorption branch. Results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of values of the specific surface area of garnet grains (SBET), total pore
volume (VTPV) and classification of materials.
Sample SBET VTPV total Average grain Type of Classification of Type of pores
m2/g pore volume size and S.D. isotherm hysteresis loop
cm3/g µm
Input 0.03 0.000149 263 (64) II. nonporous or
almadine macroporous
garnet AG80 material
AGR1 0.21 0.000705 177 (50) IV. mesoporous ink-bottle-shaped pore
Recyclate 1 material, H2
AGR2 3.27 0.009628 22 (17) IV. mesoporous slit-shaped pore;
Recyclate 2 material, H3 lamelar, disordered
structure

3.1 Properties of Natural Garnets for AWJ Technology
Sources of industrial or commercial garnets used for the AWJ technology correspond to
the genetic type of garnet separated from massive rock. Figure 1 [3] shows the original
solid garnet grain which was divided into partial grains during the crushing
Evaluation of Damage of Almandine Garnet Grains 569
and separation processes. In the figure, the cracks and inclusions are evident [1]. These
cracks have influence on the shape, size and resulting pore structure of grains in the
original garnet product [3]. After the use of the AWJ, all parameters were changed and
became worse detectable by the optical method.
Fig. 1. Thin section of muskovite-garnet schist with an almandine garnet grain [3]. There is
an illustration of the inner structure of the grain with dark fine mineral inclusion and natural cracks
of tectonic origin. Polarized-light optical microscopy, subparallel Nichols. Scale in slide. [3]
3.2 N2 Adsorption and Desorption Isotherms

N2 adsorption method was used for better evaluation of the pore structure and specific
surface area. From this analysis, especially from isotherms, the type of porous material
can be determined [8, 9].
Comparison of the almandine garnet AG80 and its recyclates (AGR1 and AGR2)
is presented in Fig. 2. Difference between individual isotherms is evident. Results
of measurement of the input almandine garnet abrasive AG80 (Fig. 2a) shows that it is a
nonporous or macroporous material (II. type of isotherm, [9]) with minimum damage
of grains or minimum presence of pores lower than 50 nm. The N2 adsorption isotherms
of the recyclates (AGR1 and AGR2) show a hysteresis loop with an absence of a plateau
at high relative pressure (p/p0 > 0.95). According to the classification of the [9], the N2
isotherms are of the IV. type with a hysteresis loop and their shape corresponds to
the type H2 (Fig. 2b) or H3 (Fig. 2c). This indicates the existence of ink-bottle-shaped
and slit-shaped pores [9] (Fig. 3). The ink-bottle-shaped pores probably correspond to
the type of garnets which contain some inclusions which were released from the garnet
structure. The slit-shaped pores probably correspond to the breakdown of the garnet
during the application of the AWJ technology [3]. These shapes of recyclates isotherms
indicate the presence of mesopores, which results in the hysteresis and occurrence of
macropores, which leads to the absence of a plateau [10, 11].
Fig. 2. N2 adsorption isotherms of the AG80 (a) almandine garnet and AGR1 Recyclate 1 (b),
AGR2 Recyclate 2 (c).
Fig. 3. Types of hysteresis loops and their corresponding pore shape [11].
3.3 Pore Structure Calculated from BJH Model

Figure 4 shows differential and cumulative curves calculated from the BJH model
enabling better understanding of the development of pore structures. Shape of the
differential curve in Fig. 4a corresponding to the input garnet AG80 shows the
occurrence of macropores (pores > 50 nm, [9]) and almost negligible amount of
mesopores. Values of these curves are very low and confirm the nonporous or
macroporous character of AG80.
Other two graphs corresponding to the recyclates AGR1 and AGR2 (Fig. 4b and c)
show a shift to lower values of the pore width, i.e. to the area of mesopores (2–50 nm,
[9]). Both graphs confirm higher amount of mesopores. However, these graphs differ
significantly. In Fig. 4b, the differential curve continues in the area of macropores,
which corresponds to the occurrence of sequel of slit-shaped pores. The differential
curve in Fig. 4c clearly shows the maximum value in the area of 20 nm, which cor-
responds to the presence of ink-bottle-shaped pores.
Pore structure is primarily determined by the pore volume, specific surface area
and pore distribution. These parameters obtained from the N2 adsorption are listed
in Table 1. The values of SBET and VTPV show that the AWJ cutting and recycling
process lead to the increase in the specific surface area and total pore volume of garnet
grains and thus to the development of pore structures.
Fig. 4. Cumulative (red) and differential (green) curves calculated from the adsorption branch of
isotherm using the BJH model for the input almandine garnet AG80 (a) and its recyclates AGR2
Recyclate 2 (b), AGR1 Recyclate 1 (c).
4 Summary
According to the results obtained, the almandine garnet grains can be divided into three
groups using the N2 adsorption method, specifying the nature or degrees of the grain
damage:
1. Nonporous or macroporous materials with minimum damage of grains - the input
almandine garnet grains (type AG80).
2. Mesoporous materials with the ink-bottle-shaped pores - garnet grains after the
AWJ cutting and recycling (AGR1). This type of almandine garnets contains some
inclusions which can be released from the garnet surface.
3. Mesoporous materials with the slit-shaped pores or disordered structures, probably
created due to the breakdown of the almandine garnet (e.g. recyclate AGR2).
Results obtained from the N2 adsorption method show that the use of garnet grains
for the AWJ technology causes changes in their pore structure. Comparing them to the
original garnet grains, degree of the grain damage is determined.
The main result of the testing is that this method can be applied in the quantitative
characterization of technological properties of abrasives and can save the time.
Obtained results can be used for overall assessment of the usability of garnet recyclates
in the AWJ technology, avoiding constant mining of new materials, which negatively
affects our environment. In this regard, the issue of recycled abrasives creates space for
the development of effective separation processes and equipment.
Currently, the experiments on determination of abrasive parameters still continue
and the cutting performance of recyclates is investigated on various types of materials.
After realization of these experiments, the used garnets and their recyclates will be
classified according the cutting efficiency.
In these experiments, one genetic type of garnet is used [3], i.e. the commercial
almandine garnet and its recyclates. Next research will be focused on the second type
of garnets [3]. The study will be extended to the testing of new sources of abrasives, not
only garnets. The parameters will be further used as the input information on garnets in
computational models which can predict the interaction of the water jet with abrasives.
These issues are solved in the cooperation with the colleagues from the Institute of
Geonics of the CAS [12]. The results can be interesting for the prediction of abrasive
cutting performances.
Acknowledgement. This article was written within the scope of a project of the Institute of
Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilization of Raw Materials for Energy Use – Sustainability
Program, (Reg. No. LO1406) and project LM201584 Research Infrastructure for Geothermal
Energy, financed by MEYS Czech Republic.
References
1. Martinec, P.: Granáty pro technologie vysokotlakého vodního paprsku (Garnets for AWJT).
VŠB-Technical University, Ostrava, MS (1994). (in Czech)
2. Martinec, P., Foldyna, J., Sitek, L., Ščučka, J., Vašek, J.: Abrasives for AWJ cutting.
Institute of Geonics AS CR, INCO-COPERNICUS no. IC 15-CT98-0821, Ostrava (2002).
ISBN 80-86407-02-0
3. Martinec, P., Hlaváček, P., Ruppenthalova, L., Sitek, L.: Properties and characteristics of
recycled garnet abrasives for AWJ. In: Klichová, D., Sitek, L. (eds.) VODNÍ PAPRSEK
2017 -VÝZKUM, VÝVOJ, APLIKACE, pp. 101–125. Institute of Geonics of the CAS,
Ostrava (2017)
4. Rouquerol, J., Avnir, D., Fairbridge, C.W., Everett, D.H., Haynes, J.H., Pernicone, N.,
Ramsay, J.D.F., Sing, K.S.W., Unger, K.K.: Recommendations for the characterization of
porous solids. Pure Appl. Chem. 66(8), 1739–1758 (1994)
5. Brunauer, S., Emmett, P.H., Teller, E.: Adsorption of gases in multi-molecular layers. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 60(2), 309–319 (1938)
6. ISO 9277:2010. Determination of the specific surface area of solids by gas adsorption – BET
method (2010)
7. Barrett, E.P., Joyner, L.G., Halenda, P.P.: The determination of pore volume and area
distributions in porous substances. I. Computations from nitrogen isotherms. J. Manag. Eng.
24(4), 207–216 (2014)
8. Sing, K.S., Everett, D.H., Haul, R.A.W., Moscou, L., Pierotti, R.A., Rouquerol, J.,
Siemieniewsha, T.: Reporting physisorption data for gas/solid systems with special reference
to the determination of surface area and porosity. Pure Appl. Chem. 57(4), 603–619 (1985)
9. Thommes, M., Kaneko, K., Neimark, A.V., Olivier, J.P., Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., Rouquerol,
J., Sing., K.S.W.: Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface
area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 87(9–10),
1051–1069 (2015)
10. Kuila, U., Mccarty, D.K., Derkowski, A., Fischer, T.B., Prasad, M.: Nanoscale texture and
porosity of organic matter and clay minerals in organic-rich mudrocks. Fuel 136(6), 359–373
(2014)
11. Tingwei, L., Jiang, Z., Chenlu, X., Liu, B., Liu, G., Wang, P., Li, X., Chen, W., Ning, Ch.,
Wang, Z.: Effect of pore structure on shale oil accumulation in the lower third member of the
Shahejie formation, Zhanhua Sag, eastern China: Evidence from gas adsorption and nuclear
magnetic resonance. Mar. Pet. Geol. 88, 932–949 (2017)
12. Říha, Z., Zeleňák, M.: Flow field analysis in abrasive head as tool for high-speed abrasive jet
cutting. In: Klichová, D., Sitek, L. (eds.) VODNÍ PAPRSEK 2017 - VÝZKUM, VÝVOJ,
APLIKACE, pp. 153–163. Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Ostrava (2017)
Author Index
A Dodok, Tomáš, 511

Adamcik, Pavel, 156 Drabek, Lukas, 290
Alessandro, Ruggiero, 45 Drența, Raul Florentin, 531
Allport, John, 375 Drešar, Pavel, 229
Ambrozy, Martin, 557 Duspara, Miroslav, 29
Arca, Emin, 407 Dutta, Sekhar Chandra, 485
Džunda, Róbert, 97
B
Balc, Nicolae, 105 E
Barrans, Simon M., 375 Ergin Esen, H., 407
Bednár, Slavomír, 281
Beno, Pavel, 493 F
Bhise, Shrikant, 518 Feldshtein, Eugene, 398
Birčák, Jaroslav, 163, 386 Fides, Martin, 97
Bocanet, Vlad, 105, 324 Foldyna, Josef, 54
Bodnárová, Lenka, 135
Botko, Frantisek, 386 G
Brzek, Pawel, 476, 539, 548 Gucwa, Marek, 307, 413
Guptaa, Gagan Kumar, 246
C Gurková, Lucie, 567
Cais, Jaromír, 85
Calvo, Roque, 195, 443 H
Chattopadhyaya, Somnath, 85, 156, 220, 431, Habrat, Dorota, 421
518 Habrat, Witold, 205, 237, 421
Chattopadhyayab, Somnath, 246 Habrová, Karolína, 456
Contiu, Glad, 324 Hanser, Eckhart, 11
Čuboňová, Nadežda, 511 Hela, Rudolf, 135
Cuha, Dominik, 63 Hlaváček, Petr, 97, 135
Czan, Andrej, 386 Hloch, Sergej, 63, 85, 97, 156, 173, 264, 351
Hosovsky, Alexander, 281
D Hromasová, Monika, 85
DÁmato, Robert, 456 Hvizdoš, Pavol, 97
D’Amato, Roberto, 195, 443, 465
Das, Alok Kumar, 156 I
Dixit, Amit Rai, 63, 72, 85, 213, 220 Ivandić, Željko, 29

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99353-9
576 Author Index
J Müller, Niklas, 18
Jan, Novotný, 45 Muszynski, Pawel, 476, 539, 548
Jarosz, Krzysztof, 315, 333
Jerman, Marko, 229 N
Nag, Akash, 63, 72
K Nieslony, Piotr, 333, 398
Kargl, Rupert, 220
Karkalos, Nikolaos E., 205 O
Karolína, Habrová, 45 Olaf, Jan M., 11
Kartal, Fuat, 173 Oraon, Manish, 362
Kaufeld, Michael, 264
Kepič, Ján, 163 P
Klich, Jiří, 36, 85, 114, 163 Pagac, Marek, 290
Klichová, Dagmar, 36, 114 Palatinuš, Tomislav, 29
Kot, Wlodzimierz, 254 Panc, Nicolae, 324
Kováčik, Jaroslav, 97 Parle, Dattatraya, 518
Kozak, Dražan, 3 Pastucha, Peter, 493
Krejčí, Lucie, 163 Perec, Andrzej, 124
Krescanko, Michal, 351 Petr, Valášek, 45
Krile, Srecko, 493 Petrovan, Adrian, 299
Krolczyk, Grzegorz M., 341 Petru, Jana, 290
Krolczyk, Jolanta B., 254 Petruš, Michal, 557
Krupa, Krzystof, 205 Pimenov, Danil Yu, 341
Krupa, Krzysztof, 237 Piteľ, Jan, 281
Kučera, Marián, 493 Poklemba, Robert, 183
Kuric, Ivan, 511 Pollák, Martin, 502
Kužma, Jozef, 351 Pop, Adrian Dan, 531
Popan, Alina Ioan, 105
L Popan, Ioan Alexandru, 105
Laskowski, Piotr, 237 Poszwa, Przemyslaw, 476, 539, 548
Lebar, Andrej, 229 Prijatelj, Miha, 229
Legutko, Stanislaw, 254, 341 Puchý, Viktor, 97
Lehocká, Dominika, 163 Pude, Frank, 144
Lissek, Fabian, 264
Löschner, Piotr, 315, 333 R
Radchenko, Svetlana, 386
M Radic, Pavol, 386
Majstorovic, Vidosav, 493 Riha, Zdenek, 144
Majumder, Rohan, 485 Roberto, D’Amato, 45
Makles, Krzysztof, 307, 413 Roshan, Kahane, 518
Marić, Dejan, 29 Rudolf, Rebeka, 220
Martinec, Petr, 567 Ruggiero, Alessandro, 443, 456, 465
Maruda, Radoslaw W., 254, 341 Ruppenthalova, Lucie, 567
Merola, Massimiliano, 195 Rus, Gabriel, 531
Mesicek, Jakub, 290
Michalik, Peter, 557 S
Mičian, Milos, 413 Sabotin, Izidor, 229
Miroslav, Müller, 45 Samardžić, Ivan, 29
Modrak, Vladimir, 183 Schlatter, Manfred, 18
Molnár, Vieroslav, 557 Sedivy, Jiri, 290
Mrozek, Krzysztof, 476 Sedlák, Richard, 97
Müller, Miroslav, 195, 456 Shariq, Mohammed, 220
Muller, Miroslav, 85 Sharma, Anuj Kumar, 213
Author Index 577
Sharma, Vinay, 362 U

Sieniawski, Jan, 237 Ungureanu, Miorita, 299
Simkulet, Vladimír, 163, 386 Ungureanu, Nicolae Stelian, 299
Singh, Mahip, 213 Ungureanu, Nicolae, 443, 465
Singh, Rabesh Kumar, 213
Sitek, Libor, 135
Soltysova, Zuzana, 183 V
Souček, Kamil, 114, 144 Valášek, Petr, 195, 443, 456
Sridutt, Meduri Venkata, 220 Valentinčič, Joško, 229
Srivastava, Ashish Kumar, 72 Vardhan, Pasagada Venkata Keerti, 220
Srivastava, Madhulika, 85 Vortel, Ondrej, 290
Srivastava, Vishal Shankar, 72
Stadnicka, Dorota, 421
Stoić, Antun, 29 W
Štorkan, Zdeněk, 163 Winczek, Jerzy, 307, 413
Szostak, Marek, 548 Wojciechowski, Szymon, 254, 341
Wuriti, Gowri Shankar, 431
T
Thomas, Tessy, 431
Y
Thompson, Andrew, 375
Yagimli, Mustafa, 407
Tirpak, Peter, 557
Tiwari, Arun Kumar, 213
Tiwari, Sandeep, 72 Z
Tkáč, Jozef, 502 Zajac, Jozef, 386
Tozan, Hakan, 407 Zelenak, Michal, 144
Tripathi, Rupam, 156 Židek, Kamil, 281
Tristo, Gianluca, 229 Zlámal, Tomáš, 36, 290

Advances in Manufacturing Engineering and Materials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advances in Manufacturing Engineering and Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11236

Grzegorz M. Krolczyk Somnath Chattopadhyaya

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018952477

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

invited to give keynote lectures in their respective ﬁelds of competence: vice-rector

Water Jet Technology supported by ANT Company

Gold Award: Madhulika Srivastava from Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Conventional Machining supported by KLENK Company:

Gold Award: Fabian Lissek from Institute of Production Engineering and

Moreover, it is also a pleasure to acknowledge the support of Illimité, Lemur,

Water Jet Technology Session

Parametric Study During Abrasive Water Jet Turning of Hybrid

(Un)conventional Technology Session

Recognition of Assembly Parts by Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . 281

Preliminary Study of Residual Stress Measurement Using Eddy

Study of Cutting Tool Durability at a Short-Term Discontinuous

Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,

Abstract. Smart countries encourage students to enroll study programs in so-

Keywords: STEM study programs Graduates Eastern Europe

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Fig. 1. Ability to hire the right engineering staff by geography [2].

Expected growth of job positions in STEM issues as projected by the U.S.

Fig. 2. STEM job growth as projected by the U.S. Department of Labor.

2 The Role and Responsibility of the Government

2.1 Investment to R&D

Fig. 4. Share in EU GDP total, 2016 (%) [5].

Fig. 5. Impact of R&D on economic recovery.

2.2 Correlation Between Scientiﬁc Potential and GDP on the Example

A share of only 40% of students/graduates in STEM ﬁeld cannot make Croatian

Jan M. Olaf(&) and Eckhart Hanser

University Center IT Management and Computer Science, Baden-Wuerttemberg

Keywords: Industry 4.0 Industrial internet of things

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Fig. 1. Manufacturing ecosystem.

2 IoT Impact on Manufacturing Ecosystem

2.1 Production Logistics

2.3 Distributed Manufacturing

2.4 Quality Management and Predictive Maintenance

(structure-borne sound) [14] can be detected during assembly, machining or bonding

Fig. 2. Direct and indirect production (process) data and parameters.

necessarily needs to be very complex, however, the overall complexity is increased by

3 Product Related Aspects

Fig. 3. Manufacturing ecosystem with data integration platform approach.

5 Conclusion and Future Scope

Manfred Schlatter(&) and Niklas Müller

Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg, 79539 Lörrach, Germany

Keywords: Gear Gear wheels Chamfering Automation Simulation

1 Initial Situation and Formation of Burr

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

2 Known Processes for Deburring and Gear Chamfering

Fig. 3. Technology “Chamfer Cut” [2].

Fig. 5. Roll chamfering [4].

Fig. 6. Milling tool of the device called “Gratomat” [1].

3 The New Method for Gear Chamfering

In gear chamfering a method is missing which works fast, produces an accurate

Fig. 12. View of the special chamfering machine in 3D.

Miroslav Duspara1(&), Tomislav Palatinuš2, Dejan Marić1,

Abstract. The recycling or reuse of material in production becomes as a saving

Keywords: Recycling Abrasive Water jet Barton garnet MESH 80

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Fig. 1. Wear of abrasive in AWJ flow [3].