Reading and Writing Skills

Senior High School Core Subject

 Chapter 1
READING AND THINKING STRATEGIES ACROSS TEXT TYPES

Standards:
Content: The learner realizes that the information in a written
text maybe selected and organized to achieve
particular purpose.
Performance: The learner critiques a chosen sample of each pattern
of development focusing on information selection,
organization, and development.
Lesson 1

Text as Connected Discourse

According to Cornbleet and Carter (2001), “text can be used for both written and spoken
language. It usually refers to a stretch, an extract or complet e piece of writing or speech. Texts
generally adhere to broad conventions and rules which determine the language and structure used
in particular text types.” The word “text” is derived from Latin word texere which means - to
weave.
According to Scott Thornbury, Beyond the Sentence, p 19, Macmillan, 2005, text in
general are:
• Self-contained
• Well-formed
• Hang together (cohesive)
• Make sense (coherent)
• Have a clear communicative purpose
• Are recognisable text types
• Are appropriate to their contexts of use
“Knowing what a sentence means is one thing, but knowing what ismeant by an
utterance is another” as mentioned by H.G. Widdowson Discourse Analysis, p. 13, OUP,
2007
So what is discourse? “Discourse can be anything from a grunt or single expletive,
through short conversations and scribbled notes right up to Tolstoy’s novel, War and Peace,
or a lengthy legal case as reiterated by Guy Cook, Discourse, p 7. OUP, 1989. He added that
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 “This latter kind of language – language in use, for communication – is called discourse; and
the search for what gives discourse coherence is discourse analysis. […] What matters is not
its conformity to rules, but the fact that it communicates and is recognized by its receivers as
coherent”
Moreso, magnifying written text as a connected discourse, we have started with the
identification of what text is. It is a necessity to acknowledge texts are written to send purpose
and give specific message. To achieve that, we have to go further than the beauty of the text but
to inculcate a degree of linguistic competence. It is significant to remember that texts are
considered triumphant when it is well written and served its purpose. The author must be
“perfect” in combining the form and function and the context of the text. These make the text as
connected discourse.

Originally the word 'discourse' comes from the Latin word 'discursus' which means
'conversation speech'. Discourse is a term used in Linguistics to refer to a continuous stretch of
especially spoken language larger than a sentence. At its most general, a discourse is a
behavioral unit which has a pre-theoretical status in linguistics: it is a set of utterances which
constitute any recognizable speech event, conversation, joke, sermon, interview and many more.
(Crystal, Dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, 3rd ed. 1991)

On the other hand, connected speech or connected discourse refers to a spoken language that
is used in a continuous sequence, as in normal conversations. There is often a significant
difference between the way words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced
in the context of connected speech.

Referring to Sara Howard’s meaning of connected speech, it is more than just a string of
individual target segments joined together in series, since each segment is liable to influence the
segments that surround it. The precise form that these influences take is determined by the
particular language in question, and so the phonology of connected speech is part of the
phonology of the language that the child has to master.

Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming a speaker and a hearer as
discourse. (Benvenisle, 1971: 208-9) From this, it can be inferred that connected discourse is
also applicable in a written text.

Devices for Analyzing a Written Text as Connected Discourse

1. Cohesion- refers to the ties and connections which exist within texts that link
different parts of sentences or larger unit of discourse.
(a) Anaphoric Relation- it refers to an interpretation of text from
some previously expressed identity.

(b) Cataphoric Relation- it means referring forward. It refers to the

identity of what is being expressed and
what is to be expressed.

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 2. Cohesive Devices-tell the reader what we are doing in a sentence and help to guide
them through our writing. They signal to the reader what the relationships are between
the different clauses, sentences and paragraphs.

Examples: again, equally, in fact, also, furthermore, moreover, and, in addition to, and
then, indeed, what is more, besides, naturally, still, but, nevertheless, whereas, however,
of course, while and etc.

3. Coherence- language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of

knowledge of the world they possess. Coherence is not something which exists in the
language but something which exists in people. By using coherence the reader sees
semantic unity in the paragraph.

Weak Example: For me, the worst thing about waiting tables is the uniform. All
the waitresses had to wear this ugly brown striped jumper.
The shirts were polyester. Sometimes someone you know comes in. Now I have a
job in an office.

Strong Example: For me, the worst thing about waiting tables was the
uniform. At the last place I worked, all the waitresses had to wear an
ugly brown striped jumper. Underneath it we had to wear an even uglier polyester
shirt. Sometimes someone I knew would come in and
I'd feel embarrassed by my outfit. Now I have a job in an office, where I can wear
my own clothes.

4. Parallelism- means side by side. In some piece of literature, some comparisons or

contrasts go side by side with each other. It helps to interpret the whole text.

Example: In Jane Austen’s ‘Pride and Prejudice’, good marriages

and bad marriages are compared and contrasted on parallel levels.

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 1
Direction: Read carefully the selection below. Examine the story by using the devices to
analyze a text as a connected discourse.
The Father
One young academically excellent person went to apply for a managerial position in a big
company. He passed the first interview, the director did the last interview, made the last decision.
The director discovered from the CV that the youth’s academic achievements were excellent all
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the way, from the secondary school until the postgraduate research, Never had a year when he
did not score.
The director asked, “Did you obtain any scholarships in school?” The youth answered
“none”.
The director asked, “Was it your father who paid for your school fees?” The youth
answered, “My father passed away when I was one year old, it was my mother who paid for my
school fees”.
The director asked, “Where did your mother work?” The youth answered, “My mother
worked as clothes cleaner. The director requested the youth to show his hands. The youth
showed a pair of hands that were smooth and perfect”.
The director asked, “Have you ever helped your mother wash the clothes before?” The
youth answered, “Never, my mother always wanted me to study and read more books.
Furthermore, my mother can wash clothes faster than me”.
The director said, “I have a request. When you go back today, go and clean your mother’s
hands, and then see me tomorrow morning”.
The youth felt that his chance of landing the job was high. When he went back, he
happily requested his mother to let him clean her hands. His mother felt strange, happy but with
mixed feelings, she showed her hands to the kid. The youth cleaned his mother’s hands slowly.
His tear fell as he did that. It was the first time he noticed that his mother’s hands were so
wrinkled, and there were so many bruises in her hands. Some bruises were so painful that his
mother shivered when they were cleaned with water.
This was the first time the youth realized that it was this pair of hands that washed the
clothes everyday to enable him to pay the school fee. The bruises in the mother’s hands were the
price that the mother had to pay for his graduation, academic excellence and his future. After
finishing the cleaning of his mother’s hands, the youth quietly washed all the remaining clothes
for his mother. That night, mother and son talked for a very long time. Next morning, the youth
went to the director’s office.
The Director noticed the tears in the youth’s eyes, asked:  “Can you tell me what have
you done and learned yesterday in your house?” The youth answered, “I cleaned my mother’s
hand, and also finished cleaning all the remaining clothes”.
The Director asked, “please tell me your feelings”. The youth said, “Number 1, I know
now what is appreciation. Without my mother, there would not the successful me today. Number
2, By working together and helping my mother, only I now realize how difficult and tough it is to
get something done. Number 3, I have come to appreciate the importance and value of family
relationship”.
The director said, “This is what I am looking for to be my manager. I want to recruit a
person who can appreciate the help of others, a person who knows the sufferings of others to get
things done, and a person who would not put money as his only goal in life. You are hired”.
Later on, this young person worked very hard, and received the respect of his subordinates.

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Every employee worked diligently and as a team. The company’s performance improved
tremendously.

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Lesson 2
Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information
It is very effective that in reading and writing, we can distinguish between and among techniques
in selecting and organizing information. There are several techniques which we can utilize to
improve information organization:

a) brainstorming list
b) graphic organizer
c) topic outline
d) sentence outline

Brainstorming List
Brainstorming is a process in which the writer collaborates with others to explore topics,
develops ideas, and/or proposes solutions to a problem. Brainstorming list is a well-known
strategy in selecting and organizing information where every participant is encouraged to write
any ideas, suggestions and thoughts related to the given topic. This concept was introduced by
Alex Osborn in his book Applied Imagination: Principles and Practices of Creative
Thinking (1953).

There are four basic rules in brainstorming intended to reduce social inhibitions among team
members, stimulate idea generation, and increase overall creativity:

No criticism: Criticism of ideas are withheld during the brainstorming session as the purpose
is on generating varied and unusual ideals and extending or adding to these ideas. Criticism is
reserved for the evaluation stage of the process. This allows the members to feel comfortable
with the idea of generating unusual ideas.

Welcome unusual ideas: Unusual ideas are welcomed as it is normally easier to "tame down"
than to "tame up" as new ways of thinking and looking at the world may provide better
solutions.

Quantity Wanted: The greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of
producing a radical and effective solution.

Combine and improve ideas: Not only are a variety of ideals wanted, but also ways to
combine ideas in order to make them better.

Gordon (2014) enumerated the basic techniques in having the best results of
brainstorming lists:
 Nominal Group Technique- participants provide their ideas anonymously. The facilitator
let the group of participant individually list the ideas about the given concept and collect
it in the end.

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  Group Passing Technique- individual participants write down an idea and passed it to the
other member of the group. The adding of details and ideas will happen until each
participant has shared or commented on everyone else’s ideas.
 Electronic Brainstorming- means brainstorming through the use of an electronic medium;
individuals list their ideas on a collaborative network. The benefit of electronic let the
participant contribute even they do not have the same location at a time.
 Question Brainstorming- participants attempt to produce questions rather than just ideas.
The questions are used to inspire thought in others.
 Mind Mapping- employs a diagram to visually capture information surrounding an idea
or situation. The process begins by placing a word in the center of a page of board. The
participants in the mind map provide words that relate expand upon the central term.

The techniques stated above are the brainstorming lists that are effective in developing ideas
and expanding thoughts of a certain concepts.

Graphic Organizer
Graphic organizers help students organize ideas, see relationships, and retain information
through the use of visual representations, icons and symbols. Many organizers have more than
one purpose depending on their usage. Graphic organizers come in many different forms, each
one best suited to organizing a particular type of information. The following examples are
merely a sampling of the different types and uses of graphic organizers.

a) Organizing a hierarchical set of information, reflecting subordinate elements, is made

easier by constructing a Network Tree.

b) When information
contains cause and
effect problems
and solutions, a Problem and Solution Map can be useful for organizing

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c) A Venn diagram is effective in comparing and contrasting two different concepts by their
features.

d) A series of
Events Chain can help students organize information according to various steps or stages

e) A Cycle Map is useful for organizing

information that is circular or cyclical,
with no absolute beginning or ending

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 f) When cause-effect relationships are complex and non-redundant a Fishbone Map may be
particularly useful.

Outline

Another way of
organizing and selecting ideas is outlining. There are two types of outlining namely topic outline
and sentence outline.

 A topic outline provides a quick overview of topics to be included in an essay. 

Remember that a topic outline lists words or phrases. As the name implies, it identifies
all the little mini-topics that your paper will comprise, and shows how they relate.
Several aspects must be considered in writing a topic outline.
1. Recall that all headings and subheadings must be words or phrases, not sentences.
2. Also, the wording within each division must be parallel.
3. Finally, as in any outline, remember that a division or subdivision cannot be divided into
one part; therefore, if there is an "A" there must be a "B," and if there is a "1" there must
be a "2."

Here’s an example of a Topic Outline:

I. Family Problems
      A. Custodial: Non-custodial Conflicts
      B. Extended Family
      C. Adolescent's Age
II. Economic Problems
      A. Child Support
      B. Women's Job Training
      C. Lower Standard of Living
      D. Possible Relocation
III. Peer Problems
      A. Loss of Friends
      B. Relationships with Dates

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  In a sentence outline, the thesis and topic sentence of each supporting paragraph are fully
written out.  The sentence outline forces part of the essay to be written out in sentences
before the first draft. (http://bcourses.berkeley.edu)

I. This is the first main point

A. This is the first sub-point under I

B. This is the second sub-point under I

1. Sub-point B has its own sub-points

2. But you’d only list them if there were more than one

II. Here’s the second main point

A. It has two sub-points

B. But this one has no sub-sub points

There are multiple patterns you can use for outlines, each serving a unique purpose. 
Generally speaking, the following outlines represent possible structures for organizing your
essay:

 Compare - Contrast
 Chronological
 Sequential
 Advantages - Disadvantages / Pros vs. Cons
 Cause - Effect
 Problem - Solution
 Topic-specific

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 2
Direction: Here is ample information about newspaper. Choose one or several graphic
presentations that will organize the information given. Write your answer on a separate sheet.
Ten Great Activities: Teaching With the Newspaper
Newspapers tended to be used only by secondary school social studies teachers in two-
week units or for Friday current events sessions. Now, however, newspapers are used throughout
the school year in every area of the curriculum.
Nola KortnerAiex (2016), points out that newspapers:
 are an adult medium that students of all ability levels can be proud to be seen reading.
 deal in what's happening here and now, providing motivation for reading and discussion.
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  make learning fun.
 are extremely flexible and adaptable to all curriculum areas and grade levels.
 bridge the gap between the classroom and the "real" world.
 build good reading habits that will last a lifetime.
 can be cut, marked, clipped, pasted, filed, and recycled.
 give everyone something to read -- news, sports, weather, editorials, and comics.
 are a cost-effective way to educate.
 contain practical vocabulary and the best models of clear, concise writing.
Some Advantages of Newspaper are :
1 Newspaper is read by huge number of population, so news or information can be made
available easily.
2 Newspaper is not very expensive so anyone can buy newspaper.
3 If anyone wants to publish advertisement or any useful information then he can publish easily
in any size format or any page of newspaper.
4 Reader can read news any time whenever he wish and able to read information again and
again.
5 Now a days newspaper is made available  directly to your house by many vendors, so no need
to go and buy newspaper everyday.
6 Newspaper is available in various languages so you can choose the newspaper of your choice.
7 Newspapers are lighter in weight hence it is easy to carry anywhere you want.
8 Almost all the latest news are covered in the newspaper which gives information about the
latest trend going on in the world.
9 You can also increase vocabulary and general knowledge by reading newspaper daily and
regularly.
10 Weather report, sports events, business news, local news as well as world news is
available in newspaper.
11 Entertaining things like puzzles, stories and crosswords are also available in the
newspaper.
12 Newspaper are ecofriendly and easy to recycle.
Some Disadvantages of Newspaper are:
1. In some of the newspaper the advertisement space may be expensive.
2. As the Internet, Television or Radio are used widely by many people , so advertisers
prefer newspaper less for advertisement compared to Internet and other medias.
3. Newspaper can be easily discarded once read, so less chances for advertiser to convert
the advertisement into leads or sale.

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 4. Competitors can easily see the price of your product and hence they quickly react to your
prices.
5. Sometimes in some newspaper the news which are shown are false. The news are even
twisted and distorted.
6. Sometimes poor printed image quality is seen in the newspaper.
Parts of Newspaper
Parts or sections of the newspaper includes:
The News Section
The Opinion Section
The Entertainment Section
The Sport Section
The Classified Section

The News Section

The News section is always first in a newspaper. News is the reason for the existence of
the newspaper so it makes sense that this would be featured
most prominently.
The front page is usually devoted to stories from the local
community, state, national and international news events. The
rest of the section will offer both national and international
news.
Next there is a local news section devoted to newsworthy
stories from around the region or city the newspaper covers.
A news story always has a lead, which is the first couple of
sentences of the article. The lead will always include the most
important details of the story: who, what, where, when, why,
and how. One can find out what has happened by only reading
the lead of an article.
News stories are also supposed to remain objective. The
standard of objectivity refers to the prevailing ideology of
news-gathering and reporting that emphasizes eyewitness
accounts of events, corroboration of facts with multiple sources and balance of viewpoints.
Photojournalism
This photo was taken by an official Coast Guard photographer, Robert F. Sargent during
one of the first amphibious assault waves at Normandy June 6, 1944. It is considered one of the
finest examples of photojournalism today.
(This image or file is a work of a United States Coast Guard service personnel or employee,
taken or made during the course of that person's official
duties.As a work of the U.S. federal government, the
image or file is in the public domain.)
Photojournalism is a particular form of
journalism (the collecting, editing, and presenting of
news material for publication or broadcast) that creates
images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually
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understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in
broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography
(such as documentary photography, street photography or celebrity photography) by the qualities
of:
Timeliness — the images have meaning in the context of a recently published record of events.
Objectivity — the situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the
events they depict in both content and tone.
Narrative — the images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer
or reader on a cultural level.
Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter but he or she must often make decisions instantly
and carry photographic equipment, often while exposed to significant obstacles (physical danger,
weather, crowds).

The Opinion Section

Following the local news is the opinion section. Here, the objective, non-biased style of
reporting is exchanged for opinion based editorials.
An editorial is a type of journalism article that is meant to persuade the reader to think a
certain way about an issue. Editorials can be written about local, national, or international issues.
The opinion section will usually include editorials written by prominent national writers. Also
included in this section is letter to the editors, where
readers are able to get their opinions and viewpoints
about issues published in the paper. Editorial
cartoons are always a significant part of this section
as well.
Editorial Cartoons
An editorial cartoon, also known as a political
cartoon, is an illustration or comic strip containing a
political or social message that usually relates to
current events or personalities. Editorial cartoons can
usually be found on the editorial page of most
newspapers, although a few, like Garry Trudeau's
Doonesbury are sometimes found on the regular
comic page.
Recently, many radical or minority issue editorial cartoonists,
who would previously have been obscure, have found large audiences
on the internet. Cartoons can be very diverse, but there is a certain
established style among most of them. Most use visual metaphors and
caricatures to explain complicated political situations, and thus sum
up a current event with a humorous or emotional picture.
The Sports Section
The Sports Section of a newspaper features information on
local sports events, including high school sports teams. Also, college
level sports are covered in this section, both on a regional and
national level. National sports leagues like the NBA, the Major Leagues, NHL, and the NFL are
featured on a regular basis. Different days of the week will usually emphasize different sports
events. You are more likely to see national teams featured after a weekend when there are more
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sporting events.
Sports journalism is a form of journalism that reports on sports topics and events. While
the sports department within some newspapers has been mockingly called the toy department,
because sports journalists do not concern themselves with the 'serious' topics covered by the
news desk, sports coverage has grown in importance as sport has grown in wealth, power and
influence.
Sports journalism is an essential element of any news media organization. Sports
journalism includes organizations devoted entirely to sports reporting — newspapers such as
L'Equipe in France, La Gazzettadello Sport in Italy, Marca in Spain, and American magazines
such as Sports Illustrated and the Sporting News, all-sports talk radio stations, and television
networks such as Eurosport, ESPN and The Sports Network (TSN).
Sports teams are not always very accommodating to journalists: in the United States,
while they allow reporters into locker rooms for interviews and some extra information, sports
teams provide extensive information support, even if reporting it is unfavorable to them.
Elsewhere in the world, particularly in the coverage of soccer, the journalist's role is often
barely tolerated by the clubs and players. For example, despite contractual media requirements in
the English Premier League, prominent managers Sir Alex Ferguson (of Manchester United) and
Harry Redknapp (first at Portsmouth, now at Tottenham) have refused to conduct post-match
interviews with the BBC because of unfavorable coverage by the television channel's news
department.
As with reporters on other news beats, sports
journalism involves investigating the story, rather than simply
relying on press releases and prepared statements from the
sports team, coaching staff, or players. Sports journalists
verify facts given to them by the athletes, teams, leagues, or
organizations they are covering.
Access for sports journalists is usually easier for North
American professional and intercollegiate sports such as
football, ice hockey, basketball and baseball where the
commercial relationship between media coverage and
increased ticket, merchandise, or advertising sales, is better
understood.
The Entertainment Section
The Entertainment Section of a newspaper has feature
articles that can focus on different aspects of culture.
Human Interest stories are most likely to appear in this section. A human interest story is
a feature story that discusses a person or persons in an interactive and/or emotional way. It
presents people and their problems, concerns, or achievements in a way that brings about interest
or sympathy in the reader or viewer.
Diverse topics as food, fashion, the arts, trends, music,
film, gaming, and a variety of other interests are likely to appear
in the entertainment section. Comics, advice columns and
horoscopes will usually be included in this section.
The Classifieds
Classified advertising is a form of advertising which is
particularly common in newspapers, online and other
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periodicals, e.g. free ads papers. Classified advertising differs from standard advertising or
business models in that it allows private individuals (not simply companies or corporate entities)
to solicit sales for products and services.
Classified advertising is usually text-only and can consist of as little as the type of item
being sold and a telephone number to call for more information. It can also have much more
detail, such as name to contact, address to contact or visit, a detailed description of the product or
products ("pants and sweaters, size 10" as opposed to "clothing", "red 1996 Pontiac Grand Prix"
as opposed to "automobile"). There are generally no pictures or other graphics within the
advertisement, although sometimes a logo may be used.
Classified advertising is called such because it is generally grouped within the publication
under headings classifying the product or service being offered (headings such as Accounting,
Automobiles, Clothing, Farm Produce, For Sale, For Rent, etc.) and is grouped entirely in a
distinct section of the periodical, which makes it distinct from display advertising, which often
contains graphics or other art work and which is more typically distributed throughout a
publication adjacent to editorial content.
In 2003, the market for classified ads in the United States was $15.9 billion (newspapers),
$14.1 billion (online) according to market researcher Classified Intelligence. Newspapers have
continued their downward trend in classifieds revenue as internet classifieds grow. Research
from The Washington Post.com tells us that classified advertising at some of the larger
newspaper chains has dropped 14% to 20% in 2007 while traffic to classified sites has grown
23%.

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 3
Direction: Below is a tree diagram. From the graphic presentation or non linear text, transpose
it to a linear text.

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Picture source: http://sixsigmastudyguide.com/tree-diagram/

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Lesson 3
Patterns of Development
A PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT in writing refers to the particular strategy writers
use to develop ideas. It is the logical arrangement of thoughts. Whether you are aware of it or
not, you already use patterns of development to express yourself. The different patterns help you
follow ideas easily and understand a text better. Learning to use these patterns of development
in writing is not difficult: you will need to familiarize yourself with key transitional expressions
that send a signal to the reader that a particular pattern is being used, and you will need to make
conscious decisions about which strategies best develops your ideas. There are several patterns
of development used: narration, description, definition, exemplification, comparison-contrast,
classification and division, problem-solution and persuasion.

I. NARRATION
NARRATION is written to explain what, when and who. It reveals what a reader should
learn and usually written in chronological order.

A narrative is a story. As a method of development, storytelling can be very effective for

the simple reason that people love to hear stories, and will tune in to a story when their eyes
glaze over at other styles of writing. Even when your purpose is to write an essay that is
primarily to inform, analyze or argue, a narrative paragraph can be effective at drawing the
reader in and establishing your voice in the essay. A story takes place over a period of time and
is built around people doing things—thinking, talking, running, etc. Therefore, narrative
paragraphs are characterized by words that show action and words that show sequence.

Example:
I took up the river road as hard as I could put. By and by I begin to hear guns a good
ways off. When I came in sight of the log store and the woodpile where the steamboats lands I
worked along under the trees and brush till I got to a good place, and then I clumb up into the
forks of a cottonwood that was out of reach, and watched. There was a wood-rank four foot high
a little ways in front of the tree, and first I was going to hide behind that; but maybe it was
luckier I didn't.
- The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain

For the most part, logical sequence of actions supplies the narrative sequence: "I took off.
. . I heard guns . . . I worked along under the trees." By virtue of the linear arrangement of these
sentences, the reader assumes the actions take place in sequence. However, here and there,
transitions are needed to emphasize important time relationships, as in the phrase "by and by."
Some of the common transitional expressions used in narrative writing are meanwhile,
eventually, soon, later, first, second, then, finally, also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in
addition, and too.

Meanwhile, the controlling idea in a narrative paragraph presents some difficulty for
developing writers in that they think of a story as a series of events without natural breaks.
However, a controlling idea is important, even in a narrative paragraph, because it gives the

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reader information about what to do with the details that follow. In a narrative paragraph it is
useful to think of paragraphs as scenes, and the controlling idea as a kind of wide angle shot on
the scene. Further shots take the reader into the scene emphasizing details and actions that will
take place in that scene. For example, in the previous paragraph from Huckleberry Finn, the
controlling idea for the scene is "I took up the river road as hard as I could put." What follows is
what happened when he took off and went up the river road—he hides in a tree from the men
with guns. A new paragraph will begin when the scene changes, or when our attention is directed
toward a new event—which in the case of Huckleberry Finn is the arrival of the men with guns.

Concrete and Specific Detail:

Descriptive details in a narrative paragraph are essential to a good story. Details help
readers to connect to the world the author envisions. Good writers, therefore, spend a lot of time
trying to find the right words for their meaning, choosing concrete and specific expressions,
rather than abstract or general ones. Consider the difference between the general and specific,
and abstract and concrete expressions below to see what a difference the right words can make:

Specific / General
blue hamster / pet
banana squash / vegetable
red and white umbrella with a broken spoke / rain gear

Concrete / Abstract
He kissed her and smiled into her eyes. / He loved her.

Her hands were shaking and she was afraid her knees would not support her. / She was
scared.

As the sun passed under the horizon, the sky turned hot pink and gold, and rays of
brighter gold fanned across the sky into the high clouds above. / It was a beautiful sunset.

The concrete and specific expressions get a reader's attention far more effectively than
the abstract and general expressions do. A reader can imagine specific things far more readily
than general concepts. Part of your revision process should included finding concrete and
specific expressions for your ideas.

In an essay that emphasizes narration, you make a point and incorporate one central story
or several brief stories as support. Colorful details and interesting events that build up to a point
make these essays enjoyable for readers and writers alike. Life requires recalling events for
different purposes. Students tell stories to teachers explaining why they didn’t get their
homework done. Witnesses recall events to police officers and juries. Boards and committees
have to keep detailed minutes of all meetings. All of these examples require people to remember
the events in order, provide details that affect meaning and understanding, and relay the
information to others in a clear and coherent manner. Unlike a narrative paragraph that only
focuses on telling a story, an essay that emphasizes narration may also contain description,
argument, cause and effect, and/or research. As you have seen in the paragraph development
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sections, different modes require different forms of writing, so it is important to use the specific
modes and writing techniques where and when needed. The purpose of your essay will determine
what events should be told, what events should be eliminated, and what strategies should be
employed when writing.

II.DESCRIPTION

DESCRIPTION provides details on the idea by using either a sensory or spatial pattern.
Through a sensory pattern, ideas are arranged based on one or all of the five senses. Important
elements of this pattern are the types of description used, the clustering of details and the
progression of description. Some signal words used in this pattern of development are above,
across, adjacent to, away from, behind, beyond, farther, in front of, near, opposite to,
throughout, to the right, under, etc. Description can be subjective or objective.

Subjective Description:

Writers use descriptive paragraphs most often in fiction. Just think of lines like "It was a
dark and stormy night," or "The mountains loomed above them." Description of time and place
draws readers into other worlds and sets the stage where a story can unfold. Description of
characters, their appearance, mannerisms, and utterances, helps us imagine what people are like,
as in this description of Caroline Meeber by Theodore Dreiser in his novel Sister Carrie:

Caroline, or Sister Carrie, as she had been half afffectionately termed by the family, was
possessed of a mind rudimentary in its power of observation and analysis. Self-interest with her
was high, but not strong. It was nevertheless, her guiding characteristic. Warm with the fancies
of youth, pretty with the insipid prettiness of the formative period, possessed of a figure
promising eventual shapeliness and an eye alight with certain native intelligence, she was a fair
example of the middle American class . . . " (Dreiser 1)

In this type of description, the author is describing an impression of what is observed.

What is described is subjective: the reader experiences the world as it appears to the author or the
narrator in a story and learns what is important to the person recording the description.

Objective Description:

Description is also used in reportorial and scientific writing, or other writing in which the
goal is to present an objective picture of an object or scene. In these writing situations, the writer
attempts to stay away from emotional impressions or responses, and instead report what is seen,
as a video camera records a scene, as in the following example:

The Acer barbatum is a small to medium-sized, deciduous tree usually ranging from 15–
25 m. (50–80 ft.) tall when mature. Bark is light gray and smooth on younger trees, becoming
ridged and furrowed with age. Leaves are opposite and shallowly to deeply palmately lobed,
with a few blunt teeth but no serrations. The leaf sinuses are rounded, unlike those of red maple

20
(Acer rubrum) which are sharply V-shaped. Also, the sides of terminal leaf lobes are more or
less parallel, while those of red maple are widest at the base, tapering to the tip. . . . (Sieberling)

It is important to note that while being objective may be a writer's goal, getting past
biases can be difficult. What a writer notices and chooses to describe as well as what a writer
leaves out of a description is influenced by many factors: the purpose for writing, how the writer
feels about the subject, the writer's age, ethnic and cultural background, cultural contexts for
writing, and gender, too. Therefore, part of writing good objective description, is being aware of
one's own biases.

Furthermore, in writing a description, whether your goal is to write an objective or

subjective description, your paragraph should have a clear controlling idea so that your reader
knows what to do with your descriptive details. In subjective description, that controlling idea
should be a dominant impression of a particular scene or person. Supporting details should help
the reader understand the dominant impression. For example, "It was a gloomy morning," is an
example of a dominant impression. Good supporting details could include "The morning air felt
damp and cold. People huddled inside their coats."

In an objective description, the controlling idea should identify the object, scene, or
person to be described as objectively as possible and the descriptive details of the paragraph
should add substance to the main point. Nothing should be included in the paragraph that does
not support the controlling idea.

In both subjective and objective description, organizing details around clear controlling
ideas is essential. You may experience a scene or a person as a holistic impression; however, if
your reader is to understand what your observations mean, the details must be organized in a
meaningful way on the page.

The main purpose of an essay with an emphasis on description is to make readers see—or
hear, taste, smell, or feel—what you are writing about. Vivid details are the key to good
descriptions, enabling your audience to picture and, in a way, experience what you describe.
Unlike a descriptive paragraph that focuses only on describing the topic, an essay that
emphasizes description may also contain cause and e ffect, comparison or contrast, or narration.
As you start to think about your own essay, choose a topic that will allow you to write
descriptions that appeal strongly to at least one of your senses. As you have seen in the paragraph
development sections, different modes require different forms of writing, so it is important to use
the specific modes and writing techniques where and when needed. The purpose of your essay
will determine what events should be told, what events should be eliminated, and what strategies
should be employed when writing. If your topic is a familiar one you can assume your audience
already understands the general idea. However, if you are presenting something new or
unfamiliar to your readers—perhaps a description of one of your relatives or a place where
you’ve lived—you must provide background information.

III. DEFINITION

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 DEFINITION helps to clarify concepts by answering the question “What does it mean?”
It explains information through the use of illustrations, examples and descriptions. Some signal
words used in this pattern of development are: is defined as, as defined, means, refers to, to
define and to illustrate.

In a definition paragraph, the writer's goal is to help the reader understand new terms or
concepts, or to come to new understanding of terms they may be familiar with. Definition is very
important in the sciences, where the terminology is extensive and discipline-specific. In defining
scientific terms, a writer should be as objective as possible, and when impressions are essential,
the writer should strive to use analogies and impressions that the reader can readily identify with.
In the humanities, on the other hand, definitions can be more subjective. Definitions can be
scientific or subjective.

Scientific Definition:

EXAMPLE: Bacterial endocarditis occurs when bacteria in the bloodstream

(bacteremia) lodge on abnormal heart valves or other damaged heart tissue. Certain bacteria
normally live on parts of your body, such as the mouth and upper respiratory system, the
intestinal and urinary tracts, and the skin. Some surgical and dental procedures cause a brief
bacteremia. Bacteremia is common after many invasive procedures, but only certain bacteria
commonly cause endocarditis. ("Bacterial")

Subjective Definition:

EXAMPLE: . . .“[I]diot” is not a nice word to call somebody, and I find myself asking,
as Mr. Welch did of Senator Joseph McCarthy, “Have you no sense of decency, sir?”
Throughout my life, I have had to struggle to keep from thinking of myself in the limiting way
that word implies. So, for the record, I would like it known that I am not an “idiot.” I am a
person who suffers from idiocy. Nobody knows what it is like to deal with crippling bouts of
idiocy while trying to lead a normal life. The last thing I need is for somebody to make it harder
by pointing out what an “idiot” I am. (Frazer)

The second example is taken from an essay-length definition of "idiocy" by Ian Frazer.
He goes on to give examples of his idiocy and then conclude that his idiocy is just not his fault.

To write a definition paragraph (or essay), a writer must identify the term being defined,
provide a basic or general definition, and then provide clear detail to support the definition. A
definition can be developed in a number of ways. The method(s) you choose should be
determined by the term you are defining. Below are some common methods of definition:

By characteristics or features: Scientific definitions typically rely on this type of

definition. Physical features as well as behaviors (as in animal or cell behavior) may be a
part of this type of definition.

By function: how something works, or what it does can be an important part of

definition.
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 By what it is not: Ironically, we can get a pretty good sense of what something is
like, by learning what it is not, or what it is lacking.

By what it is similar to: Comparison and analogy help us understand things that
are unfamiliar to us.

By example: Giving examples illustrating what the term means can be highly
effective, as in the above definition of "idiocy."

By its origins: Providing a history of what a term has meant can help us
understand its current meaning. For example, the slang term "wimp" comes from the
term "wimple," which refers to a head scarf women wore in mediaeval Europe. Exploring
the evolution of the term could yield interesting insight into the connotations of the
contemporary term.

By its effect: Discussing what effects the subject produces is important with
certain subjects or in certain contexts. For example, in an essay on global warming, a
definition of CO2 emissions emphasizing the consequences of these emissions to the
environment would be important.

When you write an essay that emphasizes definition, your main purpose is to explain to
readers your understanding of a key term or concept, while your secondary purpose is to
persuade them that your definition is a legitimate one. Keep in mind that when you present a
definition in your essay, you should not simply repeat a word’s dictionary meaning. Instead, you
should convey what a particular term means to you through persuasive examples. For example, if
you were to write about the term “patriotism,” you might begin by presenting your definition of
the word. You might say patriotism means turning out for Fourth of July parades, displaying the
flag, or supporting the government. Or perhaps you think patriotism is about becoming
politically active and questioning government policy. Whatever definition you choose, be sure to
provide specific instances so that readers can fully understand your meaning of the term. For
example, in writing an essay on patriotism, you might describe three people whom you see as
truly patriotic. Writing about each person will help ensure that readers see and understand the
term as you do.

IV. EXEMPLIFICATION

EXEMPLIFICATION presents the general statement and then provides specific and
concrete examples to expound on the main idea. It is used to provide an example of something.
Some signal words used in this pattern of development are: after all, as an example, in
particular, specifically, to illustrate, etc.

Example:

As a teenager in the late 1960s and early 1970s, I was always pretty tolerant about
radical clothing styles, but more and more today I find myself asking, “Why do these kids want
23
to look so weird?” For example, I do not understand why a boy would wear a baseball cap
backwards on his head. To me, this just looks goofy, like something a person would do and then
talk in a really stupid voice to make his friends laugh. Under the backward cap, the boy
probably has his hair in a buzz cut, except for one long strand of hair reaching halfway down his
back. I can’t imagine who thought up this hairstyle, unless it was an ex-monk. Furthermore,
every boy I see today seems to be wearing a T-shirt that looks ten sizes too big for him and
comes down below his knees, or, if not that, he’s got all his clothes on inside out or backwards
or both! Then, there are the girls. Since when did it become stylish to wear your underwear on
top of your regular clothes? Who decided that it was attractive to combine a white T-shirt and a
long, sheer, flowing jumper with a pair of huge black jackboots? I’m so confused. It all just
makes me nostalgic for the days of frayed bell-bottoms, tie-dyed tank tops, strands of hippie
beads, and headbands circling heads of long, stringy hair .- Willa Kincaid (student)

If you make a statement and someone says to you, “Prove it,” what do you do? Most
likely, if you can, you will provide an example or two to support your claim. An essay that
emphasizes exemplification has the same purpose: to use specific instances or actual cases to
convince an audience that a particular point is true. In an essay that emphasizes exemplification,
you support it by illustrating it with examples. These examples may range from facts that you
have researched to personal accounts. If, for instance, you decide to write an essay that claims
capital punishment is immoral, you might cite several cases in which an innocent person was
executed. Keep in mind that your examples should connect clearly to your main point so that
readers will see the truth of your claim. The number of examples you choose to include in your
essay may vary depending, in part, on your audience. For a group already opposed to the death
penalty, you would not need detailed examples to support your belief that capital punishment is
immoral. However, if you were writing to a group undecided about capital punishment, you
would need more instances to get your point across—and even then, some would not believe
you. Still, when used well, examples make writing more persuasive, increasing the chances
readers will understand and believe your point.

V. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT

 A cause is a reason for, or events leading up to.

 An effect is the results of a cause or causes. Having the skill to think in the mode of cause
and effect is a key to victory in daily situations.
 Cause/Effect is used to show how the facts, events, or concepts result due to other facts,
events or concepts. Words that signal this type of text structure are because, since,
therefore, if…then, as a result of, thus, and hence. A graphic organizer may be used to
represent the relationship between the causes and effects.
 A cause and effect paragraph analyzes the causes or effects of a certain situation.
 One element is shown as producing another element. The passage could focus on the
causes of disease for example, or could focus on the effects of a trauma.
 In a particular paragraph, one or the other will be emphasized. 

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  A paragraph emphasizing the causes of something typically begins with an effect; the
purpose of the paragraph is to explore how that effect came to be—to show what caused
it.
 In a paragraph emphasizing the effects of something, a writer begins with a particular
cause, and then explores the consequences or effects of this cause. 

Writing a cause & effect paragraph or essay:

 The writer needs to know which factor to emphasize: causes or effects, and why it is
important to discuss a cause and effect relationship in the first place. 
 It is not Ok to write "There are several causes and effects for . . . "
 A controlling idea like this merely establishes a fact; no purpose has been identified for
discussing the cause and effect relationship.

Look at the examples below:

Example no.1:

The Positive Effects of Daycare

Since my daughter has been in daycare she has become better at a few different things.
To start off, her vocabulary is much larger and more developed. Before she started daycare, my
daughter had a few select words that she would say like; momma, dada, Cocoa (one of the
puppies), and some other simple words. Now she tries to repeat everything that is said. Another
result of her being in daycare is that she has the ability to interact with other children better. In
the past, she was only around one child. Now she is around about six to eight kids, and she has
learned to share her toys and to play in a group with the other children. Her learning to share has
carried over at home when she tells her daddy or me that it’s his turn or mommy’s turn when
putting her socks on. A third outcome of her being in daycare is the fact that she is becoming
more self-reliant. Before daycare, she wouldn’t try very hard to help me with getting dressed, but
now she wants to try to do it all on her own. She puts her pull ups on and tries to pull on her
shirts and pants herself. Socks still go on upside down, but at least her shoes go on the correct
feet I am really glad that I decided to put her in a daycare, for the benefits have been great.

~© Jessi Johnson 2005~

Example no.2:

Effects of Alcohol
Letting alcohol take control over your life has many negative effects on a person and the
people around them. One important effect is the damage you can do to your body. Drinking can
lead to severe illness and even eventual death; some health consequences to consider might be
liver disease, kidney failure and, for pregnant women, the loss of their unborn child. Another
25
detriment is that an addiction could lead to drinking and driving; possibly causing a fatal car
accident for either yourself and/or an innocent by stander. Another concern to consider is the
relationships alcohol can destroy. Alcohol abuse can have very serious affect on a person’s
temperament, which can lead to spousal and even child abuse. Alcohol often is the number one
cause in divorce and spending time in jail. It can also affect relationships outside of the family;
many people have lost lifelong friends whether it is due to foolish arguments and behavior or
possibly death. Lastly, drinking has negative effects on self-esteem and rational thinking. People
become more self-centered, develop low self-esteem, doing things or behaving in ways that they
would not normally. They have little or no regard to the outcomes of what is said or done when
they grow reliant on getting that alcohol high. The negative effects of alcohol abuse are
overwhelming when considering the many consequences that drinkers and the people around
them have to deal with.

~© Racheal Guza 2005~

Using transition words to emphasize cause-and-effect relationships between ideas is useful.

Words and phrases showing cause: because, since, is due to, is caused by, the first cause
(second, third), the first reason (second, third), yet another factor, results from

Words and phrases showing consequence: as a result, consequently, therefore, it follows,

then, for this reason, one important effect, another result, a third outcome, as a result,
consequently, then, next, therefore, thus, so

VI. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

 Comparison/Contrast text shows how two or more people, places, or things are alike or
different.
 In the contrast paragraph, two subjects are discussed as how they are different, again,
listing a few examples.
 There are two ways to write a paragraph:

 Point by Point- writing back and forth between the two subjects. First, talking
about topic A. then talk about topic B., then right back to topic A. and so on.

 Block paragraph-only discusses one topic and then finishes the paragraph with
the other subject that is to be compared or contrasted with the first. Then the
conclusion puts what you are comparing or contrasting together.
 Authors use descriptions of the items being compared to illustrate the differences or the
similarities of the items being compared.
 A graphic organizer, such as a Venn diagram, may be used to depict the similarities and
differences in facts, events, items, or concepts.
Look at the examples below:
Example no.1:
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 Acoustic and Electric Guitars
As broad as their sounds are, there are several very distinct similarities and
differences between electric and acoustic guitars. For instance, both utilize the use of a
body for the neck to attach to and a neck with frets for finger placement. The strings
attach to the lower end of the body and go all the way to the head, or the top of the neck.
They both use strings that vary in gauge, or size, which are vital to produce sound when
they are picked, hammered on, or strummed as a group. Similarly, each is tuned in the
same manner to produce the proper tone desired. An acoustic guitar needs no amplifier to
make its sound loud enough to be heard. An acoustic guitar uses the body of the guitar as
its amplifier. Because the body is very thick and hollow it is able to project its own
natural sound loudly. This makes it very portable and capable of being played virtually
anywhere. An acoustic guitar doesn’t need any foot pedals, volume and tone knobs, or
any other hardware like that to produce the sound it makes. An electric guitar is very hard
to hear without an amplifier. An electric guitar requires the use of an amplifier to
transport the sound though pickups that are secured in the body. These sounds are
transferred through a cable connected to the guitar. The cable then goes to the amplifier
which produces the sounds out of the speakers. Volume and tone knobs on the electric
guitar can make it louder or change the sound of the strings being played. Additionally,
foot pedals can be added to produce even more different sounds so that the musical
capabilities of the electric guitar are almost limitless. There’s not a lot of music that I
listen to that doesn’t have some sort of electric or acoustic guitar in the mix, either as the
main instrument or as small as a fill in for a certain sound. The genre of the music
frequently dictates which type of guitar should be used.
~© 2005 Jessi Johnson~

Example no.2:

My Brothers
There are many differences and likenesses between my two brothers. Glenn, my
eldest brother, was very rebellious as a teenager. For example, he would go out drinking
all night with his buddies, and was always looking for trouble. Eric, whom is older than
me, but younger than Glenn, was not rebellious as a teenager. A couple of examples are
the fact that Eric always put his academics ahead of everything and stayed out of trouble.
Glenn did not attend college, but pursued a career in the military. Whereas Eric did attend
college, became a pharmacist, and is in the Army National Guard. They are both
religious, but Glenn is a Catholic who speaks with anyone and everyone about his
religion, and Eric is a Christian who lets you believe what you believe. Glenn is a very
“manly” person. He hides his emotions, is very handy around the house, and runs his
family in the military style. Eric is a “semi-feminine” person. He shows his emotions,
hires someone else to fix things around the house, and does not run his home in the
military life style. Glenn is overly protective of his family. Eric is protective, but not
overly protective of his family. Both Glenn and Eric have a wonderful sense of humor.
There is never a dull moment when they are in the same room. Another likeness is that
they both have served time in Iraq. They went over to Iraq within one month of each
27
 other, and are coming home within one or two months of each other. It has been very
difficult for our family having the only two boys in Iraq. Glenn and Eric are both married
to their high school sweethearts, and have had large families. Glenn has three boys, and
one girl. Eric has three girls. Lastly, they both own beautiful homes that are comfortable
for their family sizes. My brothers are very different, yet similar.

~© 2005 Kelly Deck~

Transitional expressions used in:

 Comparison: in the same way, and, also, in addition, as well as, both, neither, each of,
just as...so, similarly, like, too, the same
 Contrast: although, whereas, but, however, conversely, on the other hand, in contrast,
while, yet, unlike

VII. PROBLEM-SOLUTION

 Problem- solution paragraph presents a problem and describes two or more possible
solutions to that problem.
 While writing a problem-solution paragraph, there are several steps to follow:

1. State and define the problem: Briefly, clearly, and simply explain what the
problematic issue is and why it should be treated as a problem.

2. Suggest the possible solutions: Present the reader with at least two possible solutions
to the problem. The solutions should be acceptable, realistic, reliable and mutually
exclusive. Otherwise, there is no point in suggesting them as solutions.

3. Evaluate the solutions: Discuss the advantages (strengths) and the disadvantages

(weaknesses) of the solutions. Your aim is to make your reader understand why one
solution is better than the other(s). However, keep in mind that your solutions should
be effective; otherwise, you wouldn't have suggested them in the first place.

4. Make a recommendation: If you think that one of the solutions is better than the
other(s), state directly which of the solutions in your opinion is better (the best) and
why. You may also suggest that solutions be implemented together to overcome or
prevent a problem.

Here are some examples of a problem-solution paragraph:

Example no.1:

Energy Sources: A Dilemma of the Twenty-First Century

On most part, energy is created by burning fossil fuels -- coal, natural gas and oil. The
problem with this is that these resources are finite. At the current rate of use, it is expected that
28
the world will run out of fossil fuels in thirty to forty years to come. As a result, it will no longer
be possible to generate power to operate factories and vehicles or to light and heat houses. This
world-wide problem can be resolved through the implementation of two possible solutions. The
first solution is to improve conservation efforts. In order to do this, governments can try to raise
public awareness, discourage over-consumption and encourage recycling. For example, they can
encourage the installation of high-efficiency light bulbs in homes and offices. They can inform
the public of the amount of energy saved by simply turning off lights that are not being used or
by using public transport more and cars less. They can also pass laws mandating the recycling of
whatever possible. Improvements in conservation will surely extend the life of current fuels but
they are not complete answers to what will happen when fossil fuels eventually run out. The
second and better solution, therefore, is to use alternative sources of energy to meet future needs.
The current leading alternatives to fossil fuels are solar energy and fusion, which is the union of
atomic nuclei to form heavier nuclei. Solar energy is directly obtained from the sun so it is easily
accessible and pollution-free. It can be used both to heat water and buildings and to generate
electricity but mostly in countries that have ample sunlight. Fusion, on the other hand, will make
it possible for nuclear power plants to generate enormous amounts of energy in order to meet the
energy needs of the planet indefinitely. In addition, despite public concern about safety and risk
of contamination, fusion is a safe and clean source of energy as modern power plants take strict
safety measures to prevent potential nuclear disasters and leaks. In conclusion, in order to have
sufficient energy for the next century, it will be necessary to develop and encourage the use of
alternative energy sources worldwide.
(Retrieved from: www.dbe.metu.edu.tr/student/groups/int/Prob.Solution %20Ss %20Copy.pdf)

Example no.2:

Weightlessness in Space
Astronauts face many problems in space caused by weightlessness. One of these
problems is floating around the cabin. To solve this problem, astronauts wear wear shoes that are
coated with a special adhesive. This adhesive sticks to the floor of the cabin. Serving food is
another problem. It won't stay put on the table! Experts solved this problem by putting food and
drinks in pouches and tubes. It only needs to be mixed with water. Weightlessness also causes
problems when an astronaut tries to work. The simple task of turning a wrench or a doorknob can
be difficult. Since there is no gravity to keep him down, when he exerts a force in one direction,
the opposite force may flip him over completely. To solve this problem, he must be very careful
about how much force he uses to do these simple tasks. Here on earth, life is much simpler,
thanks to gravity. (Information source: Learning to read text structures through writing by Rita
Ward)

Transitional expressions used in Problem-Solution: problem, solution, because, cause, since, as

a result, in order to, so that, a solution

VIII. PERSUASION

 Persuasion means to convince someone that your opinion on a subject is the right one.
 There are many forms of persuasion; you might not even know you are being persuaded.

29
  For example advertisements are persuading you to buy a certain product. Or family is
always trying to convince you to do something or that they are always right.
 It is important to consider the audience as your write persuasively.
 Directing your paragraph toward a particular audience can be helpful.
 Consider what kind of evidence this audience would respond to.
 When you take your audience into consideration, you will make your persuasive
paragraph more convincing.
Methods of Persuasion

 Facts- A statement of what is.

 Referring to authority- An expert who can be relied on to give unbiased facts and
information.
 Examples- An example should clearly relate to the argument and should be typical
enough to support it.
 Predicting the consequence- Helps the reader visualize what will occur if something
does or does not happen.
 Answering the opposition- Answering possible critics shows you are aware of the
opposing opinion and are able to respond to it.
 
Look for the examples below:

Example no.1:

Reasons Why Marijuana Should Be Legal

People of the United States should push for the legalization of marijuana. The first reason
being the amount of money that our government spends every year on the “war on drugs”. The
government’s money could be spent in so many other ways. The second reason it should be
legalized is to limit the amount of people that get put in jails for marijuana, when there are far
worse people out there that need to be put in jail. Marijuana arrests in the United States doubled
between 1991 and 1995. In 1995, more than one-half-million people were arrested for marijuana
offenses. Eighty-six percent of them were arrested for marijuana possession. Tens of thousands
of people are now in prison or marijuana offenses. An even greater number are punished with
probation, fines, and civil sanctions, including having their property seized, their driver's license
revoked, and their employment terminated. Despite these civil and criminal sanctions, marijuana
continues to be readily available and widely used. (Fact Sheet) A third reason is that marijuana is
not as harmful as alcohol, which causes 50% of all traffic accidents a year. In 1972, after
reviewing the scientific evidence, the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse
concluded that while marijuana was not entirely safe, its dangers had been grossly overstated.
Since then, researchers have conducted thousands of studies of humans, animals, and cell
cultures. None reveal any findings dramatically different from those described by the National
Commission in 1972. In 1995, based on thirty years of scientific research editors of the British
medical journal Lancet concluded that "the smoking of cannabis, even long term, is not harmful
to health." (Fact Sheet) And yet another reason why marijuana should be legal is because is helps
all sorts of people with medical problems. Marijuana has been shown to be effective in reducing
the nausea induced by cancer chemotherapy, stimulating appetite in AIDS patients, and reducing
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intraocular pressure in people with glaucoma. There is also appreciable evidence that marijuana
reduces muscle spasticity in patients with neurological disorders. A synthetic capsule is available
by prescription, but it is not as effective as smoked marijuana for many patients. Pure THC may
also produce more unpleasant psychoactive side effects than smoked marijuana. Many people
use marijuana as a medicine today, despite its illegality. In doing so, they risk arrest and
imprisonment. (Fact Sheet) With all of these great things that can be done with marijuana, why
keep it away from those who could use it?
~© Jessi Johnson 2005~

~All facts were taken from a Fact Sheet on The Drug Alliance.com~

Example no.2:
Laughter, the Medicine
Laughter is one of the greatest healing devices known to man. Laughter is powerful and
can help people in many different ways. It has the power to cure something as little as a bad day
or to heal the wounds of a terminally ill person. Laughing has helped create the smile which is
the universal sign of well being. Generally, individuals who do not laugh live miserably and have
unhappy lives. Dr. Robert Holden found out that smiling and laughing releases endorphins in the
brain which gives people a overall happy well being. Using comedy, many doctors have
stimulated the healing process in manic depressants and fatally ill patients giving them hope and
ambition. In many clinics laughter is being used in replacing anti depressants and reduces the
need for pain killers.(Dr. Gael Crystal). Take comedians for example, they usually live long and
happy lives. Putting a smile on faces and laughs in souls is what makes life complete. Laughter
helps heal people and brightens spirits for a better and healthier life . Laughing is a sign of joy
and hope and keeps people normal and the world happy. Using the techniques of laughter and
happiness is the best medicine known to man. Laughter is the universal sign of well being and
happiness within health. Laughing brightens the spirit and heals the mind and body of people
who allow it to overcome them. So try a smile and laugh on for size and live a longer happier life
with loved ones.

~© Jace Oeleis 2005~

Transitional expressions used to:

 Give Reasons: first (second, third), another, next last, finally, because, since, for,
although
 Answer the Opposition: of course, some may say, nevertheless, on the other hand
 Draw Conclusions: therefore, thus, hence, consequently

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

31
Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 4
Direction: Select two (2) topics below and write a paragraph following a certain pattern of
development. Maximize the space below for your composition.
A. My First Date E. A Precious Gift
B. A Good Study Habit F. My Funniest Experience
C. The Most Wonderful Place G. My Failure
D. What I have Invented H. Never Again

32
Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________
Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 5
Direction: For each item, supply the term which best answers the question. Remember to watch
for clue words and signals in each item.
__________ 1. If you want to write a paragraph describing how to change a flat tire on a car,
which pattern would you be most likely to use?
__________ 2. If you want to explain to someone what a rain forest is, which pattern is probably
the most logical one to use?
__________ 3. Your criminal justice professor tells the class he is going to present the
differences between misdemeanor crimes and felonies. You expect that he will organize the
information using which pattern?
____________ 4. If you write a paper explaining the most common reasons employees lose their
jobs, you would probably organize your thoughts using which pattern?

__________ 5. If you tell your younger brother how college is different from high school, you
would use which pattern?

__________ 6. Which pattern would you use to let your roommate know the things you need
from the grocery store?

__________ 7. Which pattern would you be likely to use if you wrote a paragraph describing the
development of a hurricane?

__________ 8. On a biology test, you are asked to explain the term ecosystem. Which pattern
would you use?

__________ 9. Suppose you are asked on a history test to explain the causes of the American
Revolution. Which pattern would you be likely to use to organize the information?

__________ 10. A paragraph in a health textbook has the heading, "Types of Food Additives."
What pattern do you anticipate the author will use to present the information?

Source:
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073123587/student_view0/chapter
11/writing_patterns__exercise_1.html
Lesson 4
Properties of a well –written Text

33
 Knowing the properties of well-written text is very important in writing a poem because it
organize ideas and help the reader to really understand the text. A well-written text has four
properties such as organization, coherence and cohesion, language used, and mechanics.
I. Organization
A well-written text should possess the property of being organized. In order to attain
organization, the flow of the ideas must be logically and accurately arranged. The first sentence
should be concatenated to the succeeding sentences. In writing a text, we can use either
deductive or inductive style to present the ideas properly. Deductive style of writing starts from
general to specific. On the contrary, inductive style of writing begins from specific to broad
ideas.

Example of text without organization:

“Thomas Edison was simply the one who created the first commercially viable light bulb.
What made Edison’s light bulb successful was his use of carbonized bamboo as the filament.
This made the bulb lasts longer and it was cheap enough to be available for the masses. He only
improved on previous works of inventors who also worked on the same project.”

Example of text with organization:

“Although it is widely believed that Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, in reality, he was
simply the one who created the first commercially viable light bulb. Along with his team, Edison
improved the previous works of inventors who also worked on the same project. Compared to
previous version, what made his light bulb successful was his use of carbonized bamboo as the
filament. This made the bulb lasts longer and it was cheap enough to be available for the
masses.”

II. Coherence and Cohesion

To achieved this property, the ideas should be logically, clearly, and smoothly linked to one
another. The concepts of coherence and cohesion are interrelated to each other but they have
distinct functions and uses. Coherence occurs when ideas are connected at the conceptual level
while Cohesion is the connection of ideas at sentence level. Also, coherence is the quality of
being logical, clearly organized, not rumbling or confusing and cohesion is the connection or
relation of ideas which make them unified and coherent.

Words and Phrases That Indicate Specific Relationships (Center for Writers)

To signify an additional idea - also, moreover, again, further, furthermore, in addition,

likewise, too, first, initially, second, third, next, finally, last, another, other, then

To signify a comparison - likewise, similarly, in a like manner, in comparison, so it is

To signify a contrast - however, nevertheless, still unlike, in contrast, conversely, on the

contrary, on the other hand, whereas

34
 To signify a cause-effect relationship - therefore, thus, hence, then, consequently,
accordingly, in conclusion, as a result

To signify an example or specific meaning - for example, for instance, to illustrate, for one
thing, frequently, in general, in particular, namely, usually, specifically

To signify a summary - to sum up, to summarize, in short, to conclude, in conclusion, on the

whole, in brief.

Example:

“Another of my possessions that wears out is my car. One part of it that wears out is the
tires. For example, it seems that I put new tires on it just last year, and they have already worn to
the point of being unsafe. Another part of my car that wears out is the windshield wipers. For
instance, here in the desert, the sun destroys them so that they need to be replaced even before
they are used for the rain. The ones I just replaced didn’t last more than six months. The last
part of my car that wears out is the battery. Again, the desert heat, combined with the heat under
the hood, makes batteries wear out fast. They are supposed to last five years, but mine never
make it past two. It seems that the things that go wrong with a car most often are the things one
depends on the most.”
-https://www.imperial.edu/index.php?
option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=5830&Itemid=762

Ways of Ordering Ideas to Achieve Coherence (Cali, K “Learn NC)

1. Spatial order. Words used in descriptive writing to signal spatial relationships, such as above,
below, beside, nearby, beyond, inside, and outside.
2. Time order. Words used in writing narratives, and instructions to signal chronological
sequence, such as before, after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as, during, earlier, later,
and meanwhile.
3. Numerical order. Words used in expository writing to signal order of importance, such as
first, second, also, finally, in addition, equally important, and more or less importantly.
4. Cause/effect order. Words used in expository writing to signal causal relationships, such as
because, since, for, so, as a result, consequently, thus, and hence.
5. Comparison/contrast order. Words used in expository writing to signal similarities and
differences, such as (for similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as though, like, and
similarly; and (for differences) but, yet, only, although, whereas, in contrast, conversely,
however, on the other hand, rather, instead, in spite of, and nevertheless.
6. General/specific order. Words used in descriptive reports and arguments to signal more
specific elaboration on an idea, such as for example, such as, like, namely, for instance, that
is, in fact, in other words, and indeed.

III. Language Use

35
 Using proper language is one of the clearest indicators and sign of a well-written text.
This enables the author and the writer to communicate more to the readers. This helps the
readers to understand the text with confusion of what is the meaning of that word in a text.

There are different characteristics of a language use that we need to remember such as:
the language should be concrete and specific that includes effective descriptions which
creates tangible image and objects that the readers can visualize; the language should be
concise not verbose which express the desire message in just a few as possible; the language
should be familiar not obscure for the reader to easily understand the message of the text;
lastly, the use of language should match with the situations presented in the text.

Examples of concise not verbose:

Expletive: It was her last argument that finally persuaded me.

Correction: Her last argument finally persuaded me.

Expletive: There are likely to be many researchers raising questions about this methodological
approach.

Correction: Many researchers are likely to raise questions about this methodological approach.

Expletive: It is inevitable that oil prices will rise.

Correction: Oil prices will inevitably rise.

Examples of familiar not obscure:

“The presently assigned paper necessitates an eloquently articulated analysis of the Existentialist
perspective as it pertains to contemporary living. You should adumbrate the points which
represent the sine qua non of your analysis”

 In the example, the author use unfamiliar words in presenting his idea. As a result, the
readers had a hard time to understand the meaning of the text.

IV. Mechanics
` Mechanics is the last property of a well-written text that deals with the technical aspect of
writing. In this property, the writer should focus on the correct spelling, abbreviations,
punctuations, and capitalizing a composition.

In writing academic and formal texts, the following should be observed:

 Always use Standard English.

 Avoid using contractions (e.g. shouldn’t must be should not).

36
  Incorrect: Don’t press the Escape key.
 Correct: Do not press the Escape key

 Avoid using exclamation marks unless they are part of a direct quotation.
 Incorrect: Configure the system manually!
 Correct: Configure the system manually.

 Always put the whole name of an abbreviation in the first mention. Thereafter, use the
abbreviation.
 U.S. for United States
 no. for number

 Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled and the rest should be written as figures.
 Common units of time, greater than one second, from zero through nine: five
minutes,three days
 The zeroes in extreme values, such as “million” and “billion,” but precede these
words with a numeral, 3 million instructions per second.

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 6
Performance Standard

Direction: Your teacher will give you a text or an article. After identifying the pattern of
development, make a substantial critiquing focusing on the information selection, organization
and development. Write your critique on the space provided.

37
 Chapter 2
Text and Context Connections

Standards:
Content: The learner understands the relationship of a written
text and the context in which it was developed.
Performance: The learner writes a 1000- word critique of a selected
text on the basis of its claim/s, context, and the
properties as a written material.

Lesson I
Critical Reading as Looking for Ways of Thinking
What is Critical Reading? Critical reading, also known as active reading is not just
reading the literal word-for-word information in front of the reader. It is not just reading between
the lines but reading what is stated and unstated by the author to figure what the author is saying.
It is interpreting facts along with the authors attitude using implied meaning to make accurate
assumptions and drawing accurate conclusions (Bennet, 2014).
Critical reading involves a higher level of sophistication in reading through analyzing
facts, opinions and bias statements; by analyzing groups of supporting statements to summarize
or paraphrase to bring individual clarity to the piece read and; by evaluating how the information
fits into the reader’s historical perspective and if it meets standards of critical reading.
Critical reading means that a reader applies certain processes, models, questions, and
theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension. There is more involved, both in effort
and understanding, in a critical reading than in a mere "skimming" of the text. What is the
difference? If a reader "skims" the text, superficial characteristics and information are as far as
the reader goes. A critical reading gets at "deep structure" (if there is such a thing apart from the
superficial text!), that is, logical consistency, tone, organization, and a number of other very
important sounding terms.
Things That Involve Critical Reading
According to the Online Writing and Learning Link (OWLL) of Massey University,
critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond just understanding a text. Critical
reading involves:

 Carefully considering and evaluating the reading

 Identifying the reading's strengths and implications

 Identifying the reading's weaknesses and flaws

38
  Looking at the 'big picture' and deciding how the reading fits into the greater academic
context (the understandings presented in other books and articles on this topic)
What You Need to Consider in Critical Reading
Critical reading is useful at all stages of academic study. Critical reading often involves
asking questions about the reading. In particular, you are examining the strengths and
weaknesses of the reading's argument. To do this, you need to consider:

 The reading's background

 Its purpose and overall conclusion (claim)

 The evidence used in the reading

 The logical connections between the claim and the evidence

 The reading's balance

 Its limitations

 How it relates to other sources and research

 If the reading is based on research, how this research was conducted

Each of these affects how 'strong' the argument is, that is, how convincing it is. Note that
these questions here can also be used to improve your own writing, especially when you are
required to construct an argument.
Critical Readers’ Characteristics
Let us take a look on some of the characteristics of a critical reader provided by Student
Learning Development of Leicester University. The most characteristic features of critical
reading are that you will:

 Examine the evidence or arguments presented;

 Check out any influences on the evidence or arguments;

 Check out the limitations of study design or focus;

 Examine the interpretations made; and

 Decide to what extent you are prepared to accept the authors’ arguments, opinions, or
conclusions.
The ultimate objective of critical reading is for the readers to be able to justify the need to
be critical when reading. The aim is not to find fault, but to assess the strength of the evidence
and the argument. It is just as useful to conclude that a study, or an article, presents very strong
evidence and a well-reasoned argument, as it is to identify the studies or articles that are weak.

39
Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________
Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 7
Direction: Write the word “true” if the statement is correct, otherwise, change the italicized
word to make the statement accurate. Write your answer in the space provided before each
number.
_________________ 1. Critical reading is not just reading between the lines but reading what is
stated and unstated by the author to figure what the author is saying.
_________________ 2. Critical reading involves a lower level of sophistication in reading
through analyzing facts, opinions and bias statements.
_________________ 3. The ultimate objective of critical reading is for the readers to be able to
justify the need to be radical when reading.
_________________ 4. Skimming gets at "deep structure" that is, logical consistency, tone,
organization, and a number of other very important sounding terms.
_________________ 5. The aim of critical reading is to find fault, but to assess the strength of
the evidence and the argument.
_________________ 6. In critical reading, you need to consider the illogical connections
between the claim and the evidence.
_________________ 7. Critical reading involves looking at the 'bright picture' and deciding how
the reading fits into the greater academic context.
_________________ 8. One characteristic of critical reading is to decide to what extent you are
prepared to accept the authors’ arguments, opinions, or conclusions.
_________________ 9. Critical reading means that a reader applies certain processes, models,
questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension.
________________ 10. If a reader "skims" the text, superficial characteristics and information
are as far as the reader goes.

Critical Reading Tips

What does it take to be a critical reader? There are a variety of answers available to this
question and among them is the tested and proved SQ5R study method. The SQ5R study
method, an improved version of SQ3R, is an effective way to follow to become an active reader.
Psychologist Francis P. Robinson of Ohio State University developed the method in 1941. The
goal behind the method is to enable you to engage actively in the study of textbooks and
40
readings. It also helps you to process information actively which in turn leads to higher memory
and mastery of the material.
Here is the draft of the SQ5R excerpted from the Learning Assistance and Resource
Center of Radford University:

 Survey - Before reading the actual chapter, read the introduction and summary (if given).
Skim through the chapter paying attention to topic headings, bold-faced words, pictures,
charts, and graphs. These can give you an idea of the general structure and content before
you begin reading.

 Question - Set a purpose for your reading by developing questions about the material.
Use the topic and heading information you gathered in the survey step to create questions
to be answered. Begin asking yourself who, what, where, when, why, and how questions.
Questions are most beneficial when they are general, covering main topics and important
points.

 Read - Break the material into sections that will take about 20 minutes to read (often the
chapter is already broken into sections which will work just fine). Read the material
section by section. Look for answers to your questions, key concepts, and supporting
details. Study charts, graphs, tables, and pictures. These can serve to present new
information as well as tie together concepts from the reading.

 Respond - After each section, think about the material you have just read and answer the
questions you have asked. This can be done at the same time as the reading step, since
often response is automatic. The main point of this step is to think about the material, and
take notice of what is important.

 Record - Go back and underline key concepts and take notes. This can be done on a
separate sheet of paper, on note cards, in the margins of the textbook, or any way that
works well for you. (Do this after each section.)

 Recite - Next, look away from the material and try to recite the key information and
ideas. Put the material in your own words and go back and re-read until you feel
comfortable with it. This may be frustrating at first, but it will lead to better
understanding and save you review time in the long run. (Do this after each section.)

 Review - After completing the entire chapter, scan back over the reading and review the
information aloud or in your head. Talk about the material with a classmate if possible.
Try to identify overall themes and relationships between concepts. Make any necessary
revisions of your notes or markings so they can be easily understood later.
Now that you know about the SQ5R method for reading textbooks, the next step is to use
this strategy while reading your next assignment. Below are some additional strategies you may
want to implement, provided by the writing center of Cleveland State University:

 Prepare to become part of the writer's audience – After all, authors design texts for
specific audiences, and becoming a member of the target audience makes it easier to get
41
 at the author's purpose. Learn about the author, the history of the author and the text, the
author's anticipated audience; read introductions and notes.

 Prepare to read with an open mind – Critical readers seek knowledge; they do not
"rewrite" a work to suit their own personalities. Your task as an enlightened critical
reader is to read what is on the page, giving the writer a fair chance to develop ideas and
allowing yourself to reflect thoughtfully, objectively, on the text.

 Consider the title – This may seem obvious, but the title may provide clues to the writer's
attitude, goals, personal viewpoint, or approach.

 Read slowly – Again, this appears obvious, but it is a factor in a "close reading." By
slowing down, you will make more connections within the text.

 Use the dictionary and other appropriate reference works – If there is a word in the text
that is not clear or difficult to define in context: look it up. Every word is important, and
if part of the text is thick with technical terms, it is doubly important to know how the
author is using them.

 Make notes – Jot down marginal notes, underline and highlight, write down ideas in a
notebook, do whatever works for your own personal taste. Note for yourself the main
ideas, the thesis, and the author's main points to support the theory. Writing while reading
aids your memory in many ways, especially by making a link that is unclear in the text
concrete in your own writing. a.) This may be frustrating at first, but it will lead to
better understanding and save you review time in the
 Keep a reading journal – In addition to note taking, it is often helpful to regularly record
your responses and thoughts in alongmore
run.permanent place that is yours to consult. By
developing a habit of reading and writing in conjunction, both skills will improve.
b.) This can be done on a separate sheet of paper, on
Activity
note cards, 8in the margins of the textbook, or any way
Direction: Match the item in column Athat with the item
works in column
well for you. B. Write the letter of your
choice on the space provided before each number.
c.)These can give you an idea of the general structure
COLUMN
and content before you begin reading. B
COLUMN A d.)These are most beneficial when they are general,
___ 1. Francis P. Robinson covering main topics and important points.

___ 2. SQ5R e.) The title may provide clues to the writer's attitude,
goals, personal viewpoint, or approach.
___ 3. Question
f.)The main point of this step is to think about the
___ 4. Record
material, and take notice of what is important.
___ 5. Read
___ 6. Keep a reading journal

42
___ 7. Recite
___ 8. Respond
___ 9. Review
___ 10. Read with an open mind
___ 11. Read slowly
___ 12. Consider the title
___ 13. Make notes
___ 14. Use the dictionary g.)Jot down marginal notes, underline and highlight,

___ 15. Survey write down ideas in a notebook, do whatever works for
your own personal taste.
h.)In addition to note taking, it is often helpful to
regularly record your responses and thoughts in a more
permanent place that is yours to consult.
i.)If there is a word in the text that is not clear or
difficult to define in context: look it up.
j.)Critical readers seek knowledge; they do not "rewrite"
a work to suit their own personalities.
k.)By slowing down, you will make more connections
within the text.
l.)By doing this, you will be able to look for answers to
your questions, key concepts, and supporting details.
m.)After completing the entire chapter, scan back over
the reading and review the information aloud or in your
head.
n.)A study method that is use as an effective way to
become an active reader
o.)A psychologist of Ohio State University developed
the SQ3R method in 1941.

43
Explicit and Implicit Claims in a Text
Reading comprehension skills hinge on a student’s ability to comprehend information
from a text. Such information can be presented explicitly or implicitly. The goal for this lesson is
to support student’s thinking using textual evidence when they read. In order to prepare for this
lesson and future lessons, there are three vocabulary words that you are responsible for knowing:
explicit, implicit, and inference.
According to Stephanie Mitchell (2013), the word "explicit" means clear and fully
expressed. If something is explicit, there is no question as to what it means, no hidden
connotations and no room for misunderstanding. If a fact is explicit in a reading comprehension
passage, it is stated outright. For example, if the first sentence of a story is "It was a dark and
stormy night," that is an explicit fact. There is no room for debate; the reader cannot be confused
and think that the story is set on a sunny morning.
If something is implicit, it is not expressly stated, but the reader understands it anyway
through other clues in the text. For example, if a story begins with "The trees were swaying
wildly outside Anne's window as she prepared for bed, and the gutters were overflowing," the
reader can infer that it is probably dark, stormy and at night even though these facts are not
explicitly stated. Implicit facts in reading comprehension also often involve the motivations of
the characters (Mitchell, 2013).
Making an inference involves using what you know to make a guess about what you don't
know, or reading between the lines. Readers who make inferences use the clues in the text along
with their own experiences to help them figure out what are not directly said, making the text
personal and memorable. Helping students make texts memorable will help them gain more
personal pleasure from reading, read the text more critically, and remember and apply what they
have read. For example, if you see someone eating a new food and he or she makes a face, then
you infer he does not like it. Or if someone slams a door, you can infer that she is upset about
something.
A good reader has two voices going on inside their minds as they read. First, the reader
read their words from the text. The first voice that you start hearing in your mind is your reading.
After you read the text, the voice inside your head is actually hearing the word; you interact with
the text as you read the words. While you read you also have your thinking voice going – this is
the second voice that a successful reader has (Armentrout, 2013).

44
 Really?? 32 muscles each? I
only have 6 muscles in each.
A cat has 32
Hmmm…I wonder how
muscles in each
many are there in a dog…
ear.

To Summarize:
Explicit – clearly stated so there is no room for confusion or questions. Something you know is
going to happen because they said it was going to happen.
Implicit – this is implied or suggested, but not clearly stated. An unwritten instruction they never
said they were going to do, but the action and manners said differently.
Implicit and Explicit Exercise Sample
Here is a passage provided by Quipper School (2016) and how you identify the explicit
and implicit information in a text:
"Once upon a time . . . as a merchant set off for market, he asked each of his three
daughters what she would like as a present on his return. The first daughter
wanted a brocade dress, the second a pearl necklace, but the third, whose name
was Beauty, the youngest, prettiest and sweetest of them all, said to her father:
"All I'd like is a rose you've picked specially for me!"“- Beauty and the Beast,
fairy tale
Identifying the implicit and explicit statement:

 The youngest daughter was the most modest (implicit).

 The youngest daughter was the most beautiful of them all (explicit).

45
  Merchant wanted to buy gifts for his daughters (implicit).

 The youngest daughter wanted a rose (explicit).

 The name of the youngest daughter was Beauty (explicit).

Here is another passage you can work on for the next activity.
“The Shinawatra family is trying to eat healthy meals, but it is difficult. Both Mr. and
Mrs. Shinawatra work all day, and they are tired when they get home. They also have
two young sons who need a lot of attention. Their oldest son is seven years old and the
younger son is nine months old. It is difficult for the Shinawatras to plan healthy
family meals when they have such a busy schedule. Lately, the family has been eating
fast food that Mr. Shinawatra picks up on the way home from work. This is a bad
habit, and the Shinawatras are worried that their
children will develop poor eating habits. They want
to start eating healthy homemade meals”.

Name: _______________________________ Date:

__________________
Section: ______________________________
Score: __________________

Activity 9
Direction: Analyze carefully and write whether the following statements are implicit or explicit.
Write your answer in the space provided before each number.
___________ 1. Eating fast food for dinner is a bad habit.
___________ 2. It is difficult to plan healthy family meals because the Shinawatras
are busy.
___________ 3. Mr. and Mrs. Shinawatra are married.
___________ 4. They prefer a healthy homemade meal for the family.
___________ 5. Mr. and Mrs. Shinawatra have two children.
___________ 6. Eating fast food for dinner is a bad habit.
___________ 7. Mrs. Shinawatra cannot cook because she is tired when she gets
home from work.

46
___________ 8. Mr. and Mrs. Shinawatras are worried that their children will
develop poor eating habits.
___________ 9. They want to start eating healthy homemade meals.
___________10. The youngest son needs a lot more feeding attention.

THREE MAJOR KINDS OF CLAIMS

Claim of Fact
Claim of Fact asserts that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist. It is based on facts
or data that the audience will accept as being objectively verifiable. Claim of facts are non-
negotiable. Claims of fact make statements about, for example:
• states of being/not being ("there is a full moon out tonight)
• aspects/attributes of things ("that barn is red/large/old/empty")
• the state of affairs ("the roadway is busy today).
Generally speaking, we think of claims of fact as either being true or false.
Claim of Value
Claim of Value attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than others.
It expresses approval or disapproval or taste and morality. It makes a judgment and attempt to
prove some action, belief, or condition is right or wrong, good or bad.
Claim of Value can be attacked or defended on basis of standards that measure worth of
an action, belief, or object. These are decided based on establishing the merits of preferable
modes of behavior (instrumental values) or ultimate goals (terminal values).
Here are some instances:

 "This is a beautiful watch" (we will argue about the relative beauty of the watch,
whether than argue about whether it's a watch)

 "Talking behind someone's back is irresponsible"(we will argue about whether

gossip is responsible communication).

 "Committed relationships are preferable to youthful indiscretions" (we will argue

about the value of mature love).
Two general areas in which people most often disagree about matters of value:

47
  Aesthetics – study of beauty and the fine arts. Controversies over works of art range
fiercely among experts and laypeople alike.

 Morality – value claims about morality express judgments about the rightness or
wrongness of conduct or belief. Disagreements are as wide and deep as in the arts, and
more significant. Although a write and their reader may share many values, there are still
many others they may disagree on.
In formulating value claims, you should be prepared to ask and answer questions about
the way in which your value claims and those of others have been arrived at.
Although you cannot make someone believe what you believe, you can give good reasons
to express your opinion. Claims of value depend on acceptance of the value by the audience and
their agreement to the relative evaluation level assigned to the subject/object. It can be a simple
expression of taste or likes and dislikes, and the Latin proverb "De gustibus non estdisputandum"
means we cannot dispute taste.
Claim of Policy
Claim of Policy asserts that specific plans or courses of action should be instituted as
solutions to problems. Almost always "should" or "ought to" or "must" is expressed or implied in
the claim. Claims of policy respond to the common English sentence: Who should Do What?
Claims of policy propose that specific action should be undertaken/completed by specific
entities. For example:
"Bradley University should replace the current library with a new building"
"Students at Bradley should be able to miss classes without penalty (faculty should not
consider attendance in grading at Bradley)." [it's usually better to state a policy
claim in the affirmative rather than the negative, though both happen]
"Bradley students should develop and execute disciplined study skills during their time
at university."
In defending a claim of policy, have to do a few steps:

 Make a factual claim

 Refer to values that support claim

 Then introduce policy to show why your solution will solve the problem
A major mistake that can be made is ignoring the opinions of others. You can only
support your own idea if you can acknowledge the other person's perspective

 Keep audience in mind

 Must consider what the audience can do about the situation

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  Hope to accomplish to get the readers to consider the situation or problem from your
perspective

 Continue to think about "What do I want my readers to do or think?"

To Sum Up!
These are claims you make about the reading after reading it: Claim of fact, Claim of
value, and Claim of policy.
Fact: "Experiments using animals are essential to the development of many life-saving medical
procedures."
Value: "Animal experimentation benefits both humans and animals."
Policy: "Experimental treatments should always be tested on animals before they are tested on
humans."
It is important that you know when making claims are and what kinds of claims you are
making. Likewise, it's important to be able to identify and evaluate the claims that others make,
particularly when you are searching for evidence in support of your claims.
In both cases, it's crucial that the person making the claim (presenting the argument)
provides sufficient support to establish their claim.
Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________
Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 10
Direction: Fill in the blanks with the correct words to make the statement complete.
1. Claim of _________ attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than
others. It expresses approval or disapproval or taste and morality.
2. Claim of __________ asserts that specific plans or courses of action should be instituted
as solutions to problems.
3. Claim of _________ asserts that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist. It is based
on facts or data that the audience will accept as being objectively verifiable.
4. A major __________ that can be made is ignoring the opinions of others.
5. Claims of policy respond to the common _________ sentence: Who should Do What?

49
 6. This value claims about ___________ express judgments about the rightness or
wrongness of conduct or belief.
7. In formulating value claims, you should be prepared to ask and answer ___________
about the way in which your value claims and those of others have been arrived at.
8. Claim of Value can be attacked or defended on basis of _________ that measure worth of
an action, belief, or object.
9. ____________ is the study of beauty and the fine arts.
10. Generally speaking, we think of claims of fact as either being _______ or _________.

WHAT IS HYPERTEXT?
Hypertext is a method of organizing and accessing text or other data, such as tables,
presentational content and images, through the use of hyperlinks. Hypertext is a non-linear way
of presenting information that is accomplished by creating "links" between information. These
links are provided so that readers may "jump" to further information about a specific topic being
discussed (which may have more links, leading each reader off into a different direction). For
instance, if you are reading an article about marine mammal bioacoustics, you may be interested
in seeing a picture of a dolphin. Or you may want to hear the sound it makes. Or you may even
be interested in seeing what a marine mammal sound "looks like" in a spectrogram. You might
even want to find out more about sounds made by other animals in the sea, thus leading you on a
completely different, detailed path (Amaral, 2016).
A Brief History of Hypertext
Hypertext is a concept proposed by Vannevar Bush, the head of the Office of Scientific
Research and Development during World War II, through a method of cataloguing and retrieving
information prophetically. He hypothesized a photoelectric mechanical device called a Memex
(for "memory extension") that could create and follow links between microfiche documents.
Since then, researchers have carried on the ideals of hypertext in a digital arena. Doug
Engelbart was the first to be influenced by Bush's concepts of associative links and browsing in
the early 1960s. His system, Augment, stores information in a sophisticated hierarchical structure
allowing non-hierarchical branching. To make viewing easier and increase user speed, he also
developed the "mouse" and viewing filters. But it was Ted Nelson who coined the term
"hypertext" to mean non-sequential writing. His publishing system released in 1989, Xanadu,

50
attempted to hold the world's literary treasures under one roof. It interconnected linked electronic
documents and other forms of media, such as movies, audio, and graphics( Amaral, 2016).
Why Use Hypertext?
In general, humans learn better associatively, that is, we are better able to figure out
material if we are allowed to move at our own pace, investigating that which interests us, and
stimulating more senses through multimedia.
As Bush says in "Classic Technology," "All our steps in creating or absorbing material of
the record proceed through one or the senses--the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we
speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible that some day the path may be
established more directly?"
Also, hypertext operates very similar to the way our brains do--in a series of networks, or
associations--as opposed to a linear path. "Hypertext software provides for the human element in
the management of information...Since hypertext analogizes the way our minds normally work
(that is, not in a straight line but in several dimensions at once), hypertext can be considered a
thought machine.
The ability for people to learn more, or at least learn more pleasurably through hypertext,
has been demonstrated again and again through testing. Researchers at the University of Texas
Medical School at Houston, for example, created self-instructional electronic texts on aplastic
anemia, and compared students who used the electronic texts to those who used traditional
learning methods. While test scores showed no significant difference in retention, time spent in
study of the multimedia program was on average 15 minutes longer than for the syllabus.
As Pat Ward and Kristopher Davis wrote in an article presented at the Second
International WWW Conference, "In the midst of an information driven society, tomorrow's
educational system must provide an environment where students are actively involved in
learning and have action to the world's information sources...Students encouraged to develop
critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving approaches and cooperation are actively
engaged in their own learning" ("Empowering Students in the Information Age," 10/94).
And because the author is no longer in control over what path a reader will take,
hypertext creates an environment for independent critical thinking. In a sense, the readers are
also the "writers" of the material, by making connections themselves. And making those
connections on their own, pulling together different bits of information and creating a whole new
meaning, entails critical thinking (Amaral, 2016).
WHAT IS INTERTEXT?
Intertext is the shaping of text's meaning by another text
-Example: Author's borrowing and transforming of a prior text and a reader's referencing of one
text in reading another.
Once a connection has been drawn, it helps understand a character and story at hand
(Meier, 2014)
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 If you borrow phrases and concepts from other works in your own, then you’re using
intertextuality, perhaps even without knowing it. Intertextuality is, thus, a way of accounting for
the role of literary and extra-literary materials without recourse to traditional notions of
authorship. Intertextuality denotes the way in which texts (any text, not just literature) gain
meaning through their referencing or evocation of other texts (Novak, 2013).
In a broad sense, intertextuality is the reference to or application of a literary, media, or
social “text” within another literary, media, or social “text.” In literature, intertextuality is when a
book refers to a second book by title, scene, character, or storyline, or when a book refers to a
social “text” such as a media, social, or cultural story (Lemaster, 2012).
A literary work, then, is not simply the product of a single author, but of its relationship
to other texts and to the structures of language itself.
Brief history of Intertextuality
Derived from the Latin intertexto, meaning to intermingle while weaving, Intertextuality
is a term first introduced by French semiotician Julia Kristeva in the late sixties (Keep et. al,
2000). Her invention was a response to Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory and his claim that signs
gain their meaning through structure in a particular text. She opposed his to her own, saying that
readers are always influenced by other texts, sifting through their archives, when reading a new
one. Since then it’s been widely accepted by postmodern literary critics and theoreticians
(Novak, 2013).
Functions of Intertextuality(according to Lemaster)
1. Comparison – Intertextuality involves an implicit comparison by putting two “texts”
together. When literature references another text, we are asked to draw from our
knowledge of the text in its original form, and compare this to how it is being used,
changed, or reframed by the primary book. Intertextuality functions on comparison and
contrast of similarities and differences.
2. Dialogue – Intertextuality invites a conversational dialogue between two “texts.” Because
both the primary book and its intertext are narratives, rather than static items or images,
we can engage the full storyline that each contains to create a narrative conversation.
Sometimes, the two narratives are very different and can therefore create competing
dialogues about which is dominant, or most important.
3. Destabilization – Intertextuality can sometimes destabilize, or shake up our
understanding of, the original text being referenced or a scene or idea in the primary
book. The original text may be a “story” that most feel very familiar with, but its use or
reframing by the primary book changes our feelings or reveals something new about this
original story. Conversely, the book may be presenting a scene, character, or argument
that we feel we are beginning to understand when it is disrupted and destabilized by entry
of this intertext.
Effects of Intertextaulity(according to Lemaster)

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 1. Transformation of the Primary Book – The first influence intertexuality can have is on a
reader’s understanding of the primary book. This is a matter of evaluating effect on the
book at hand. Why does the primary book choose this similar or dissimilar intertext,
where is it used, how does it add to or change our understanding of the scene it is in, and
how does it evoke important arguments the book is making overall?
2. Transformation of a Prior Text – Intertextuality can also influence our understanding of
the original text, causing us to “reflexively” re-read, or reconsider, our understanding of
the original text. Even if the outside text is not being reworded or rewritten in any way,
by placing it in a new book, the outside text is reframed and therefore changed. Does the
author explicitly or implicitly change the intertext from its original form and in what
ways?
3. Reinterpretation of Both – Intertextuality can create a simultaneous re-reading of both the
primary book and its intertext. This involves a back-and-forth re- reading of each text
based on what their similarities and differences reveal about one another.

*Vannevar Bush *Ted Nelson *Ferdinand de Saussure

*Pat Ward *Intertexto *Julia Kristeva
*Comparison *Dialogue *Hypertext
*Intertext

Activity 11
Direction: Read and analyze carefully what is being asked in every statement. Write your
answers on the space provided after each number. Choices are provided in the box below.

1. He was the head of the Office of Scientific Research and Development during World War
II, who proposed the concept of hypertext. ___________________
2. This is a method of organizing and accessing text or other data, such as tables,
presentational content and images, through the use of hyperlinks. ____________
3. He coined the term "hypertext" to mean non-sequential writing. ______________
4. He and Kristopher Davis wrote an article presented at the Second International WWW
Conference entitled “Empowering Students in the Information Age".
___________________
5. This is the Latin word which means, “to intermingle while weaving”.
__________________

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 6. It is the shaping of text's meaning by another text. _______________
7. She was a French semiotician who first introduced the intertextuality in the late sixties.
___________________
8. This means that when literature references another text, we are asked to draw from our
knowledge of the text in its original form, and compare this to how it is being used,
changed, or reframed by the primary book. ______________
9. It is his theory that claims that signs gain their meaning through structure in a particular
text. ________________________
10. Intertextuality invites a conversational dialogue between two “texts.”
________________.

LESSON 2
CRITICAL READING AS REASONING
An essential skill to develop reasoning is to critically read to find the hypothesis or read
between the lines to get to the idea. To reason is to think logically and to form conclusions or
judgments.
According to educational consultant Angela Peery, the emphasis on sound reasoning is a
central component of nine of the ten Anchor Standards for Reading:
Anchor Standard 1 is about the close reading of text and the ability to make logical
inferences; it also specifies that students must cite evidence from text in support of their
inferences, conclusions, and judgments. This standard, then, goes far beyond simple
comprehension. The ability to understand what any given text says explicitly is only a first step;
inferences and conclusions make up the remainder of the standards statement. Valid inferences
and logical conclusions require reasoning and should be a constant focus in reading instruction.

54
 Anchor Standard 2 is about the central ideas and themes of texts but also goes further
than comprehension. There are two other parts to this anchor standard: summarizing the central
idea or theme and analyzing the development of that central idea or theme. It is the analysis
portion of this standard that forces students to apply the principles of logic and to dig deeper into
each text.
Anchor Standard 3 is about the development of ideas, people/characters, and events
through the entirety of a text. This standard requires students not only to possess declarative
knowledge (what the main idea or thesis is, who the characters or key people are, and what the
sequence of events includes), but also to consider how these elements interact to create a total
effect. Therefore, the standard goes beyond factual knowledge and includes conceptual
knowledge. Students have to know the what, who, and when – but they also need to know the
how and the why. They must know how the component parts work together plus why the author
has crafted the how to achieve certain purposes and effects.
At grade level 2, the representation of Anchor Standard 3 for Literary Text is, “Describe
how characters in a story respond to major events and challenges.” This same standard at grade
level 8 reads, “Analyze how particular lines of dialogue or incidents in a story or drama propel
the action, reveal aspects of a character, or provoke a decision.” One can clearly see from this
progression across the years that students must know the how and before determining the why,
and the why becomes increasingly important as the student matures.
Anchor Standard 4 focuses squarely on word choice, including the technical,
connotative, and figurative meanings of words and expressions used. This standard, like most of
the Anchor Standards for Reading, requires cognition at the analysis level. Students must
interpret words and phrases used in a text and analyze how these choices impact the meaning and
tone. Again, the why is important – why did the author choose the exact words that he did?
It is interesting to note that by the time one reaches Anchor Standard 4, the verb
“analyze” has been used three times. The anchor standards are, by almost any educator’s
standards, very challenging.
The verb “analyze” appears again in Anchor Standard 5. This standard deals with text
structure and how the overall structure is interdependent with its component parts (sentences,
paragraphs, sections, chapters). Obviously this standard contains the element of logical
reasoning. If students truly understand the overall structure of a text, then they should also be
able to understand how that overall structure supports the central idea or theme and how that
structure interacts with its component elements. Again we have more of the how and why. How
is the text organized? Why is this structure the best?
Anchor Standard 6 is about author’s purpose (for informational text) and point of view
(for literary text). The standard actually uses the verb “assess”, which differentiates it from the
other nine anchor standards. “Assess” implies one of the highest levels of cognition, evaluation.
In this case, “assess” is used in the context of how purpose and point of view are inextricably
linked with content and style. Students must use their reasoning skills to fully meet to intent of
this standard. They must know the what (author’s purpose or point of view) – but the how is far
more important.

55
 The how here, much like in Anchor Standard 3, is about the interaction of text elements
with each other and in sum.
Anchor standard 7 is about reading not only basic, linguistic text but also about
understanding the use of visual, quantitative, and multimedia information when it appears with
linguistic text. According to this standard, students must demonstrate basic comprehension and
apply their higher-level thinking skills to text that has information in different formats. As a
result of their thinking, they must then reach valid conclusions and judgments.
Anchor standard 8 is more directly focused on reasoning than most of the other reading
standards. It states that students should dissect arguments based on the validity of the claims
presented and on the quality of the evidence. This particular reading standard aligns nicely with
the first anchor standard for writing, which is also about argumentation. Students must read and
critique arguments for effectiveness and also write effective arguments themselves; these
standards, even though they appear in two different strands, go hand-in-hand.
How does the reading skill of dissecting an argument play out across the grade levels? At
grade 2, the standard demands that students describe how reasons used in an informational text
support the specific points of the writer. At grade 8, the student must delineate the argument,
evaluate the argument, evaluate the claims, assess the reasoning for soundness, determine
whether or not the evidence is relevant and sufficient, and recognize irrelevant evidence.
The last standard with a focus on reasoning, Anchor Standard 9, is about comparing
multiple texts written about similar themes or topics. Obviously students must complete careful
readings of such texts and demonstrate basic comprehension before being able to compare and
contrast the texts based on their arguments or literary merit.
The thrust for independent, frequent application of reasoning skills is evident in full
description. It’s enough to make any teacher reflect on his teaching practices and to question
where he currently stands.

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 12
Direction: Read, analyze, and identify what is being asked in every statement. Write your
answer in the space provided before each number.
______________ 1. This standard is about the central ideas and themes of texts but also goes
further than comprehension.
______________ 2. This is an essential skill to develop reasoning and to find the hypothesis or
read between the lines to get to the idea.

56
______________ 3. This standard focuses squarely on word choice, including the technical,
connotative, and figurative meanings of words and expressions used.
_______________ 4. This standardalso specifies that students must cite evidence from text in
support of their inferences, conclusions, and judgments.
______________ 5. This standard requires students not only to possess declarative knowledge,
but also to consider how these elements interact to create a total effect.
______________ 6. This standard is about author’s purpose and point of view. It actually uses
the verb “assess”, which differentiates it from the other anchor standards.
______________ 7. A standard that is about comparing multiple texts written about similar
themes or topics
______________ 8. According to this standard, students must demonstrate basic comprehension
and apply their higher-level thinking skills to text that has information in different formats.
______________ 9. This standard deals with text structure and how the overall structure is
interdependent with its component. It obviously contains the element of logical reasoning.
______________ 10. This standard states that students should dissect arguments based on the
validity of the claims presented and on the quality of the evidence.

LESSON 3
FORMULATING EVALUATIVE STATEMENT
A critical reader must be able to evaluate statements and determine its value or
persuasiveness. To be able to do this, first, you need to know what a statement is and how it is
put together.
A statement is defined as that which is expressible by a sentence and is either true or
false. The criterion of being either true or false is one thing that served to identify the informative
use of language. Questions, commands, performatives, and expressions of feeling are neither true
nor false. Statements are logical entities; it is when a person makes an assertion about something
where the truth of the assertion is implied in the seriousness with which that statement is made
(uvawise.com, 20016).
What A Claim Is

 A claim persuades, argues, convinces, proves, or provocatively suggests something to a

reader who may or may not initially agree with you. A claim is the main argument of an
essay. It is probably the single most important part of an academic paper, the complexity,
effectiveness, and quality of the entire paper hinges on the claim. If your claim is boring
or obvious, the rest of the paper probably will be too.

57
  A claim defines your paper’s goals, direction, scope, and exigency and is supported by
evidence, quotations, argumentation, expert opinion, statistics, and telling details.

 A claim must be argumentative. When you make a claim, you are arguing for a certain
interpretation or understanding of your subject.

 A good claim is specific. It makes a focused argument (MTV’s popularity is waning

because it no longer plays music videos) rather than a general one (MTV sucks)
(Transcript from Washington.edu, 2016).
'Mom, I really need a new cell phone!' If you've ever said this or something like it, you've
made a claim. Making a claim is just a fancy way of saying that you're stating your main point.
In a formal paper, you might say something like, 'It is necessary for me to obtain a new cell
phone.' Claims are not just opinions. A claim tells what you think is true about a topic based on
your knowledge and your research. If you're ever going to convince your Mom to get that new
cell phone that's just perfect for you, you're going to have move beyond mere opinions. You're
going to need to support your claim to get rid of that crummy, old, obsolete phone that's holding
you back.
What a Counterclaim Is
In arguing a claim, you should always consider potential counterclaims and
counterarguments. For instance, in your argument for a new cell phone, your Mom stands on the
other side. She has something to say against your claim that you need a new cell phone, and it
goes something like, 'No, you don’t’ – that's your mom's counterclaim.
A counterclaim is just the opposite of a claim. This counterclaim denies the validity of
my claim. Usually, it’s important to address counterclaims in your writing. In a more formal
way, she might say, 'Your current situation does not require a new cell phone.' Counterclaims
are also provable and supportable by reasons and evidence. Not just, 'Because I said so.' When
you're planning an argument, you need to know what the counterclaim might be so that you can
make sure that you disprove it with your reasons and evidence.

Reasons
After your mom's counterclaim, she'll probably ask, 'Why is that you think you need a
new cell phone?' Then it is time for the reasons you've prepared well in advance, because you
know exactly what she'll ask. 'My cell phone doesn't have Internet access' – that's a reason.
A reason tells why. A reason makes someone care and tells the importance of the claim
and the argument. 'Because I said so' doesn't work, and 'Just because' doesn't work - until you're
a parent. In an argument, your 'My cell phone doesn't have Internet access,' would need to be
beefed up a little, to, 'My current cell phone doesn't provide Internet access, which is necessary
for me to complete all my homework.' That is provable; because your phone is so old it barely has
texting!
Evidence
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 After giving your reason, if your mom is anything like mine, she'll probably say, 'So?'
Then, it's time for your evidence, which, again, you have thoughtfully and thoroughly prepared.
You really want a new cell phone, after all. Knowing that your mom could care less about the
newest games, appeal to what she thinks is important - your grades. 'My friends that have
Internet access make the Honor Roll' – that's evidence.
Evidence tells your reader how your claim is proved. If you've ever watched a detective
show, then you know evidence. It's how the detective is able to put the criminal in jail. Evidence
is usually some kind of research. In the detective show, evidence is usually physical - like DNA
or fingerprints.
In our example, you would need to give or cite some concrete evidence like, 'According
to research, students with Internet access on their phones are more likely to make the Honor
Roll.' Evidence should be from a source that's reliable, and it makes your argument even better if
you have evidence from multiple sources. When you're preparing an argument, make sure to note
where you got your evidence. Not only will people need to know where you got your evidence,
they might even want to see it. If I told my mom that bit about the Internet access and the Honor
Roll, you can bet she would make me prove it by showing it to her.

Lesson Summary
So there you have it – Your claim is that you need a new cell phone. Your mom's
counterclaim is that you don't need one. Your reason is because yours doesn't have Internet
access, and your evidence says that students with Internet access make better grades.
A claim is the main argument. A counterclaim is the opposite of the argument, or the
opposing argument. A reason tells why the claim is made and is supported by the evidence.
Evidence is the facts or research to support your claim. I hope you win your next argument!
(Transcript from Kimberly Bennet’sstudy.com lesson)

LESSON 4

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DETERMINING TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
Informational texts
We read for all kinds of reasons. Sometimes, our reading merely entertains us.
Sometimes, it tries to persuade us. Sometimes, it informs us. Sometimes, it does all of these at
the same time. In this lesson, we're going to focus on reading that informs us. We'll explore
informational texts; discover some tips to make reading these types of text easier, and pay special
attention to the textual evidence that comprises a large portion of an informational text.
An informational text is simply a piece of writing with the primary purpose of conveying
knowledge about a topic. These texts often feature well-defined sections with bold headings,
highlighted vocabulary and definitions, and visual elements like pictures, graphs, and maps.
Informational texts can be history books, biographies, science texts, how-to books, volumes
about art or music, business textbooks, or any other book that is chiefly focused on telling you,
the reader, something you didn't know before.
Tips for reading informational texts
Efficiently reading an informational text takes a lot of effort because your goal is to
transfer the information in the text to your brain. The following tips will help you meet this
objective.
First off, before you even start reading an informational text, you should do three things:
1. Think about what you already know about the subject. This will help you better connect
with the text.
2. Determine what you want to learn from the text. What information are you looking for?
Jot down a few questions that you have about the subject. This will help you stay focused
as you read.
3. Survey the text. Look at the headings; notice the vocabulary words; scan the pictures and
graphics. This will help you get an initial idea of the text's content and organization.
When you've finished these pre-reading steps, you'll be ready to tackle the text. When
you read an informational text, you must be an active reader who engages the text rather than
allowing it to fly by. To be an active reader, you should do the following:

 Read the text slowly so you don't miss anything. Break the text into small chunks and
focus on one at a time.

 Take notes. If you own the book, you can underline, highlight, circle, make notes in the
margins, or use whatever other markings that help you identify and call attention to
important ideas. If the book belongs to someone else, have a piece of paper handy as you
read and jot down key words and ideas on that.

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  Pause after each chunk to write one- or two-sentence summary of what you just read.
Answer the questions you created in the pre-reading stage, if possible. Note any new
questions you might have at this point and indicate your reactions to the text.

 Reread as necessary. You will usually not be able to draw all of the important
information out of a text on the first time around.
Even after you've done all this, you are still not finished. After you read an informational
text, you should go back to your list of questions from pre-reading and those you've jotted down
during your reading to see if they've been answered. You should also review your notes, record
any further thoughts you might have about the text, and give yourself a little quiz to see how well
you remember the text's main ideas and most important details.
Textual Evidence
As you read informational texts, you should be aware that they tend to be built from other
texts and consolidate information taken from many different sources. This information is called
textual evidence, and good readers are able to identify it, analyze it to determine its credibility
and effectiveness, and determine how it strengthens or weakens the informational texts of which
it has become a part.
First, you should learn how to identify the pieces of textual evidence that are the building
blocks for informational texts. This evidence usually takes the forms of facts, statistics,
anecdotes, examples or illustrations, expert testimony, and graphical evidence like charts or
tables. Writers sometimes quote textual evidence directly, taking a selection word-for-word from
their source. Other times, they paraphrase, writing the information in their own words.
Sometimes, they also summarize their sources, adapting only the most important points to their
needs.
After you have identified a text's textual evidence, you should then determine how well
each piece of evidence works in the text. Is the evidence logical and clear? Is it relevant? Does it
seem accurate? Does it directly support the point the writer is trying to make? Does it come from
a reliable source? Does the writer give proper credit to the source? If you can answer, 'yes' to all
of these questions, you can be pretty sure that the evidence is strong and valid and contributes to
a better understanding of the subject the informational text is presenting.
Let's look at an example of textual evidence in an informational text. If you read any
book about the Civil War Battle Of Antietam, you'll notice that the writer uses a lot of textual
evidence to support his or her points. You might find:

 Facts about the battle itself: the who, when, what, where, why, and how of the events of
september 17, 1862

 Statistics about the number of soldiers involved for both the union and the confederacy

 Anecdotes about what the battle was like, often drawn from sources like soldiers' diaries
and letters
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  Expert testimony from historians who have studied the battle in detail

 Graphic evidence, like battlefield maps and casualty charts

Learning how to identify and analyze textual evidence like this will greatly increase your
understanding of informational texts and the subjects they present.

Lesson Summary
An informational text is simply a piece of writing with the primary purpose of conveying
knowledge about a topic. Efficiently reading an informational text takes a lot of effort. Before
you even start to read, you should think about what you already know about the topic, jot down
some questions about what you want to learn, and survey the text.
Informational texts require active reading. Read the text slowly, breaking it into small
chunks. Take notes. Pause to write down summaries, further questions, and your reactions.
Reread as necessary. Even after all that, you're still not finished. After reading, you should see if
your questions have been answered, review your notes, record any further thoughts, and quiz
yourself about main ideas and important details.
Informational texts tend to be built from other texts and consolidate information taken
from many different sources. This information is called textual evidence, and it usually takes the
forms of facts, statistics, anecdotes, examples or illustrations, expert testimony, and graphical
evidence like charts or tables. Writers might quote it directly, paraphrase it, or summarize it from
their sources. In any case, textual evidence should be logical, clear, relevant, accurate, directly
supportive of the writer's point, and taken from a credible source that is properly credited.
Learning how to read informational texts takes time and effort, but if you master the
technique, you'll be thrilled by the worlds of interesting information that open up before your
eyes. (Transcript from AmyTroolin’sstudy.com lesson)

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 13
Direction: Create a short dialogue that will show your claim about a specific thing or
statement. Then, construct a counterclaim on your argument, as well as the reason for your
claim. Finally, cite evidence that will support your claim and reason.

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Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________
Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 14
Performance Standard
Direction: Write a 1000-word critique of a selected text on the basis of its claim/s, context, and
properties as a written material. You may use a separate sheet.

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 Chapter 3
Standards:
Content: The learner understands the requirements of
composing academic writing and professional
correspondence.
Performance: The learner produces each type of academic writing
and professional correspondence following the
properties of well written texts and process approach to
writing.

LESSON 1
Academic and Professional Writing
Each different genre of writing has its own styles and conventions. Academic and
professional writing is no different. Professional and academic writing includes writing by
people who need to communicate academic, professional and technical information. It’s
generally written for people with a similar level of education and who have knowledge of at least
the basic background information relating to the area. It includes various different types of
documents such as reports, summaries, papers, and presentations.
Like all non-fiction writing, academic and professional writing is about the clear and
concise communication of information. You're writing to tell your audience some information.
The information is important and not the language you use to say it. The language should be
invisible. The reader should only remember the information.
But while the language is not as important as the contents, if it is not free from errors it
will distract the reader. Any mistakes in the spelling or grammar will distract the reader so that
they’re looking at the words rather than the contents. The same with poorly chosen words;
anything that doesn’t sound right to the reader, when they’re reading, will distract them as
they’ve to stop, just momentarily, and think about the word used. One way to make sure that
your language does not distract the reader is to follow the norms relating to the style and format
associated in professional and academic documents Dodgson, (2015).
How Is Academic Writing Different From Professional Writing?
Academic and professional writing in child welfare education and in the profession do
share some similarities.  Here is a brief list of similarities:

 Writing for both purposes is built on a good command of college-level written English
(i.e., good grammar, sentence and paragraph structure, style, diction and tone). 
 Both require good use of framing, although academic essays typically assume audiences
with no prior knowledge of the topic of the essay. 

64
  Both also require sound, logical arguments supported by reliable evidence that can be
traced to a valid source.  In turn, this means that both types of writing require good
writing organization skills.
 As grounded as each type of writing is in similar foundational skills, academic writing is
different from professional writing for child welfare.  Here is a brief list of the differences
between the two types of writing:

 Academic writing is mainly expository writing whereas professional writing can follow a
number of different genres of writing depending upon the context or purpose of the
particular document. 

 There is an elevated need to be objective and concise in Professional writing. 

 Academic writing often favors more opinion and assessment in documents written
(Berkeley.edu, 2016).    
What Students Learn In Academic Writing

 Academic Writing prepares students to:

 Demonstrate an understanding of writing as a series of tasks, including finding,
evaluating, analyzing, and synthesizing appropriate sources, and as a process that
involves composing, editing, and revising;
 Demonstrate critical reading and analytical skills, including understanding an argument's
major assertions and assumptions and how to evaluate its supporting evidence;
 Demonstrate facility with the fundamentals of persuasion as they are adapted to a variety
of special situations and audiences in academic writing;
 Demonstrate research skills, integrate their own ideas with those of others, and apply the
conventions of attribution and citation correctly;
 Use Standard Written English, edit and revise their own writing for appropriateness.
Demonstrate an understanding of the connection between writing and thinking, and use
writing and reading for inquiry, learning, thinking, and communicating in an academic
setting (umd.edu, 2016)

What Students Learn in Professional Writing

Professional Writing prepares students to:

 Analyze a variety of professional rhetorical situations and produce appropriate texts

in response.
 Understand the stages required to produce competent, professional writing through
planning, drafting, revising, and editing.
 Identify and implement the appropriate research methods for each writing task.
 Practice the ethical use of sources and the conventions of citation appropriate to each
genre.

65
  Write for the intended readers of a text, and design or adapt texts to audiences who
may differ in their familiarity with the subject matter.
 Demonstrate competence in Standard Written English, including grammar, sentence
and paragraph structure, coherence, and document design (including the use of the
visual) and be able to use this knowledge to revise texts.
 Produce cogent arguments that identify arguable issues, reflect the degree of available
evidence, and take account of counter arguments (umd.edu, 2016). 

LESSON 2
Language and Text Features
There is a progression for Language and Text Features in all four strands. Language
features include the way words work in sentences (for example, as verbs, nouns, adjectives, or
adverbs), the forms of words (for example, past, present and future tense forms or singular and
plural forms), the rules of grammar that govern how words are put together to form phrases,
clauses and sentences, and the length and complexity of sentences. Features of texts (which vary
depending on the form or type of text) include the different parts of a text and the cohesive
devices, such as sequencing, that link the parts.
Every speaker and writer makes their own individual choices about the vocabulary that is
appropriate to the situation and about the style or “voice” they want to use. They adapt their style
according to how they want to be perceived by the audience and they choose an appropriate
register. The term register may be used to mean the kind of language that is familiar and
expected in a particular text type. The term can also be used to describe the way in which a
speaker or writer chooses vocabulary, grammar, features relating to the patterns of stress and
intonation, or visual language features for a particular purpose and audience.
Read with Understanding: Language and Text Features progression
The reading progression for Language and Text Features reflects the fact that a good
knowledge of these features helps readers to read with understanding. (For example, readers who
understand the features of instruction texts know to look for the words that indicate the order in
which the steps should be done.) Written texts may also include visual language features such as
headings, illustrations, diagrams or tables. The features of written texts vary depending on the
form or type of text and include the length and layout of the text, the different parts of the text
and the cohesive devices, such as the sequencing of paragraphs that link the text.
Write To Communicate: Language And Text Features Progression
As they gain experience and develop expertise with reading and writing, writers increase
their choices of words, sentence structures, metaphors and other language features. They learn
how these features can be manipulated to reflect their own voice and to create a particular effect.
Written texts may also include visual language features such as headings, illustrations, diagrams
or tables.

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Developing Expertise In Using Written Text Types
As they develop expertise in the writing process, writers develop knowledge of the
generic (typical) patterns of various text types and they bring these patterns to mind as they
write. Writers use their knowledge of generic patterning at three levels:

 to inform the overall structure of the text

 to help shape the ideas in the text

 to decide on the appropriate language items to use.(Transcript from NZTec Admin, 2013)
Features of Effective Writing
Part of the difficulty in teaching and learning writing is that few tasks involve so many
complex, interwoven layers as writing. Composing a piece of written communication demands
an understanding of the content, knowledge of the audience and the context, and the ability to
use appropriate conventions for that audience and context.
Teaching writing, learning writing, and editing our own writing is easier when we break
apart these layers and base the writing assessments on five Features of Effective Writing. By
focusing on what is most important in a piece of written communication, these features not only
provide teachers with a more objective set of criteria for assessing writing; they also provide
students with a framework for reading and improving their own writing.
The Five Features of Effective Writing are:
Focus is the topic/subject established by the writer in response to the writing task. The
writer must clearly establish a focus as he/she fulfills the assignment of the prompt. If the writer
retreats from the subject matter presented in the prompt or addresses it too broadly, the focus is
weakened. The writer may effectively use an inductive organizational plan, which does not
actually identify the subject matter at the beginning and may not literally identify the subject
matter at all. The presence, therefore, of a focus must be determined in light of the method of
development chosen by the writer. If the reader is confused about the subject matter, the writer
has not effectively established a focus. If the reader is engaged and not confused, the writer
probably has been effective in establishing a focus.
Organization is the progression, relatedness, and completeness of ideas. The writer
establishes for the reader a well-organized composition, which exhibits a constancy of purpose
through the development of elements forming an effective beginning, middle, and end. The
response demonstrates a clear progression of related ideas and/or events and is unified and
complete.
Support and Elaboration is the extension and development of the topic/subject. The
writer provides sufficient elaboration to present the ideas and/or events clearly. Two important
concepts in determining whether details are supportive are the concepts of relatedness and
sufficiency. To be supportive of the subject matter, details must be related to the focus of the
response. Relatedness has to do with the directness of the relationship that the writer establishes
between the information and the subject matter. Supporting details should be relevant and clear.
67
The writer must present his/her ideas with enough power and clarity to cause the support to be
sufficient. Effective use of concrete, specific details strengthens the power of the response.
Undeveloped details, redundancy, and the repetitious paraphrasing of the same point often
characterize insufficiency. Sufficiency has less to do with amount than with the weight or power
of the information that is provided.
Style is the control of language that is appropriate to the purpose, audience, and context
of the writing task. The writer’s style is evident through word choice and sentence fluency.
Skillful use of precise, purposeful vocabulary enhances the effectiveness of the composition
through the use of appropriate words, phrases and descriptions that engage the audience.
Sentence fluency involves using a variety of sentence styles to establish effective relationships
between and among ideas, causes, and/or statements appropriate to the task.
Conventions involve correctness in sentence formation, usage, and mechanics. The
writer has control of grammatical conventions that are appropriate to the writing task. Errors, if
present, do not impede the reader’s understanding of the ideas conveyed.
How Do The Features Help Students?
The Features of Effective Writing can help students to become better writers by:

 Allowing students to focus their attention on just one feature at a time. By reducing the
cognitive demands of writing, students can focus on the aspect of writing that is most
important at each step of the writing process.

 Providing students with more opportunities to succeed by focusing on areas of strength

as well as weakness. Evaluating student writing with five distinct scores helps students to
see themselves as multidimensional writers, with weaknesses and strengths. Students who
are poor spellers can be recognized for the quality of their ideas, while perfect spellers
may realize that correct writing is not necessarily interesting writing. Students can learn
to recognize their strengths and work to improve their areas of weakness.

 Making expectations visible to students. When students know the criteria by which they
will be evaluated, they no longer have to rely on the teacher to make judgments about the
quality of their writing. They can instead use the Features to revise their writing
continually.

 Teaching students to become critical readers of their own writing. Students who are
taught to diagnose and correct their own writing problems are on their way to becoming
self-regulated, independent writers. By providing instructional support, including
demonstrations of writing strategies, writing “think-alouds,” guided practice in small-
group settings, conferences with teacher and peers, and opportunities to transfer strategies
to new contexts and genres of writing, teachers can move students toward independence.

 Teaching students to become critical readers of the writing of others. Students can use
the Features to evaluate their peers; writing in order to give constructive feedback during
conferences. Students can also learn to read critically and evaluate the writing of
professional authors and to appropriate their techniques. (Bowen and Cali, 2003).
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 Activity 15
Direction: Read and analyze each statement. Write the word “true” if the statement is correct,
write word “false” if it is incorrect. Write your answer in the space provided before each number.
1. Style is the control of language that is appropriate to the purpose, audience, and context of the
writing task.
2. The writer has no control of grammatical conventions that are appropriate to the writing task.
3. Organization is the extension and development of the topic/subject.
4. The support and elaboration demonstrates a clear progression of related ideas and/or events
and is unified and complete.
5. Every speaker and writer makes their own individual choices about the vocabulary that is
appropriate to the situation and about the style or “voice” they want to use.
6. Academic and professional writing is about the clear and concise communication of
information..
7. Only academic writing and not professional writing requires a sound, logical arguments
supported by reliable evidence that can be traced to a valid source. 
8. Focus is the topic/subject established by the writer in response to the writing task.
9 Conventionsinvolve correctness in sentence formation, usage, and mechanics.
10. Students who are taught to diagnose and correct their own writing problems are on their way
to becoming self-regulated, independent writers.

Lesson 2
Identifying Unique Features And Requirements In Composing Texts
Book Review or Article Critiques
An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a summary; rather, it
comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical concerns in a
course. The literature review puts together a set of such commentaries to map out the current
69
range of positions on a topic; then the writer can define his or her own position in the rest of the
paper.
Keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes, and write the review:

 What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall purpose does it seem to
have? For what readership is it written? (Look in the preface, acknowledgements,
reference list and index for clues about where and how the piece was originally
published, and about the author's background and position.)
 Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she noticeably have an axe to grind?
What are the theoretical assumptions? Are they discussed explicitly? (Again, look for
statements in the preface, etc. and follow them up in the rest of the work.)
 What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your course? What general
problems and concepts in your discipline and course does it engage with?
 What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary documents or secondary
material, literary analysis, personal observation, quantitative data, biographical or
historical accounts)?
 How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis? (As well as indicating the
overall structure of the work, your review could quote or summarize specific passages to
show the characteristics of the author's presentation, including writing style and tone.)
 Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material? Does the author show
awareness of them? In what respects does the author agree or disagree?
 What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the work raise?
 What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding the work?
Browse in published scholarly book reviews to get a sense of the ways reviews function
in intellectual discourse. Look at journals in your discipline or general publications such as the
London Review of Books or the New York Review of Books
Some reviews summarize the book's content and then evaluate it; others integrate these
functions, commenting on the book and using summary only to give examples. Choose the
method that seems most suitable according to your professor's directions
The purpose of a review of a work (book or article) is generally to let readers know what
the work is about and what its merits are so that readers can decide whether they want to read the
work. Because the readers of a review probably have not read the work under discussion, you
must describe the work as well as evaluate it or a critique or critical review, readers may have
read the work; therefore, you need to give less attention to description and summary but more
attention to evaluation.
If you are given a choice, try to find a work that interests you.

 Ask someone whose judgment you trust to recommend a work or try to find a work by an
authority who is respected in the field. Your textbook may contain a helpful bibliography
 Examine the work carefully to see whether the subject and treatment are appealing to
you. Check contents, indexes, and introductions.

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  Flip through the text, reading portions in order to determine whether the vocabulary and
style are clear and comprehensible to you
 A discussion of the relationship between the work being reviewed and other works in the
field.
 Evaluation of the work clearly supported and well presented.
 Selected short quotations from the work that are representatives of the theme, tone and
style.
Literature Review
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and
sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the
important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that
information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old
interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates.
And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the
reader on the most pertinent or relevant.
How Is A Literature Review Different From An Academic Research Paper?
The main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and a
research paper is likely to contain a literature review as one of its parts. In a research paper, you
use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you contribute. The focus
of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others
without adding new contributions.
Why Do We Write Literature Reviews?
Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have
limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a
stepping-stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is
current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the
credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for
a research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is
essential to most research papers.
Strategies For Writing The Literature Review
Find a focus – A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas,
not the sources themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that
you will not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at a time.
As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what themes or issues
connect your sources together.

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 Convey it to your reader – A literature review may not have a traditional thesis statement
(one that makes an argument), but you do need to tell readers what to expect. Try writing a
simple statement that lets the reader know what is your main organizing principle.
Consider organization – You’ve got a focus, and you’ve stated it clearly and directly.
Now what is the most effective way of presenting the information? What are the most important
topics, subtopics, etc., that your review needs to include? And in what order should you present
them? Develop an organization for your review at both a global and local level. (Transcript from
The Writing Center, 2014)
COMPOSING PROFESSIONAL CORRESPONDENCE
A. WRITING A RÉSUMÉ
Résumé (also spelled resume) is a brief document that summarizes your education,
employment history, and experiences that are relevant to your qualifications for a particular job
for which you are applying. The purpose of a résumé (along with your cover letter) is to get an
interview. Research has shown that it takes an average of ten (10) interviews to receive one (1)
job offer, so your résumé needs to be persuasive and perfect. Given this, your résumé must be
user-centered and persuasive (Purdue Writing Lab, 2016).
Types Of Résumés
Depending on your work experience, the job you’re applying for, or your personal
preference, you may want to use a particular type of résumé. Here are three types of résumés to
choose from:
A functional résumé focuses on your skills
If you haven’t had a lot of work experience, a functional résumé that focuses on your
skills is a good way to market yourself to potential employers. Instead of focusing on your
previous work experience, a skills-focused résumé highlights the transferable skills you gained
from previous jobs, activities, experiences, or volunteer work.It’s most commonly used when
you’ve had a large gap in your employment history, or if you have never worked before.

A chronological résumé focuses on your experience

Focusing on your work history is one of the more popular ways to structure a résumé. It
shows employers all your work experience, focusing on positions you’ve held and your past
responsibilities and accomplishments. The chronological résumé is organized with your most
recent information first. The goal is to give a comprehensive work history, organized by each job
you’ve held. You give your position title, place of employment, how long you worked there, and
a breakdown of your responsibilities or accomplishments. This is a great multi-purpose résumé
that works for most job applications, including retail.
Ahybrid résumé is a combination of the two

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 A hybrid résumé is also known as a combination résumé. It combines the elements of a
functional and chronological résumé to create a résumé that focuses heavily on skills, but also
includes dates, titles of previous jobs, along with essential information about the position. This is
a good résumé to use when you want to prioritize your skills but also demonstrate how your
career has evolved.
Important Information To Include In Your Résumé
There are a variety of different headings you can use in your résumé, depending on what
type of résumé you choose to write. However, regardless of the type of résumé you choose, here
are three of the most important things it should include:
Your personal information
The first thing your employer should see when looking at your résumé is your name.
Make sure it is clear, stands out, and is easy to read.
Your résumé should include your full address, contact phone numbers, and an e-mail
address that incorporates your first and last name.
Education
List your education, starting with the most recent, and work backwards from there.
Include the name of the school, the city or town where each school you attended is located
(secondary and beyond), and the years you completed.
Be sure to list any certificates or diplomas you received, including those for mini-courses
like computer or software courses, first aid, or any other training that might be useful in the job
you are applying for.
Skills and experience
Use your résumé to show where you worked, what you learned, and how your skills and
experience apply to the job you are applying for. Highlight abilities, skills, and experience that
relate to the job you're applying for. These can come from paid or unpaid work, volunteer
experience, and even hobbies.
If all of your experience is in an unrelated field to the job you’re applying for, focus on
the transferable skills you learned that can be applied to the new job you’re applying for.
When listing your work experience, include the location (city, province) and the dates
you worked (month, year) for each job or volunteer position. Use action words to describe what
you did in the positions you held. Focus on the top-five duties for each job.
Other relevant information
You may also want to include your job goals, the languages you speak, or any relevant
achievements or awards. You can also include interests or activities that say something positive
about you. Don’t forget, however, that the point of your résumé is to show why you are the right
person for the job.
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 There are no official rules for what headings you should include on your résumé. Just
remember to keep it concise, with the most important information at the top.(Transcript from
Youth GC, 2014)

Name: _______________________________ Date: __________________

Section: ______________________________ Score: __________________
Activity 16
Directions:

 Gather advertisements on job vacancies (research from news papers or internet). Choose
those that relate to your future professions.

 Bring samples of resume (research from books and internet)

 Make your own resume by using the samples that you have.

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