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HISTORY OF PHARMACY FROM ANCIENT TO MODERN
- 1. HISTORY OF PHARMACY MOHANRAJ.S-B.PHARM KMCH college of pharmacy Coimbatore-48
- 2. PHARMACY Pharmacy • Derived from Greek word: Pharmakos meaning sorcery or even poison Origin • Late Middle English (denoting the administration of drugs): from Old French farmacie, via medieval Latin from Greek pharmakeia 'practice of the druggist', based on pharmakon 'drug'.
- 3. EVOLUTION OF PHARMACY • Pre-historic pharmacy • Antiquity (river valley civilisations) • The middle ages (400 AD to 1453 AD) • The renaissance and early modern Europe Renaissance • The activity, spirit, or time of the great revival of art, literature, and learning in Europe beginning in the 14th century and extending to the 17th century, marking the transition from the medieval to the modern world.
- 5. THESE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS CAME UP IN FOUR RIVER VALLEY SYSTEMS • The Mesopotamian civilisation in the Tigris- Euphrates valley (c. 3300 BC - c. 2000 BC), • The Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley (c. 3200 BC - c. 1000 BC), • The Harappan civilisation in the Indus valley (c. 3200 BC - c. 1300 BC), and • The Yellow River (Chinese) civilisation in the Yellow River valley (c. 2000 BC - c. 200 BC).
- 6. Pre-Historic Pharmacy • 30,000 BC : Shanidar (excavation of mankinds oldest settlement) • The arts of primitive pharmacy probably were mastered by all who practiced the domestic medicine of the household. • Shamans used medicines but not as the same way we use today. They used it as both simple tools and special substances with nearly supernatural powers.
- 7. Pre-Historic Pharmacy • Neanderthals, Herbal Health & Haoma • While some of the plants associated with the pollen found beside Shanidar IV (perhaps we may be forgiven for calling him 'Herb') may have pretty flowers, others such as the ephedra are not known so much for their flower value as they are for their herbal value. • Ralph Solecki in Shanidar, the First Flower People (1971) at page 177 states, "We do not know if the Shanidar Neanderthals were aware of the medicinal properties as well as the ornamental properties of flowers, but it is likely that as working naturalists they must have given all living plants a taste during some time in their long existence. • Until we know a little more about flowers in antiquity, it would be asking too much to believe that the Neanderthals were cognizant of the medicinal properties of flowers.”
- 8. Pre-Historic Pharmacy • What we do know is that almost all the plants whose pollen was found besides 'Herb's' skeleton have recognized health giving and medicinal purposes. These include Ephedra distachya (otherwise known as Joint Pine or Woody Horsetail), Yarrow, Cornflower, Bachelor's Button, St. Barnaby's Thistle, Ragwort or Groundsel, Grape Hyacinth, and Hollyhock - plants known for their diuretic, stimulant, astringent and anti-inflammatory properties. • The healing or medicinal use of ephedra either on its own or in combination with other plants is particularly significant for Zoroastrians whose ancient healing system is based on Haoma or Hom . Hom is the Iranian name for the ephedra plant. Reference : http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/cavedwellings/shan idar.html
- 9. ANTIQUITY • Any period before the Middle Ages (476–1453) • With organized settlements in the great fertile valleys of the Nile, The Tigris and Eupharates, the Yellow and Yangtze, and the Indus rivers the concepts of disease and healing gradually changed • Babylonians : two practitioners 1. asipu (magical healer) 2. the asu (empirical healer) , drew upon a large collection of drugs and manipulated them into several dosage forms that are still basic today.
- 10. ANTIQUITY • The Egyptian medical text show a close connection between supernatural and empirical healing • Were these early medicine makers the family members of today’s pharmacists ? - No. Because physicians and other healers again took on the duties of medicine preparation as these two great river civilisations declined
- 11. Greek civilisation in the basin of the Aegean sea • Roots of the modern medical profession in the west • Odyssey-Homer (ca 800 BCE) refers to the esteemed medical wisdom of Egypt - they diagnosed natural causes for illness, while still not rejecting the use of supernatural healing in conjunction with empirical remedies • Hippocratic writers constructed a rational explanation of illness
- 12. Greek civilisation in the basin of the Aegean sea • Conceptual link between the environment and humanity by connecting the four elements of earth, air, fire, and water to four governing humors of the body: black bile, blood, yellow bile and phlegm. • Iatros = trained Greek physician • Most greek medicines : from plants • Theophrastus (ca 370 – 285 BCE) was a scholar and also a student of Aristotle • Material Medica : encyclopedia of drugs from Greece • Galen : devised elaborates system setting aside conservative Hippocratists system - the balance of the body’s four humors through contrary drugs
- 13. THE MIDDLE AGES • Dark ages : first half of this age • The use of drugs to treat illness underwent another shift : pagan temples were closed • Pagan temples had operated in conjuction with Greco-Roman healing methods • Rational drug therapy declined: Church’s teaching; sin and disease were intimately related
- 14. THE MIDDLE AGES • Nestorians established a famous school in Gondeshapur • Arab accepted the medical writing of Galen and Dioscorides • Islamic medical men like Rhazus (860-932) and Avicenna (980-1063) added to the writings of the Greeks • Arab physicans rejected the old idea that foul-tasting medicines worked best • They made their dosage form more elegant and palatable through the silvering and gilding of pills and the use of syrups • In baghdad: the dosage form development work was taken by specialists, the occupational ancestors of today’s pharmacists
- 15. THE MIDDLE AGES • The knowledge passed to west • Mid 13th century: Frederick II, the ruler of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies codified the separate practice of pharmacy for the first time in Europe • Emerging universities : Paris (1150), Oxford(1167) and Salerno (1180) : discussion of the works of the great medical authorities such as Diascorides, Galen and Avicenna • European academics made the debates on medicine a matter of speculation not observation
- 16. THE RENAISSANCE AND EARLY MODERN EUROPE • 1453 : Fall of constantinople in Istanbul, remnants of the greek scholarly community there fled west • Johann Gutenberg began printing with movable type • Columbus discovered the New World • Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India • The time was ripe for casting off the old concepts of diseases and drugs of Galen • Printing had a profound effect on the study of plants drugs because illustrations of the plants could be reproduced easily • Medical botanists : Otto Brunfels (1500 – 1534), Leonhart Fuchs (1501 -1566) and John Gerard (1545-1612) illustrated their works
- 17. THE RENAISSANCE AND EARLY MODERN EUROPE • Valerius Cordus (1515-1544): Dispensatorium (1546) became the official standard for the preparation of medicines in the city of Nuremberg; generally considered the first Pharmacopoeia • 1493 : Paracelsus; his writing are a strange mixture of intelligent observation and mystical nonsense, of humble sincerity and boasting megalomania - advocate of chemically prepared drugs from crude plant and mineral substances
- 18. PARACELSUS • Chemical process used: distillation • Chemistry was incorporated into the world of drug • Thus a great leap in the history of pharmacy took place. • 16th century : Paracelsus and his followers took a position on the forefront of chemistry • For 300 years a small minority of practising pharmacists made significant investigations into the chemistry of drugs • They isolated drugs which are still used today. • Tobacco, guaiac, cascara sagrada, ipecac, and cinchona bark- europeans got acquianted from the New world
- 19. PARACELSUS • 1640 : Cinchona bark introduced in Europe • 1820 : quinine was extracted from Cinchona • Galens elaborate system of balancing humors by using drugs of opposite qualities : challenged by cinchona bark’s efficacy against malaria • 1500 years of Galenic period of disease management was replaced by the concept of Paracelsus and the latter has good relationship with present day modern pharmacology.
- 20. PARACELSUS • The cooperation between pharmaceutical guilds and governmental bodies also led to the standardization of medicines through the publication of books called pharmacopeias. • 1499 : the guild of physicians and pharmacists of Florence sanctioned the Nuovo receptatio as their book of standards • Historians credit Dispensatorium of Valerius Cordus as the first pharmacopeia (adopted by govt. of Nuremberg, Germany, 1546)
- 21. PARACELSUS • Mid 1600 – mid 1800: pharmacy firmly establised as profession, controversy within medicine regarding its proper use • Pharmcists consulted books like Traite de chynie, 1660 by Nicaise Lefebvre and Cours de chymie, 1675 by Nicolas Lemery)
- 22. CHEMICAL DISCOVERY BY PHARMACIST • Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786): - Oxygen- 1773, chlorine, glycerine and several inorganic acids • Martin Klaproth (1743-1817): analytical chemistry • Moissan, a french pharmacist received the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1906 for his isolation of fluorine
- 23. CHEMICAL DISCOVERY BY PHARMACIST • In collaboration with interested physicians, pharmacists documented the sources of plant drugs around the globe • Discoveries came gradually through hit and miss research until the late 1700s • Scheele : citric acid 1784. • Friedrich Serturner: morphine from crude opium- era of alkaloidal chemistry
- 24. CHEMICAL DISCOVERY BY PHARMACIST • After 1850 the scientific discipline of pharmacy began to become more professionalized in colleges and manufacturing concerns with a subsequent decline in drug shop science • Apothecaries : during 1600 and 1700 original class of pharmacy practitioners evolved to a second group of medical practitioners • They served those who could not afford the high fees demanded by the small cadre of university- educated physicians
- 25. BRITAIN • Chemists and druggists: manufactures and sold drugs and medicines for the apothecaries • They rose up to take over the open pharmaceutical niche • Conflicts and court cases erupted during these years and the boundaries between the physicians, apothecaries, chemists and druggists shifted accordingly
- 26. AMERICAN PHARMACY • When colonies became more prosperous they attracted ambitious businessmen from England including apothecaries. • British apothecaries continued to combine pharmaceutical and medical practice • North America : boundaries between medicine and pharmacy-even more cloudier • Larger cities in Atlantic coast : Chemists and druggist inn 18th century who limited themselves to drug-selling and medicinal preparations
- 27. AMERICAN PHARMACY • 1760 : Dr. John Morgan (Discourse in medical education): advocated the separation of medicine and pharmacy with physicians writing prescriptions • It came into operation in 19th century only. • The years surrounding the war of 1812.
- 28. AMERICAN PHARMACY • 1804: employed medical apprentices as staff apothecaries • 1811: pharmaceutical practitioner in New York Hospital, he was required to stay in his shop. • After war Americans developed their own expertise in medicine • More and more physicians gained their clinical experience in hospitals and dispensaries instead of with preceptors, learning to write with prescriptions, rather than compound them
- 29. AMERICAN PHARMACY • 1820: Massachusetts Medical society published a state guide to drug standards, with a national convention of physicians approving a Pharmacopoeia of the United states of America (USP) IN 1820. • These books reflects both the growing amount of prescription writing and the medical profession’s increasing reliance on pharmacists. • Philadelphia College of Pharmacy (1821) • Massachhusetts College of Pharmacy(1823)
- 30. ANTEBELLUM AMERICA: PHARMACY FINDS ITS NICHE • After 1812 and before civil war • Beautiful pharmacy in operation along the atlantic coast • 1840: relationship between physician and pharmacist began to sour • Counter prescribing started • US census illustrates dramatic growth in the pharmacy profession • With the production of medicine by mass- manufacturers
- 31. THE SEARCH FOR PROFESSIONALISM • 1852: group of elite druggists and apothecaries in Philadelphia (formation of APhA-American Pharmaceutical Association) • Pharmacists felt for competancy • Legislation : Pharmcists tried to develop competency that could separate them from other persons working in Pharmacy
- 32. TRANSITION TO A MODERN PROFESSION • 1870-1920:Remington • The era of count and pour: middle third of the 20th century • The emergence of clinical Pharmacy: after 1960