Trends in Distance Education and Open Learning: Policy ... - ADEA

Associationfor theDevelopmentofEducation inAfricaWorking GroupforDistanceEducationandOpen LearningTrends in Distance Educationand Open Learning:Policy PapersDRAFTEditorsKaviraj Sharma Sukon, Ph.Dks.sukon@gmail.comNieshaakema James-Sarra.james-sarr@unesco.org1

EditorialTrends in Distance Education and Open Learning:Policy PapersThis new on-line publication, Trends in Distance Education and Open Learning: PolicyPapers, has been initiated by the Working Group on Distance Education and OpenLearning (WGDEOL) of the Association for the Development of Education in Africa(ADEA). The aim is to meet the growing demands of policy makers, practitioners,educators and learners especially in Africa where although e/open-learning is becomingpopular it remains at its infancy stage 1 with a wide variety of practices. The silver liningis that there is appreciable enthusiasm amongst African experts for developing thepotential of e-learning 2 .Africa is facing several challenges. The donors are reducing their aid to education bynearly US$20 billion annually 3 . Consequently, the lack of funding has resulted in fewerclassrooms, poorer quality of education, acute teacher shortages, insufficient number ofbooks as well as larger number of children who are out of school. These effects aremore strongly felt in Africa especially Sub-Saharan Africa. An additional 1.9 millionteaching posts need to be established to achieve universal primary education by 2015;more than half of them are required in sub-Saharan Africa, where pupil/teacher ratiosare high. About 17 percent of the world’s adults – 796 million people –still lack basicliteracy skills 3 . Nearly two-thirds are women. Lack of literacy skills can have severeconsequences like in Malawi, 60 percent of mothers with secondary education or higherwere aware that drugs could reduce transmission risks, compared with 27 percent ofwomen with no education 3 . Well educated citizens also acquire other essential skills fora flourishing multi-cultural society like the skill of living peacefully with other people. Insuch a situation how do we implement the directives of Article 26 of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights which calls upon the world leaders to make fundamental1 Eke, H. N. (2010) “The perspective of e-learning and libraries in Africa: challenges and opportunities”, LibraryReview, Vol. 59 No. 4, pp. 274-290.2 Unwin, T. (2008). Survey of e-learning in Africa. [Online] available: http:/www.comminit.com/en/node3 EFA Global Monitoring Report 20112

education free and elementary education compulsory 4 ? It is advocated that DEOL canhelp.There have been several phases in the development of online-learning. The first phasewas closely related to establishment of the Computer Based Training Systems createdin 1984 which was followed by the CD-ROMs that were used to train people. In thesecond phase on-line learning was mainly concerned with the delivery of text-basedprogrammes with negligible web-based discussion and chat rooms. Use of email andthe Internet focussed on interaction through text-based exchanges that also allowed filesharing through attachments. In the present phase the focus is on virtual reality thatallow effective interaction in virtual classrooms setups as well as on mobile telephonesfor ubiquitous distance education.The definition of e-learning has also evolved. In late 1997, learning guru Elliott Masie 5said, “Online learning is the use of network technology to design, deliver, select,administer, and extend learning.” In 1998, Jay Cross 4 wrote, “eLearning is learning onInternet Time, the convergence of learning and networks. E-Learning is a vision of whatcorporate training can become. E-Learning is to traditional training as e-Business is tobusiness as usual.” In 1999, Cisco stated that, “eLearning is Internet-enabled learning.Components can include content delivery in multiple formats, management of thelearning experience, and a networked community of learners, content developers andexperts.” According to Eke (2010), “e-learning is generally seen as either learning viathe Internet or any other electronic means or gadgets. E-learning comes in differentformats and categories.”Another noticeable change is that previously DEOL tutors were selected among thosetutoring in conventional education who did not know much about the mechanics ofDEOL; however, currently we are witnessing an increasing number of professional DEOLexperts.4 http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html5 Cross, J. (2004),” An informal history of eLearning”, On the Horizon, Vol.12, No. 3, pp. 103-110.3

The anytime-anywhere characteristic of DEOL has the potential of making educationmore accessible especially to marginalised groups in rural areas as its content can bedelivered through radio, video, CD-ROM, desktops, notebooks, TV, web,videoconferencing, wired networks, wireless networks, satellites, e-mails, blogs,micro-blogs, twitter, wiki, i-pods, i-pads, podcasting, RSS feeds, mobile phones, virtualclassrooms, proprietary platforms such as Friendster and shareware such as moodleand drupal.However, there are several challenges like lack of infrastructure and computer skills,low bandwidth, unreliable Internet and telephone connection, limited access to e-library,limited number of computers, non-uniform electricity supply, lack of trained teachersand e-learning content.The first paper in this series is on the use of mobile technology for teaching andlearning based on a research study. It does not only explain the use of mobiletechnology but it illustrates it use through several insightful case studies.In the current increasingly technology-oriented, wired and fast-moving world, everythingis becoming global and we continuously need fresh thinking as the past is not sufficientto illuminate the future. It is expected that this publication will not only add to theinsights and experiences of the readers but it will also help them to reflect on the newtrends in DEOL. It is vital that we share the publications while promoting the appropriateenvironment that allows us to co-create more of these. We hope that more policymakers start to look seriously at open and distance education practiced in Africa.K.S.Sukon, Ph.DWGDEOL-ADEA, Co-coordinator4

Paper 01-0102Use of Mobile Learning in Educational andTraining Settings5

Use of Mobile Learning in Educational andTraining SettingsDr Nawaz MohamudallyDecember 2010Sponsored by theAssociation for Development of Education in Africa (ADEA)CONTRACT N°: ADEA/C/2010/0786

Table of ContentAcknowledgmentsIntroduction……………………………………………………………………… ……………………9TOR, Goal, Aims & Objectives, Scope of Work…………………………………………6Part I: Integrating mobile technology in education1. Definition of mobile learning……………………………………………… 122. The mobile learning system…………………………………………………133. Context Awareness……………………………………………………………..144. M-learning Frameworks………………………………………………………155. Interoperability with VLEs………..………………………………………….216. Pedagogical issues………………………………………..……………………..227. Formal and informal training settings………………………………....238. Design principles………………………………………………………………….249. Teachers training………………………………………..……………………….2510. Constraints & Barriers………………………………………………………….2611. Social Aspect………………………………………………………………………..2712. Future models & educational scenarios……………………………….2813. m-learning opportunities & applications………………………………3014. enterprise mobile learning…………………………..………………………31Part II: Current State versus Emerging Applications & Technologies1. Appropriation & Technology Selection…………………………………332. Mobile Technology Economics…………………………………………....343. Broadband & Bandwidth issues……………………………………………364. Mobile Media & Rich Content………………………………………………385. Wireless Technologies………………………………………………………….396. Future networks…………………………………………………………………..407. CSIRO breakthrough…………………………………………………………….418. Satellite Communications, VSAT and School-SAT………………...439. The Markets, Products & Services Providers………………………..4510. Challenges & Constraints……………………………………………………..4711. Broadening access to rural areas………………………………………….4912. Cloud computing………………………………………………………………....5013. Web 2.0………………………………………………………………………………..5214. In memory analytics……………………………………………………………..5315. Augmented Reality & Learning……………………………………………..55Part III: Case Studies & Projects1. Deployment of tablets & ipads…………………………………….……….562. Asia……………………………………………………………………………….……..573. Africa…………………………………………………………………………….……..594. European Projects……………………………………………………………….635. The CATIA project………………………………………………………………..647

6. K-12 & Vocational Training………………………………………………….647. The KLIV project…………………………………………………………………..678. The Ubi-Learn Project………………………………………………………….689. School SAT in Ireland……………………………………………………………7010. Use of m-learning in universities………………………………………….7111. Use of m-learning in enterprises………………………………………….7312. Theoretical perspectives of m-learning projects………………….78Research Gaps & Directions…………………………………………………………………79Best Practices............................................................................................80Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………….83A Framework for the implementation of mobile learning and training.85Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………….91ReferencesAppendicesAppendix 1: Colleges & Schools Deploying the iPadAppendix 2: Useful LinksAppendix 3: Tools for applications & content developmentAppendix 4: More Case Studies & Projects8

Executive SummaryThe study presented in this report makes an assessment of the current progress inmobile learning across the globe and proposes a comprehensive framework for thesuccessful implementation of any m-learning project in the context of the Africaneducational needs. It is known that the mobile technology is bridging the digitaldivide faster than desktop PCs and that highest rate of mobile subscriptions duringthe past decade is in Africa. There have been numerous initiatives and pilot projectson the continent with satisfactory outcomes, but on a smaller scale. Many of theeducational issues such as massive training of primary educators remainunanswered or unaddressed from a mobile learning perspective. Therefore thescope for the introduction of m-learning at different stages of the curriculum and inblended manners is immense. From the case studies scrutinized, it is obvious thatsome projects can be easily replicated to some African formal or informal educationor training settings, however, the specificity of the each country can bringinnovative educational scenarios that can be converted into m-learning projects andthe framework described at the end of this report could be very useful. Similarly toany technology driven project, the emphasis on learning and pedagogical aspectsshould not be distracted. How far components can be re-used and the appropriatechoice of technology have a definite impact on the cost effectiveness of any m-learning project. This research has shown that m-learning should be viewed as aparadigm shift rather than a simple extension of OEDL and is actually in its secondgeneration globally. The benefits from this mode of learning had been poorlytapped in and the numbers of educational constraints that can be tackled with m-learning remain very much unexploited on the continent although it goes along withbusiness opportunities in the education sector.9

Policy Brief DocumentThis document lays down draft policies in view of the implementationof mobile learning (m-learning) in formal and informal educational andtraining settings following a research study contracted out by theAssociation for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA).1. Education Access & Reach(i) Institutions need to identify and imagine educationalscenarios whereby m-learning can add value to the currenteducational goals and objectives. For instance, the blending ofm-learning with current modes in DEOL should be envisaged.(ii)M-learning must be adopted and adapted to broaden reachand access to a larger population in rural areas.(iii)(iv)Train the trainer courses on a massive scale with m-learningshould be elaborated.m-learning must be made accessible to the vulnerable groupsthough community centres with the assistance of the privateand public operators.2. Integration of m-technology in curriculum(i) Integration of m-technology for teaching and learningpurposes must be initiated as from the Primary level, giventhe acquaintances of younger generation with the mobilephone and the internet.(ii)At the secondary level, universal subject on ICT includingmobile communications should be present.10

(iii)Use of mobile applications and Campus WiFi should be part ofthe universities infrastructure administrative and academictools.(iv)Candidates eligible for foundation courses for a pathwaytowards mainstream university programmes should beassisted with mobile technology in order to increase theirchances towards success. This initiative will boost the tertiaryintake figures.3. Mobile Content Development(i) Necessary infrastructure and human resources are to beindentified to create capacity building in mobile contentdevelopment.(ii)Open source technology should be favored for projects to becost effective and sustain economy of scale.(iii)M-learning projects must create new business models andopportunities and linkages and ventures with market leadersare to be encouraged.4. Mobile Broadband and Multimedia Services(i) Regulators and the Internet think tank need to ponder on howto bridge the Broadband divide.(ii)Special consideration must be given to capabilities tobroadcast Multimedia services.11

5. Choice of Technology(i) Appropriate choice of technology in the implementation of m-learning projects will impact on the ROI and learningoutcomes.(ii) The knowledge transfer and adoption of emergingtechnologies, such as tablets is crucial to ensure a world classstandard of the education.(iii)Satellite technologies like the VSAT and other domesticservices can be very useful to Africa in terms of coverage andpricing competitiveness.6. Research and Innovation(i) Innovation and entrepreneurship in educational mobile apps.must be fostered via incubators and competitions.(ii)Local universities and applied research centres should comeup with commercial apps. for mobile education through astrong South-South collaboration with other Africanuniversities and centres of excellence. Such initiatives willundoubtedly generate low cost products for the Africancontinent.12

IntroductionMobile Learning often referred as m-learning is a very broad and multidisciplinary topicencompassing technology, education, society, economy and many more that need to beaddressed from diverse angles and perspectives. The ever changing landscape of theeducational sector in Africa and the needs in terms of delivery and support will pressureinstitutions and universities towards the use of mobile technology for sustainable andinnovative educational experience for students and teachers.The study presented in this report take into account recent advances, research findingsand success stories internationally and in the African continent with the aim to come upwith a Framework for the Implementation of Mobile Learning and Training.While remaining focused on the requirements of the terms of reference described earlier,this report encloses substantial amount of issues and information necessary towards apragmatic outcome and concrete answers to the objectives set. Part I answers to theobjectives: Explaining what mobile learning is; Presenting the current status of mobilelearning as well as latest research; Outlining the challenges faced by when designing andimplementing mobile learning. Part II relates to the objectives: Compiling advances,initiatives and applications in mobile learning. Part III responds to the objectives:Documenting case studies of how mobile learning is being used to teach and train indifferent places worldwide; and discuss the future of use mobile learning in education,training and informal settings.The scope of work is addressed in summary form in the sections Research Gaps &Directions, Best Practices and Recommendations. The report ends with a generalconclusion and appendices with facts and figures in mobile technology and m-learningdeployment.13

Extract of the Terms of Reference (ToR)It is important to identify challenges organisations face when implementing mobilelearning and what can be done to make it successful as well as explore theoretical modelsfor developing and implementing it. Moreover, employees in businesses who have mobilethat they use for work related tasks must be encouraged to use the same technology toaccess learning materials for application on the job. Thus as more businesses start usingmobile technology for learning, they will need to know about the best practices whenimplementing mobile learning, and this study provides valuable information in this regard.1. GoalsA framework for the implementation of mobile learning and training2. ObjectivesThis study aims at:Explaining what mobile learning is;Presenting the current status of mobile learning as well as latest research;Compiling advances, initiatives and applications in mobile learning;Outlining the challenges faced by when designing and implementing mobilelearning;Documenting case studies of how mobile learning is being used to teach and trainin different places worldwide; andDiscuss the future of use mobile learning in education, training and informalsettings.3. Scope of WorkAnalyse and examine the research findings, issues and challenges related to the use ofmobile learning in informal, educational and training settings at both international andcontinental level.At the substantive level, the research team will gauge the extent to which:mobile technology is deployed in an education, training and informal settings;mobile, wireless, and handheld technologies are used to improve conventionale-learning;14

how these technologies are linked to Virtual Learning Environment (VLE);mobile technologies can be flexible replacements for static desktop technologies;mobile technology can be used to support collaborative learning and training;mobile technologies are used for informal, personalized and situated learning;video capture on mobiles can enhance learning;mobile technology is being used to increase customer satisfaction, productivity,efficiency and effectiveness at the workplace and business through the compilationof case studies;mobile technologies can be used to address environmental and infrastructuralchallenges to delivering and supporting education where conventional e-learningtechnologies would fail through the compilation of case studies;The research team should alsodefine mobile learning in an education, training and informal settings;define the necessary conditions required to use the mobile technology; anddevelop the necessary framework of mobile learning linking it with those of theeducational, training and blended learning.15

Part I: Integrating Mobile Technology in EducationIntegration of technology into curriculum has not always been a simple task. M-learningstarted around 2001 and it’s still being implemented in short term pilot projects with littleconsideration about completion or award, in a very informal manner. Therefore, we seeintegrating mobile technology in formal educational curriculum as a very important aspectin implementing mobile learning future projects. The 3 types of integration are brieflydescribed here.Media integration, in terms of information flow and conservation of results across differentmedia used in the learning setting; Process integration, i.e., the technical facilitation andsupport for learning processing involving participants in different roles; Knowledgeintegration, in the sense of a broader structuring, systematisation and “defragmentation”of knowledge. (Mike Sharples,Big issues in m-learning)1. Definition of mobile learningThere are many definitions of mobile learning in the literature but as technology andeducation delivery themselves have been undergoing rapid changes in the past decades,for instance the combination of the Internet with mobility has prompted researchers tohave different appreciations about the real definition of mobile learning.Pinkwart, et al. (2003) defined m-learning as “e-learning that uses mobile devices”. Also,the majority of authors, actively or passively, apply a definition that views mobile learningas learning connected to a mobile device (and most of them imply a regular mobile phoneor in the best case a PDA).Mobile learning (or m-learning) is defined by Clark Quinn [Quinn 2000] as… theintersection of mobile computing and e-learning: accessible resources wherever youare, strong search capabilities, rich interaction, powerful support for effective learning,and performance-based assessment. E-Learning independent of location in time orspace.A wide definition of mobile learning (commonly referred to as m-learning) is the ability tolearn independently of place and time, facilitated by a range of mobile devices.According to Wikipedia Definition; M-learning is the term given to the delivery of trainingby means of mobile devices such as Mobile Phones, PDAs and digital audio players, as wellas digital cameras and voice recorders, pen scanners etc. M-learners are seeking lessons insmall, manageable formats that they can undertake when it suits them. M-learning is oftenconsidered as a subset of e-learning being itself a subset of a broader concept of distanceeducation or again simply a technological extension of e-learning.16

The learner’s mobile device can be a laptop, a micro computer, a cell phone, a tablet PC ora pad, a game device, an audio or video player, a PDA, a wearable, an ad hoc network, inany technology that keeps the user connected and moving together. The incredible thingabout mobile device is that most of the people have one, it’s private, it’s social, most of thetime it’s on and we carry it everywhere (Judy Brown). A survey has shown that almost 24%of users would be more anxious to lose their mobile phones rather than their credit cards.2. The mobile learning systemThe mobile learning system or echo-system comprises the different stakeholders andcomponents such as end users’ devices, content servers, public networks, institutionalsupport, etc. The figure I.1 shows a model of a m-learning system where mobile learning isthe central system related to interface, connectivity, applications and variables, factorsthat need to be addressed in the formulation of a m-learning project.Figure I.1, A Mobile Learning SystemMobile technology as other ICTs is an enabler in the transition from educational institutioncentred learning provision to learner centric learning provision.17

3. Context AwarenessThe concept of access to information anywhere, anytime and to anyone is commonlyreferred as pervasive or ubiquitous computing.Just as resources and computational nodes are pervasive, mobility introduces contextawareness of the learners; this dimension has generated ample research in terms ofcontext awareness applications and computing paradigms.A learner can learn independently of the location with m-learning, similarly he/she mayalso drive the maximum benefits of the context in terms of space, time and topics.Topics such as archeology and geography have been proven to very effective with PDAsand smartphones.Context has been defined by a number of researchers. Mark Weiser’s now legendaryarticle defined ubiquitous computing for the first time. Context is a general term and canbe categorized into three categories in the realms of mobile computing — computingcontext, user context, and physical context.1. Computing context (what resources you have) — such as network connectivity,communication costs, and communication bandwidth and nearby resources such asprinters, displays, and workstations2. User context (whom you are with) — such as the user’s profile, location, peoplenearby, even the current social situation3. Physical context (where you are) — such as lighting, noise levels, traffic conditions,and temperatureIn order to capture fully a context given a complete sensor network infrastructure isneeded. Furthermore, a learner may sometimes change context during a learning activity;how far the learning activity is seamless in situations of context change remains acommunication and computing challenge.18

4. M-learning FrameworksFraming m-learning has been widely discussed by many researchers in attempt toformalize the methodology for implementation.Figure I.2, The FRAME model (Ally,2009)The three circles represent the device (D), learner (L), and social (S) aspects. Theintersections where two circles overlap contain attributes that belong to both aspects. Theattributes of the device usability (DL) and social technology (DS) intersections describe theaffordances of mobile technology (Norman 1999). The intersection labeled interactionlearning (LS) contains instructional and learning theories with an emphasis on socialconstructivism. All three aspects overlap at the primary intersection (DLS) in the centre ofthe Venn diagram. Hypothetically, the primary intersection, a convergence of all threeaspects, defines an ideal mobile learning situation.19

Figure I.3, Framework for m-learning design requirements (Parson et al., 2007)Figure I.3 shows how the four M-learning design requirements; learning objectives, learningexperience, M-learning contexts, and generic mobile environment design issues, interact. Asan example of these interactions, consider M-learning for dynamic complex situations, suchas rescue services or intensive care. These require the collective learning objectives,particularly developing team skills. This learning objective would be supported by thelearning experiences conflict, competition, challenge, and opposition and social interaction.These learning experiences would require the corresponding M-learning contexts; includingactivity, spatio-temporal, facility and collaboration, which in turn would map in a contextspecific way to generic mobile design requirements.The framework was tested and applied on four successful M-learning environments thathad differing characteristics. These were; Ambient Wood [9], Thinking Tags [19], Uniwapmobile teacher training [20] and Mobile Learning Organiser [21].20

Figure I.4 Framework of the mobile learning system development and evaluation (Hosseini& Tuimala, 2005)Define the education components and services, required by the mobile learning system.These components and services depend to the type of course.• Identify the existing wireless network capabilities and boundaries. If there are differentnetworks, select the one, which is most appropriate for the education components andmobile devices capabilities.• Determine the types of mobile devices, which are intended to be utilized in the system.• Distribute the education components and services based on network capabilities andusability requirements of each mobile device.• Write scenarios, which express the mobile learning system. In the scenarios all thecomponents are distributed to appropriate devices with consideration of their capabilitiesand the usability requirements.• Design prototype based on the scenarios. It is important to follow the usability guidelinefor each device very carefully. Test and validate the concept and service distributions to different devices.21

Figure I.5, the triangle of ubiquityBased on the three dimensions technology employed, policy deployment and pedagogicinfluence, the author (Smith ,2003) has defined the ‘Triangle of Ubiquity’, as illustrated infigure I.5. The technology dimension draws on the work of Brown and Pettito [2] whosuggest a hierarchy of ubiquitous computing. This attribute measures the degree ofportability, sophistication and homogeneity of the pool of computers deployed. Forexample, some institutions require all students to have a laptop computer, a few issuehandheld personal digital assistants, and some provide round-the clock, 7-day access toopen access rooms of workstations. The common theme is that education can proceed onthe assumption of a common set of facilities, with access to networks and the Internetbeing available to all students and staff within a particular group. When this available,there is the potential to transform the learning and teaching environment.22

Means-ends Objective Network (Gray boxes highlight the instructors concerns) (Sheng, Siau,Nah, 2010)23

The overall objective for mobile applications and technology in education is to maximize thevalues of education. We identified eight fundamental objectives in this study – maximizeconvenience of education, maximize efficiency in learning, maximize effectiveness inlearning, maximize usability of mobile education services, maximize security ofstudent/instructor information, maximize individual privacy, minimize cost of education,and ensure academic honesty. These eight objectives represent the fundamental values ofmobile applications in education from the students’ and instructors’ perspectives anddetermine the “principles” (Keeney, 1992) for assessments concerning the use of mobiletechnology for education. These objectives are the fundamental reasons that drive mobileapplication development for education purposes.24

5. Interoperability with VLESAs it was mentioned earlier, many educationalists advocate and view mobile learning aspart and parcel of blended learning. How does mobile learning interoperate with virtuallearning environments? This is critical for successful mobile technology integration intoeducation.Almost all learning management systems (LMS) such as Moodle and WebCT are equippedwith mobile accessibility features. Current commercial LMSs are listed in Appendix3.Developing middleware and application programming interfaces (API) of applicationsintegration in mobile systems is not a technological “prouesse” and should not beconsidered as barrier to mobile learning. On the other hand the pedagogical aspect of m-learning remains a more pertinent element to address.The instructional designing of the mobile content should be user friendly, adapted to themobile format with few navigational functions ensuring privacy of the learner and ensuringat the same time collaboration and interaction; to summarize, a fit for purpose m-learningextrapolated from existing VLEs. For example an off line player with slides show and audiocontent pre-downloaded from a web service or a m-portal for education will be anintelligent manner for m-learning to integrate a web based or even an enterprise VLE. Thecontent may be synchronized with the m-portal for upgrades and download of newcourses.The modern network infrastructure is quite heterogeneous with different telco technologyand operators and m-learning portals are very common today to act as gateways forcontent management systems (CMS) towards mobile devices. The Wireless VLE oftomorrow according to Ericsson by Desmond Keegan is illustrated in figure I.6.Figure I.6 Wireless Virtual Learning Environment25

6. Pedagogical issuesThe challenge for further development of mobile learning lies more within pedagogical andorganisational aspects than with technological ones (Keegan from Ericsson, 2001). Socialconstructive theory (Brown & Camplone, 1996); the learners have to act and reflect in alearning environment. From constructivism towards connectivism was proposed byGeorges Siemens. Conversation theory (Pask, 1975); learning to be successful requirescontinuous 2-ways conversations and interactions. Learning as a process of cognitive andsocial development (Vygotsky, 1978) in which social interaction is mediated by culturaltools, such as language and technology.Figure I.7The difficulties encountered in pedagogical issues are the absences of theoreticalperspectives although there are two existing frameworks in learning namely Authenticlearning (Herrington & Oliver, 2000; Herrington & Herrington, 2006) provided the basis forthe pedagogical activity while action learning (Revans, 1982) was adopted as theframework for professional development. Both theories reflect constructivist epistemologyemphasizing group collaboration in the creation of further knowledge and understandings.There is danger in overemphasizing the importance of technology and under-estimatingthe pedagogical, organizational and quality assurance measures needed to address theseissues. With the proliferation of Open Universities mainly in Asia and the Middle East,some programmes standards remain questionable. As far as assessment is concerned,mobile testing centres already exist for professional certifications, for instance the VirtualUniversity Enterprise a prometric testing provider offers the option for mobile testingcenter on laptops.26

7. Formal and informal training settingsFormal learning is all about recognition and accreditation (award and qualification) fromauthorities and institutions whereby the content has a clearly defined syllabus andpedagogy.Below is a framework in an attempt to define a roadmap for support in informal settings.In the context of life long or continual learning, learning in informal settings is most of thetime the ideal way to complement over and above the qualifications obtained throughformal learning.Figure I.8, the conversational framework for supporting learning in informal settings(Laurillard, 2007).However, m-learning in informal settings is highly contextualized and individualized. As amobile learner learns in all circumstances and places; the environment in the case ofinformal settings being private and without specific learning outcomes and assessmentpredefined.Research on informal and lifelong learning recognizes that learning happens all of the timeand is influenced both by our environment and the particular situations we are faced with.Informal learning may be intentional, for example, through intensive, significant anddeliberate learning ‘projects’ (Tough 1971), or it may be accidental, by acquiringinformation through conversations, TV and newspapers, observing the world or evenexperiencing an accident or embarrassing situation. Such a broad view of learning takes itoutside the classroom and, by default, embeds learning in everyday life, thus emphasizingthe value of mobile technologies in supporting it. An example in this category is the system27

8. Design principlesDesign principles for mobile learningFrom analysis of the data, the following characteristics are recommended for theincorporation of mobile learning into a higher education learning environment:1. Real world relevance: Use mobile learning in authentic contexts2. Mobile contexts: Use mobile learning in contexts where learners are mobile3. Explore: Provide time for exploration of mobile technologies4. Blended: Blend mobile and non mobile technologies5. Whenever: Use mobile learning spontaneously6. Wherever: Use mobile learning in non traditional learning spaces7. Whomsoever: Use mobile learning both individually and collaboratively8. Affordances: Exploit the affordances of mobile technologies9. Personalise: Employ the learners’ own mobile devices10. Mediation: Use mobile learning to mediate knowledge construction.11. Produse: Use mobile learning to produce and consume knowledge.The factors impacting on design are:- Ubiquity- Bite sized- On demand- Blended with other VLEs- Collaborative or individualistic- Location based or not- Context awareness or notDesign of mobile content or interface is usually driven by the inherent specifications of themobile learning device and the technology adopted. For instance WAP has its ownlimitations compared to J2ME, Android or the ipad. Technological limitations such as smallscreen, tiny navigation buttons, low memory, little storage area and short battery life timehave shaped the duration and format of mobile course content accordingly.28

9. Teachers trainingCan mobile learning and training answer to the high demand of continuing learning inprimary and secondary teachers in Africa? If yes, which model is to be adopted?There have been much discussion on the main development technology, developmentlanguage and development environment of remote teaching system design based onmobile learning,(Parson et al, June 2007).The UniWAP mobile teacher training project; the main aim this project was to assist inteacher training through relatively simple technologies, SMS and digital pictures, to enablestudents to create digital portfolios in a central database built from materials created in afield (Seppala and Alamaki, 2007). Trainee teachers were able to share their experienceswith each other through messaging.Another research study carried for continuing education and training of teachers on ruralareas based in m-leaning in China (Jingdong and Zhen, 2009) has revealed the importanceand advantages of m-learning for teachers’ training, which are personalized training,economic and continuity, the experiments conducted had been SMS applications coupledwith WAP on mobile terminals. The key issues identified in this research were firstly theneed for proper integration of m-learning within other VLEs inclusive of extracurricularbroader services such as social educational services like weather temperatures which makesense in China, secondly the need to have higher multimedia functionalities other thanSMS with more advanced cell phones, and thirdly the mobile technology to be adaptive tocomplement the core study acquired in traditional classroom settings.29

10. Constraints and BarriersNotably, these barriers are mainly organisational, rather than being due to negativestudent attitudes or failure of technology. Newton (2003) suggests that the mostprominent e-learning barriers are:1) increased time commitment;2) lack of extrinsic incentives and rewards;3) lack of strategic planning and vision;4) lack of support; and5) philosophical, epistemological and social objections.Some constraints and issues involved in developing M-learning include:· Infrastructure costs – who provides mobile access devices and pays mobile phonecontracts and billing, institutions or learners themselves? Cost of developing wireless LANs.· Increased admin and support – initial set-up, maintenance and troubleshooting mobileaccess devices demands a significant amount of support. Mobile access devices tend be lessreliable than desktop PCs. Loan and tracking mechanisms possibly need development andadministration. Significant extra training and development may be needed to supportlearners (and staff) using mobile access devices.· Managing learning resources – are dedicated learning resources going to be produced formobile access devices or are existing resources, perhaps within a VLE, going to be ‘repurposed’?Many web sites and VLEs are inaccessible to mobile access devices.· Accessibility – as well as being potential assistive technologies, mobile phones and PDAscurrently have small screens and device controls and can support a limited range ofaccessibility software.· Increased demands on tutors - 24/7 access to learning resources may lead to increaseddemands on tutors. There may be a need to formally recognize tutors’ time on-line andnegotiate their availability/turnaround times.30

11. Social AspectThe paradox of the ICT technology and to a large proportion for mobile technology is that itallows a learner to communicate whole day with very distant users that sometimes thelearner has communicated little with people in his/her neighborhood. It is also well knownthat there is a lack of socialization in distance education.There has been a deep research conducted on Mobile Phone identity in Europe, namely inFrance and Finland whereby the relationship and profile of the youngsters with the mobilephone was studied. Results have shown that …Other studies have demonstrated that mobile technology may bridge the digital divide verymuch faster than traditional PC, and this is very true in the African continent, mobilephones were made available to most people before fixed line phones or the desktop PC.One research study in Europe has shown that mobile phones with multimedia and gamingcan keep the interest of slow achievers high and even enable them to join mainstreamprogrammes at tertiary level.There is a research avenue to investigate how m-learning integrated in the foundationaccess courses for undergraduate programmes can increase the percentage of success rateand subsequently the intake at tertiary level. It is known the highest percentage ofdropouts occur after around 5 years of secondary schooling, i.e after the Senior Certificateexaminations. The unsuccessful students are youngsters in the age of 14 to 16. Withappropriate content, support and mobile device, a second chance for these students tojoin tertiary education should be very probable.31

12. Future models and educational scenariosMobile learning in the 21st century: benefit for learners, Copyright © 2004 Geddes S.J.Future model 1. The travelling salespersonA salesperson boards a plane to travel across the country for a meeting with a large client.Just after takeoff the salesperson receives an email on their PDA1 detailing a competitors’just released product. The salesperson then alters the sales pitch to take into account thisnew information and prepares to answer questions on the topic. After landing thesalesperson stops at the hotel to freshen up and receives news broadcast on the television,inside the bathroom mirror, indicating an unfavourable change in economic, MITTechnology review has announced that Boeing is planning on making broadband wirelessInternet contentions available on flights. The sales person, then in the taxi on the way tomeet the client, conducts further research into this change and prepares to alleviate theclients’ concerns. This constitutes learning which is not only ‘just in time’, but is also ‘just inexistence’. Through reflection on this learning (metacognition) the learner can transferthese lessons to long term knowledge and associate them to relevant existing cognitivestructures.Future example 2. The traffic accidentA group of emergency services personnel are on route to a traffic accident. Their PDAsretrieve information on the traffic accident provided by the cars involved2. The PDA isaware of the location of the accident and starts uploading data on the accident and thelocation. All PDAs are aware of their users and start uploading relevant information inpreparation. A police officer is provided details on the best method of securing the accidentand detouring traffic based on the accident and the local environment. A fireman isprovided details on the types of vehicles and fuels being used, the location of the nearesthydrants and general vehicle accident information. The ambulance drivers on route arereceiving information on likely injuries, methods of treatments and the best route to thenearest hospital based on the local traffic conditions, including the police planned detour.Additionally, the two ambulance drivers include one who posses high levels of logicalintelligence, while the other posses high level visual intelligence (Gardner 1993), the devicesformat the information in accordance with their requirements.Future example 3. The broken lessonA busy executive awakes one morning and commences an eLearning lesson for work.Halfway through the lesson the executive stops and heads off to work. While on the train,the executive takes out his mobile device, which is aware of the last lesson beingconducted, provides a brief transcript of content covered, then continues with the lesson.Before the lesson can be finished the executive heads off the train and starts walking towork. At this point in time a formative assessment was about to commence, so theexecutive transfers to voice mode, listens to the questions and answers them orally. Afterthe assessment the lesson continues orally while the PDA records graphics that theexecutive has not been able to see. A particular subject interests the executive so he asks32

the PDA to source further information on the topic. The PDA comes back with a list ofpapers of which the executive selects one, the PDA converts the text to voice as theexecutive continues to walk to work.33

13. M-learning opportunities & applicationsThe degree of innovation brought by mobile technology is unprecedented. A smart phoneis more a mini computer than a phone, and telephony may be not the primary service on aphone. The good thing is that the mobile phone or device was initially designed fortelephony services, that are for audio communication, so much so that voice has beenproven to the most effective mode of communication for learning and teaching, somestrongly argue that voice is the killer m-learning application.The number of applications and services possible with the coupling of the Internet and asmart phone or a light tablet PC is limited by one’s own imagination. For instance, themobile gaming industry is in itself a multi billion dollars market. Already an average ofmore than 65% of the subscribers connect to the Internet via a mobile device in Africancountries like South Africa and Mauritius, the same statistic is predicted on a global scalefor 2013.Below is an exhaustive list of off line and on line relatively simple applications for supportand collaboration in any m-learning system.Context/Location based; Alerts; Field navigation; Quiz; Remote control: Review Survey;Geo-blogging; Audio recording; On –demand; Reporting; Simulation; Conferencing; Checklist; Decision making support; Assignments; Presentations; Bar code reader ;Camera;Augmented learning; Coaching; Games for learning ;Transcription Poll; Video recordings;Feedback; Note taking; Self assessment; Capture & Share documents; Translation; Just intime applications; Security ID.Some ipad applications are presented in Appendix3.34

14. Enterprise Mobile LearningEnterprises have for long derived the benefits from Learning Management Systems (LMS)generally web based intranets, whereby learning takes place within the premises of theorganization embedded in the working hours. With today’s workflow mobility, companiesneed to extend the LMS to mobile workers just as ERPs functionalities are being extendedto hand held devices. One major issue that arises in enterprise mobile learning to the CIO iswhether to supply employees with mobile devices which can be managed and controlledvia a software or allow employees to bring their personal devices within the workspace.Companies with large enterprise systems or integrated information systems are reluctantto for personal devices for legal, financial and technical motives and more and more forsecurity reasons, as with the mobile device the enterprise system boundaries are morevulnerable as intrusion within the enterprise system may happen at a mobile deviceendpoint. Therefore, they will prefer restricted access in terms of hardware and softwarefor the handheld devices, this would costs cheaper. However according to research studiesin North America, it has been found that it is not a best practice to prevent employeesfrom bringing their personal devices in the workplace. The company’s policy on mobileusage needs to address the device deployment strategy.The rapid flows of information within the enterprise enabled by mobile and wirelesstechnology add values to the services and learning takes place in an informal manner. Ifthe strategy of an organization is to capture, assess and formalize the learning or training,for example to be included in promotion exercises then an appropriate infrastructure andframework should be considered. For long public as well as private enterprises have lookedupon training as expenses rather than investments, the ROI on enterprise mobile learningis a critical success factor for any enterprise to succeed in m-learning for its corporatelifelong learning. On the other hand, employees may be reluctant to adopt supplied mobiledevices by the company, given that the latter would be able to track them outside theoffice anywhere, anytime.35

Transition helps organizations in the shift towards mobile learning Transition Associates| Tatsfield, KentWith the advent of more powerful handheld devices such as the iPhone, iPad and Androidsmartphones and tablets, organisations are starting to wake up to the possibilities ofmobile learning (m-learning). These low-cost devices are enjoying rapid adoption - and thepossibilities of learning that can be truly taken anywhere is highly appealing. But theproblem, according to Transition's Miles Corbett, is that learning developers and learningdepartments aren't geared up to take advantage of this shift in computing. "Only a coupleof years ago," says Corbett, "m-learning was little more than a pipedream, because mobiledevices weren't actually powerful enough to deliver a rich learning experience. The arrivalof iOS and Android devices has turned that around."Lectora Inspire is a fully integrated e-learning and m-learning development environment -shipping with special versions of Camtasia (for screen video capture), Snagit (screen stillscapture) and Flypaper (Flash creation, without Flash). "It's quite literally all e-learning andm-learning developers need," says Corbett. But the development toolset is only part of thestory - organisations also need a learning management system, which is where CourseMillcomes in. Created by Trivantis, the developers of Lectora Inspire, CourseMill provides asimple way for organisations to deploy, track and measure learning - even on mobiledevices.36

Part II: Current and Emerging Applications & Technologies1. Appropriation and Technology SelectionFigure II.1: Technology selection (Attewell, 2005, p. 3)Figure II.1 depicts five groups to be considered in the choice for the technology in anymLearning project. These are the transport options (or connectivity), the delivery options(or communication protocol), the development languages for the mobile course content,the media options and the platform options (or the mobile operating system whichnormally depends on the device brand).It’s not that you have to become a mobile technology expert in order to embark onimplementation of mobile learning. Manufacturers such as Ericsson, Nokia and others havedesigned certain specific products with m-learning features and capabilities. An evaluationframework developed by (Economides and Nick Nikolaou, 2006) considers the usability criteria(user interface, presentation & media, navigation, physical), the technical criteria (performance,sensory systems, compatibility, security, availability, reliability & maintainability) and the functionalcriteria (communications, information & knowledge, organization & management, entertainment &amusement).A device deployment strategy is critical for successful m-learning project taking intoconsideration cost and pedagogical aspects. More is discussed in the proposed frameworkat the end of the report.37

2. Mobile Technology EconomicsThe ICT growth has been driven substantially by mobile technology and the Internet. By theend of 2010, there will be an estimated 5.3 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide,including 940 million subscriptions to 3G services.- Access to mobile networks is now available to 90% of the world population and 80% of thepopulation living in rural areas.- People are moving rapidly from 2G to 3G platforms, in both developed and developingcountries. In 2010, 143 countries were offering 3G services commercially, compared to 95 in2007.- Towards 4G: a number of countries have started to offer services at even higherbroadband speeds, moving to next generation wireless platforms – they include Sweden,Norway, Ukraine and the United States.- In the developing world, mobile cellular penetration rates will reach 68% at the end of2010 - mainly driven by the Asia and Pacific region. India and China alone are expected toadd over 300 million mobile subscriptions in 2010.- In the African region, penetration rates will reach an estimated 41% at the end of 2010(compared to 76% globally) leaving a significant potential for growth.- The relative price for ICT services is highest in Africa, the region with lowest income level.38

As per figure II.2, 2 billion people across the world are on the Internet, but very few inAfrica. While 71% of the population in developed countries are online, only 21% of thepopulation in developing countries are online. By the end of 2010, Internet user penetrationin Africa will reach 9.6%, far behind both the world average (30%) and the developingcountry average (21%).Figure II.2The figure II.3 below shows from a US perspective the reach of mobile learning applicationsand services. It is interesting to note that in the early stage 2008, mobile applications wereamong health, guides and games designed for children. Recently, we have seen theapparition of mobile learning services on subscription basis from international carriers,telco service providers and device manufacturers with large subscriber bases. Latestservices are IT certification content, consumers “how to” content, location based serviceswith augmented reality as added value.39

Figure II.3 Courtesy Ambient Insight 2010We can observe also that the first generation of mLearning products coincide with the 3 rdgeneration of mobile communications and the 2 nd generation of mLearning products withthe 4 th generation of mobile communications. The technologies for the 2 nd generationmLearning are described later in Part II.3. Broadband & Bandwidth issuesThere is a continuing broadband divide, mostly in developing countries.- There has been strong growth in fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions, in bothdeveloped and developing countries: at the end of 2010, fixed (wired) broadbandsubscriptions will reach an estimated 555 million globally (or 8% penetration), up from 471million (or 6.9% penetration) a year earlier.- Despite these promising trends, penetration levels in developing countries remain low:4.4 subscriptions per 100 people compared to 24.6 in developed countries.40

Figure II.4Figure II.5 Sub Saharan Undersea CablesThe total outbound pipe is in the order of GB (~ 5 GB); with more undersea cables withoptical fibres and redundancies, the African continent will comfort its internationalbandwidth, thus enabling the creation of clouds infrastructure and transmission of richmultimedia content.41

4. Mobile Media & Rich ContentPodcasting is a method of publishing audio files (usually MP3s) to the Web, which are thenmade available through subscription and automatically downloaded to a personalcomputer or portable MP3 player. One obvious use of podcasting in an educational contextis to create an archive of class lectures that students can listen to at their convenience.However, given the distinctive features of podcasting, its potential goes far beyondreproducing course materials and making them available for review.Vodcasts; stands for video casting somehow similar to video streaming. Modern 3G and 4Gcellular networks have the capabilities to broadcast multimedia content.Currently around 25% of the content on cellular networks are multimedia content in formof MMS, IPTV, podcasting, videocasting, video streaming and audio files. With 4G and theIP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture the telecom infrastructure shall be moremultimedia friendly and it is forecasted than almost 45% of the transmitted content wouldbe multimedia.It is known that the younger population prefers digital images and games as media forlearning. With the cocktail of technologies like IPv6, 4G, Web 2.0, IMS, huge bandwidthand sophistication of the mobile device, the market for mLearning multimedia products isalready here. Malaysia is leading country in multimedia products. The set up of center inmultimedia by the Malysian government has been a genius strategic move in the contextof supporting education with technology.SMS for long time had been the mobile killer app., however, for mLearning purpose higherfunctionalities with multimedia interfaces are to be sought after.42

5. Wireless TechnologiesThe telecom infrastructure has equivalent technology for both fixed and wireless networks.In Part III, we showcase mLearning projects with mobile technology for LAN and offline (Ex: use of smartphones in classroom and in the school yard set up) as well as in WANwhere the cellular network is mandatory for collaboration and interaction. The wirelesstechnology called the transport option in the technology selection framework presented atthe beginning of Part II forms part together with the device selection.Although there is a high penetration of Internet in developing areas, there are areas stilluncovered. The example of Warren Park Primary School in southern UK shows howwireless access is being extended from the school WiFi though antennas and transducersto the local community. In doing so, the students can continue with the process of learningat home, given they are provided with netbooks on 24/7 basis. Results have demonstratedthis initiative considerably improve the basic skills.On the same hand, the proliferation of Wireless User Groups (Wugs) in South Africa hasbroadened access to local communities and promotes informal learning throughcollaboration and interaction. WiFi spots are not expanding fast enough in Africa;campuses are now witnessing and experiencing the power of wireless networks forteaching, learning and administrative purpose..The advent of new geostationary satellites like for instance RedSat satellite for the subSaharan region which will focus on domestics services can provide amongst other servicesbackhaul and low cost bandwidth to close the gap due to the lack of sufficient fixed (wired)broadband in Africa.43

6. Future 4G networksThe International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defines "4G" as network technology withthroughput of 100Mbps for wide area/mobile use and 1Gbps for hot spot coverage to beapplied in new spectrum bands with 100 MHz channels. IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) is ahorizontal architecture for offering IP Multimedia Applications; IMS supports different accessnetworks, such as: WCDMA, GPRS, CDMA2000, Wire-line Broadband, WLAN. WiMAX and LTE offernew opportunities with higher data rate up to 1 Gbps at low cost. However there are currentlysome technical limitations vis a vis IP infrastructure networks where WiMAX cannot supportquadruple play, in other words supporting mobility, data, audio, video concurrently. Unlike WiMAXwhich is licensed by the authority WiFi operates in unlicensed spectrum. The new feature in WiFi isthe Very High Throughput (VHT).Figure II.6The figure II.6 shows the various wireless technologies where 4G is said to be deployed inthe US by 2010-2012. 4G is a significant breakthrough for mLearning as not only it has thepotential for real time video but streaming but places the user/learner at the centre of thesystem. Physically it can smoothly interface with the 3G and UMTS networks.44

7. CSIRO breakthroughBroadband coming wirelessly to the bushA major CSIRO breakthrough in wireless technology designed to bring broadband topeople living beyond the optical fibre network, will be unveiled in Sydney tomorrow.3 November 2010The first half of CSIRO’s Ngara technology will enable multiple users to uploadinformation at the same time, without reducing their individual systems’ data transferrate of 12 Mbps.“Someone who doesn’t live near the fibre network could get to it using our new wirelesssystem,” CSIRO ICT Centre Director Dr Ian Oppermann said.“They’d be able to upload a clip to YouTube in real-time and their data rate wouldn’tchange even if five of their neighbours also started uploading videos.“But the really impressive part is the spectral efficiency our team has achieved.”The radio spectrum is a finite and highly valuable, natural resource."Even with just half of our system completed, CSIRO is already helping define the futureof wireless technology."Dr Ian Oppermann, ICT Centre DirectorCSIRO’s spectral efficiency is three times that of the closest comparable technology andthe data rate is more than 10 times the industry’s recently declared minimum standard.Spectral efficiency is about packing as many bits of information as possible into thechannel (frequency range) allocated for its transmission. CSIRO’s 12 Mbps, six-usersystem works in the space of one television channel, which is seven megahertz (MHz)wide. CSIRO is achieving spectral efficiency of 20 bits per second per Hertz (20 b/s/Hz).“Even with just half of our system completed, CSIRO is already helping define the futureof wireless technology,” Dr Oppermann said.Wireless Research Director for Gartner, Robin Simpson, said the most promising aspectof CSIRO’s Ngara technology is that it aims to re-use old analog TV channels.“This means any rural property or business that can currently receive TV signals could infuture connect to high-speed internet just by using a new set-top box,” Mr Simpson said.45

CSIRO is currently completing the research and testing of the downlink part of thesystem, which will also run at 12 Mbps per user.Ngara is a word of the Darug people meaning to listen, hear and think.The Darug peopleare the traditional owners of the land on which the ICT Centre's Sydney lab sits. Thisproject is supported by the Science and Industry Endowment Fund.46

8. Satellite CommunicationsLow cost satellite-based access to the Internet could respond to the current access crisis inthe region and provides an opportunity for last mile connectivity to rural people. The vastinaccessible terrain makes it difficult and costly for rolling out traditional wireline networksand implementing advanced fiber optics links in heartland areas. The lengthy time neededto rollout traditional technologies makes low-cost Ku/Ka band satellite services attractiveparticularly to smaller organization, households, personal users, small and mediumenterprises and public organizations.Access to VSATs is prohibited in some countries. In other nations hefty licensing fees arelevied. Policies for low-cost 'consumer grade' satellite services for Internet access are notclear in many nations. Recent surge in the use of Voice over IP by average consumers andcontinued falling of PT&T revenue streams have complicated the matter. Governmentpolicies did not keep up with technological developments, and most countries are stillprotecting their monopoly national telecom operator at the expense of affordable anduniversally accessible services. Much of the restrictive policy owes to general lack ofunderstanding of the technology and its impact on the society.In countries where private satellite services are allowed, the license fees are usuallyexcessive for consumer-grade Ku-band VSAT when compared to what consumers in thedeveloped countries pay for these services. The tariffs were ideal for the older satellitetechnologies which were far more expensive to operate, largely confining their use to a fewlarge multinational companies. At the moment, lofty license fees are the major obstacles toInternet development in Africa, where up to 35% of ISP expenditures goes to VSAT licenseand monthly charges. Licensing fees in Africa range between $5000 and $10,000 dollars ayear per terminal on an average for a 128 Kbps link. Although is a significant progress inreducing both licensing and monthly fees, there are high potentials for mass deployment ofequipment costing $1000 and Internet bandwidth at $200/month or less.Technically, every inch of Africa is covered by VSATs. The major operators like New Skies,Intelsat, PanamSat, EuropeStar, Eutelsat, Thaikom and Anatolia/KaliTel have a variety ofdifferent footprints over parts of Africa to supply voice, broadcasting and data circuits to avariety of customers, who then could resell to end users, create Virtual Private Networks.Recent launch of satellites by Intelsat, Panamsat and New Skies has also extended theamount of available bandwidth for sub-Saharan Africa.Significant experience and interest has also been gained in the installation, maintenanceand subscription services over the last ten years. Among the companies that are currentlyproviding services are, Afsat (headquartered in Kenya), MenaSat/GDBC (based in Egypt),IVSAfrica (based in Spain), Web Sat (a branch of Dublin Ireland based ArmstrongElectronics), Thaicom Internet (part of the Thai group Thaicom), Bentley-Walker (UK),47

Linkserve/Linksat (Nigeria), Qkon (South Africa), Sentech (South Africa) and Transtel (SouthAfrica) and GS Telecom. Afsat and GS Telecom have been operational for sometime andhad accumulated a good experience in rolling out services in most complex policy andregulatory environments. GS Telecom who specialises in mobile connection has full VSAToperator licences in Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Tanzania and Mozambique and hasobtained end-user authorisation on behalf of its customers in a further 22 countries. Afsat isalso in the process of building a similar continent-wide service.48

9. The Market, Products & Services providersmLearning commercial service providers are listed in Appendix 3.Figure II.7The pie charts in figure II.7 clearly point out that the tendency from 2006 to 2011 is largelyin favor of content products and slightly for services at the expense of technology and theneeds also have shifted from higher education to governmental institutions. This is a USAprojection which may not necessarily corroborate with other continents. The analogy withe-learning products is parallel; at the outset Internet access and technology were majorbarriers but content products had generated more income for commercial companies. Offthe shelves mLearning products with the content that can be plug into a local networkinfrastructure and as far as possible technology independent will certainly find a market.The types of products on the market from Ambient are depicted in figure II.8.49

Figure II.850

10. Challenges & ConstraintsCommon technical problemsSupport for multiple OS versions (BlackBerry)An emulator is not always consistent with the actual deviceSmall screen dimensions for displaying contentThis will eventually improve as legacy smart phones shelf life quickly approachesLimited battery, memory, and storage spaceLimited support for Flash playerWindows Mobile 6.5 & Android 2.2 onlyLimited connectivityLimited video supportVarying formats supported; this will also improve in timeNo support for popup windows and framesetsFiles must be optimized for quicker load timesThis is starting to improve with new era of SmartphonesLack of authoring tools to create mobile SCORM content (looking for usecases)SumTotal Toolbook, Lectora Trivantis, Articulate (flash-based)….others?The price for fixed broadband access remains prohibitively high in most developingcountries, effectively limiting access to the Information Society.In a WAP communication restricted memory and bandwidth will limit the downloading ofcourse content in mLearning systems. Other technologies like J2ME allows to apps. to runoffline.Cost and the practical limitations of current infrastructures have prevented DSL and cabletechnologies from reaching many potential broadband users. Generally, DSL only extendsabout five kilometers from the central office switch and many existing cable networks donot provide a return channel. Converting these networks to support high-speed broadbandor deploying wired infrastructure to new areas with low subscriber density is generallycommercially unfeasible and requires years of disruptive installation. All of these factorsmore acutely affect developing countries where infrastructures aren’t as advanced or don’texist.51

The Challenges of the CTO/IT Dir• Providing a Safe Online Learning Environment–CIPA compliance – filtering inappropriate material–Enforcing AUPs – reporting on user’s online activity–Protecting hardware and content on and off network–Invasion of privacy issues – PA web cams• Equality for All StudentsBarrier to adoption of student owned mobile devices– Network compatibility: AV, OS, processing, monitor– Mobile devices for students that don’t own oneOther Issues• Budget Constraints: Upfront Costs havebeen traditionally prohibitive– Smaller, less expensive devices available– Lease options help defer capital investment• Battery Life– If handheld dies, student is left out– Extended battery life and faster recharging• Durability: Costs of Rep. Maint. & Support• Professional Development for Teachers52

11. Broadening Access to rural areasIt is known that inaccessibility to information and the Internet is a major hindrance topromote m-learning in rural areas in countries like China and in Africa. The tragedy is thatin some countries access to electricity is very limited, for instance in Uganda almost 80% ofthe population is covered by mobile communications but around 7% has access todomestic electricity supply. Given that the short life cycle of the mobile battery is a bigtechnical constraint, therefore, it’s essential to provide offline and online mode of m-learning content.The future trend about m-learning is about real time collaborative learning through thecloud, here bandwidth and access to Internet matter. The coupling of the mobile terminalswith radio transmission can solve the issue of reaching remote populations. It can be seenin various national ICT strategic plans in developing countries that policies regarding accessto computers and the Internet are laudable.Research and advancement in mobile technology like the one described earlier for CSIRO isa solution to broaden access. Innovative ideas such as using 1.5 v batteries to charge themobile phone battery or again the boda phone on motorbikes to charge mobile phones inUganda may be sufficient for telephony or SMS applications, but when it is aboutmultimedia apps which are very resource intensive, the battery power is consumed at anexponential rate.Any advancement in the distribution and provision of electrical energy will surelycontribute to advancement of mobile learning in rural areas.53

12. Cloud computingThe traditional approach to IT is not working. The current model of building application andserver silos does not meet the dynamic needs of an organization in a competitive marketplace. Today IT is expensive, unresponsive and consumes vast amounts of capital,delivering resources which in the end are grossly underutilized. Most servers are utilizedonly 20% or less. This approach of throwing expensive assets at every business need, isinflexible, time consuming and costly. This would be analogous to deploying a smallgenerator to supply each of your offices with electricity. In the future, IT must offer acompetitive service model delivering infrastructure and computer resources in plug-playand bill-me-for-use service. This is where cloud is taking us.Cloud computing is an IT delivery model that provides infrastructure and computerresources as a service. By implementing a private cloud, IT leverages the power of sharingto maximize the utilization of compute, networking and storage resources within anorganization. The result is more rapid and efficient delivery of IT services, faster time tomarket, and reduced IT capital and operating expenditures. Moreover, the cloud isaccessible anywhere at anytime with a hand held device.There are currently 3 types of services provided by private clouds.Platform as a Service (PaaS): The development environment or platform is hereremotely accessed for the development of applications and services.Software as a Service (SaaS): the software application is remotely accessed.Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): the hosting and server infrastructure resides inthe cloudServer virtualization is a key building block to cloud computing that enables applicationisolation, mobility, and partitioning of individual servers in the cloud. Applications areplaced into virtual machines (VM’s) which simplify the provisioning and configuration ofapplication environments in the cloud, allowing for easier reconfiguration of resources tomeet business demand.The advent of public and private clouds will lower substantially the cost of ownership andROI for the educational institutions in terms of server infrastructure, maintenance, securityand so on. Nevertheless the two main concerns are data security and adequate bandwidth.Security and privacy are important features in mLearning if an institution intends to movetowards formalization in terms of curriculum, assessment and ethics. All institutions wanttheir curriculum to be protected from plagiarism and discourage cheating in assessment.Cheating with mobile phones is very common during examination sessions. If an institution54

wishes to conduct mobile testing or online assessment via mobile devices authentication ofthe candidate via public key infrastructure is helpful.With the recent waves of cables from WikiLeaks, the debate on cloud security hasresurfaced. The same concern is expressed with Web 2.0 websites which are generallyhack able. New brands of mobile phones give ready direct connection to these socialnetworks. More about Web 2.0 is discussed in the coming section.Moreover, viruses or malwares on mobile devices are today conceivable andacknowledged by the carriers and telco industry. Over billing and denial of service (DoS)are most vulnerable threats on mobile phones.55

13. Web 2.0Web 2.0 technology are commonly known for social networks websites s like Facebook andTwitter, these are today emulated for business and educational purposes. Thefundamental concept of Web 2.0 is the social networking where the web acts as a platformand grows with the collective input from the users. These sites are coded using dynamicprogramming languages such as AJAX and other scripting languages for lightweightprogramming that is with a minimum number of page refreshments, as they deal withlarge chunks of audio and video files. Generally a Web 2.0 site comprises of widgets,podcasts, webinars, vodcasts, mashups, RSS feeds and interconnects with other sites viaopen source APIs.One major advantage of the Web 2.0 technology is that the web site and relevantapplications can be fully implemented using open source development tools and serversoperating systems for hosting. The business community was late to recognize the benefitsof this technology as it happened with WAP. However, there is strong belief amongresearchers that given the paramount success with youngsters on social networking sites,Web 2.0 can boost up VLEs and create new educational experiences, it is also admittedthat this technology has not been fully exploited for learning and specifically for mobilelearning. With the advent of mobile broadband provided by 4G networks and otherWiMAX and LTE, Internet access, and more powerful handheld devices such as the ipad,there is a huge potential to design learning materials and educational scenarios followingWeb 2.0 characteristics.Some Web 2.0 characteristics:RSS Feeds: Really Simple Syndication feeds for content syndication in web 2.0 technology.Mashups: combination of information and content originating from distinct sources,Webinar: online seminars on the web.56

14. In memory analyticsIn memory analytics or database is a breakthrough in business intelligence in ERPs wherefor example managers look for instantaneous reports on their smartphones and PDAswithin sub seconds following let say sales transactions for decision making. This technologyis practiced by ERPs vendors such as SAP, and it is proven to boost the computationalpower in reporting services a million time by running the query completely at the level ofthe main memory solely without making use of the primary storage.It has been pointed that in today’s formal settings at mainly in higher educationinstitutions there is tremendous amount of administrative tasks. For instance casemanagement of students is a very fastidious task that requires information throughout thelife cycle of a student. As institutions are more conscious today to have an integratedmanagement information system for efficient administration, it could be beneficial toextend the school ERP or campus ERP to mobile devices.At present, in memory analytics applications are visible only in enterprise systems. Theapplication of this new technology in the field of m-learning is to be investigated andexplored.Analytics (referred to as “business intelligence” by some) is a tool that higher educationcan use to respond to calls for increased accountability and improved outcomes. U.S.higher education has used simple analytics for admissions, building models that use datafrom standardized tests and transcripts to predict which applicants are most likely tosucceed. Applying the same principles to enrolled students, institutions can construct datadrivenmodels that correlate patterns of behavior with student success (e.g., coursegrades, college graduation) and endeavor to identify students who are at higher risk not tocomplete a course or degree. Once at-risk students are identified, a wide range ofproactive steps can be taken to improve their odds of success.The analytics process begins with the identification and collection of data, often fromdisparate sources, within or outside the institution, including course management systems,student information systems, and other data sources. The data are analyzed and predictivemodels constructed that allow the institution to intervene with students who are likely toexperience academic difficulty.For example, a course management system (CMS) (or learning management system) mightcollect highly detailed data about student use of the resources. Correlating these data withoutcomes (e.g., student grades in the course) can reveal patterns that can predict whichstudents are more or less likely to achieve specific levels of success. Based on policies setby the institution, an analytical model can monitor student activity in the CMS and takeparticular actions when certain triggers are activated. If, for instance, the system57

determines that a student has not logged in to a course website three weeks into theacademic term, it could send an e-mail to that student to confirm that he is in fact enrolledand advise that, historically, students who do not take advantage of the course website areseveral times less likely to earn a passing grade than those who do. Other triggers couldprompt more aggressive interactions, including phone calls or personal visits from facultyor staff.Analytics has the potential to take advantage of the vast amounts of data that institutionscollect to provide additional support for students and improve teaching by helping facultyunderstand where their efforts are best applied. It also helps institutions demonstrate theyare doing all they can to ensure students succeed in an era of growing accountability.58

15. Augmented Reality & LearningAugmented reality is about adding virtual content to real life or to a virtual reality. Forinstance, we can use the mobile camera to have more intrinsic details like the temperature& humidity, etc of a specific location. Augmented learning combined with contextawareness is considered as the future trend in m-learning.Mobile Augmented Reality Applications Project: A prototype Nokia camera phone,equipped with sensors and software called MARA, can superimpose virtual informationand hyperlinks onto a real-world scene.59

Part III: Case Studies & Projects1. Deployment of tablets and ipadsThe new mobile device on the market, the Apple’s ipad is seen as a very efficient handhelddevice which can overcome many of the main limitations in smartphones or PDAs for m-learning purpose. The potential offered is far from Blackberry’s mail service, this wasquickly recognized by enterprises.Tablets are known to contain only core functionalities, thus require fewer resources and ata lower cost than current laptops and notebooks.The Ipad and ipod offers more powerful computational power with multimedia andhypermedia support.This Victoria Education iPad trial should be worth watching. "As part of its continued focuson optimising technology in schools, the Victorian Government, with support from Apple,is examining how iPads can be best used in schools. In a classroom with 1-to-1 devices suchas the iPad, contemporary ways of learning can be optimised. ICT-rich learning andteaching opportunities can increase student participation, engagement and achievement."These questions aim to challenge teachers thinking about curriculum planning and implementation.How can I integrate iPads to support powerful learning in my classroom?How can using an iPad change the way I teach?How can I ensure that the way I teach with ICT promotes deep learning?How can I increase my skills when using the device and applications?How can I ensure ICT is integral to my teaching and learning program?The list of colleges and schools testing and deploying ipad tablets can be found in Appendix1.60

2. AsiaA research project was set up to probe and analyze how teachers utilize mobiletechnologies for teaching and learning at their scheduled classes in Hong Kong. There were10 schools participating in the project. Five of them are primary schools and the rest aresecondary schools. The project was divided into two phases: planning and implementation.In the planning phase, the researchers developed a set of instruments for the evaluationpurpose of this project. The instruments include questionnaire and semi-structuredinterview questions to solicit students’ and teachers’perception of using mobile technologies for teaching and learning. Representative teachersfrom the participating schools were asked to submit a detailed implementation plan onhow to apply mobile technologies in their classes. In the implementation phase, pre- andpost-tests on subject knowledge, classroom observation, questionnaire survey and semistructuredinterview will be carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of using mobiletechnologies in formal class teaching.Countries taking the lead in such matters include South Korea, Malaysia,Singapore and Hong Kong. South Korea is radically overhauling K-12, special needs andgifted children’s schooling and trialling ubiquitous online learning (u-learning) for afterschoolas well as classroom learning (Korea.net, 2005). Hong Kong’s Digital 21 Strategy2includes plans to provide all Hong Kong schools with free wireless broadband connectivityand all pupils with access to ICT at home and in the classroom. The Malaysian Ministry ofEducation plans to use technology in support of curriculum change and for all schools tobecome ICT-enabled Smart Schools by 20103 (Lallana, 2003; Bakar and Mohamed, 2008).In Bangladesh, a study entitled “Learning communities enabled by mobile technology: Acase study of school based in-service secondary teacher training in rural Bangladesh”carried in December 2007 by Sarah Lucas Pouezevara and Rubina Khan.The study equipped two subject trainers, a training coordinator, and a cluster of 10 schoolswith “smartphones” (with video, speakerphone, and three-way calling capabilities), for useby 20 Bangla and math teachers in 10 schools of the Barisal region in southern Bangladesh(for a map indicating the study area, see Appendix 1 of this report). The existing trainingcurriculum was revised from a 2-week, face-to-face workshop to a 6-week distance-modetraining based on printed materials and practical application of training content with peers.The phones were intended primarily to enhance communication, motivation, andmultimediadelivery.61

The objective of the study was to develop a case study on the use of mobile connectivity insupport of distance education and to determine whether:• it is an effective mode for teacher training and improvement in classroom practice• it is a suitable mode to reach rural and remote teachers, including women anddisadvantaged groups• it presents other benefits in terms of education administration (including studentassessment and costs) and pedagogy.The study also sought to determine the costs of this model, and the features of thesmartphones that would be most useful as a support to distance learning.62

3. M-learning projects in AfricaM-UbuntuLiteracy Through Mobile PhonesM-Ubuntu uses inexpensive, low-threshold mobile phone technologies to empower teachersto address Africa’s literacy crisis.M-Ubuntu is applying the Zulu concept of Ubuntu - besttranslated as "I am because we are." to this challenge. At the heart of the pilot project aretwo teams of reform- minded teachers and their enthusiastic learners. Spectrum nearJohannesburg contends with crime & other social dislocations accompanying urbanization.Ramosadi located near Botswana, struggles to serve orphans. Developed with and forstudents and fellow teachers, M-Ubuntu is connecting South African teachers with m-literacy coaches in the United States and England to help them open new vistas to learnerson the wrong side of the literacy and digital divide.Through M-Ubuntu teachers are usingrecycled smart phones to bring the power of handheld computing to their classrooms. Ourfocus is on project-based learning, access to the best in South African and global literature,and the development of critical reading, writing and thinking skills. The pilot phase of theproject, 2009-2010, involved 20 teachers and 600 learners. Future plans call for expansionto additional teams of teachers in Africa and possibly beyond.Building capacity to use mobile technologiesPROTEGE QV, a Cameroonian NGO working for “Promotion of Technologies that GuaranteeEnvironment and a better Quality of Life” conducted capacity building in 2005 for leadersof 20 rural women’s associations to explore the potential of SMS for networking andcommunications. The training covered:• Defining information: oral and written communication• Defining the types of information sharing activities within network associations• Discussion of different communication practices and media, with their relative strengthsand weaknesses (including face to face, post, radio, internet, newsletters)• Introduction to the options offered by mobile phones, technical support for writing andsending SMS to individuals or groups, and tips on using SMS to communicate withinnetworks.Protégé QV have noted that since the training the women not only use SMS tocommunicate within their networks, but also with the head office of the NGO, which is 400km from some of the rural areas where the associations operate, in order to accesssupport materials, information on training and advice on follow up activities.63

Mobile Phone Learning on the Move in AfricaResearching information ondrip irrigation using amultimedia phone in Kenya.© Patrick Ominde AmkoywaAs Africa’s mobile telecommunications continue to expand rapidly, the continent’seducation systems are seeing major developments in the learning process for schoolchildren, students, apprentices and technicians. This year’s eLearning Africaconference in Lusaka identified the main trends.By Talent Ng’andweMore and more African nations are embracing full-scale regulatory reforms and marketliberalisation in a bid to attract more investment in the Information and CommunicationTechnology (ICT) sector and exploit the potential of low-cost technologies. Their effortsto improve access to the Internet are slowly paying off.Laptops and desktop computers have been installed in some schools and they can beshared during lessons. However, questions are being asked about the cost andsustainability of the laptops and desktop computers: Are these investments justifiedwhen the road network remains poor, energy supply unreliable and there is still no fixedline infrastructure?64

Nearly 30% of All Africans SubscribeMasais in rural Zanzibar talking on theirmobile phones © Martin KonzettIn the meantime, the African continent has stunned the world by leapfrogging severalstages of traditional telecommunications development. The mobile phone has becomecommonplace even in many of the poorest countries. By 2009, about one third of theAfrican population had a mobile phone subscription – as opposed to only 8.7% using theInternet through desktop computers (Internet World Stats). With approximately 360million cell phone subscribers, Africa has surpassed the USA (270 million subscribers),according to the UN Information Economy Report 2009. And there is still great potentialfor further development.Will future African students, therefore, be learning from the telephones in their pocketsrather than from the laptops in their classrooms?Nine Key Issues for mLearning in AfricaIn his presentation at the eLA conference, Paul Birevu Muyinda from the MakerereUniversity in Uganda said that mobile phone learning (mLearning) was expected to growrapidly in African institutions of higher education because, in the majority of theseinstitutions, over 90% of the learners owned mobile phones and 100% used at least amobile phone service. “These figures augur well for institutions of higher learning inAfrica wishing to adopt and implement mLearning,“ he said.Muyinda and his colleagues from the Makerere University have proposed a mobilelearning adoption and implementation model for Africa (MLAIMA). It evolved fromanswers to the question “What are the key issues for African countries’ adoption andimplementation of mLearning?” The answers formed the basis for constructing themodel using the Design Research methodology.65

Nine aspects were identified as being key to mLearning adoption and implementation,among them mLearning policies, strategies and guidelines, and mLearning resourcesand sustainability. The team says that MLAIMA enables the democratisation andpermeation of learning in city and non-city locations, but the model is yet to bevalidated in an educational institution.Audio Files for Repeating Course ContentA mobile phone with a battery charger, enablingnomads in West Africa to stay in touch© Ibrahim Aboubacar HamaPaul Birevu Muyinda’s views were echoed by Robert Pucher of the University of AppliedSciences Technikum Wien, Austria, who says that mLearning has become a veryvaluable method in teaching. Almost all students already own such a device. Usingthese in their studies could save time and money.“Learning without remembering is useless, and remembering facts very much dependson repetition. Most people need around three to four repetitions until facts areremembered for a longer period,” said Pucher. This is where audio files could be useful,as they allow students to repeat course content at any location or even while on themove. Such files can be downloaded easily onto most mobile phones or mobile mp3players.However, Pucher emphasised that simply listening to an audio file in most cases wouldnot enable a listener to memorise the content – audio files should be used as acomplement to traditional learning material.Mobile Phones Aid Health Workers in Remote AreasPeter Kisare Otieno, a researcher at the African Medical and Research Foundation(AMREF), Kenya, pointed out that mobile devices could also be used by students tocreate content and not only to access it.His organisation currently uses mLearning to update nursing students about face-tofacesessions, exam dates and other administrative tasks in the school. But it has alsostarted a programme where health workers in remote areas can post difficult cases onthe HIV Anti Retroviral Treatment website, thus starting a forum which is moderated66

from the AMREF office. Other initiatives which have recently been piloted enablehealth workers to download tests and reference material in the form of Java applets.Richard Niyonkuru, Monitoring and Education Advisor for ICT projects in Rwanda’sMinistry of Education, says the younger African generations need new skills to takeadvantage of the power of technology. “The radical transformation we are talkingabout cannot be brought about by the labs, by mere access to computer terminals for afew hours or the use of application software or animations,” says Niyonkuru. In hisopinion, the ‘revolution’ will be brought about by ubiquitous access to mobilecomputing - at home, in education and in the communities. June 28, 2010.4. European ProjectsThe Mobile Learning Network (MoLeNET) is a unique collaborative approach toencouraging, supporting, expanding and promoting mobile learning.It is 'certainly the UK’s, and probably the world’s, largest and most diverse implementationof mobile learning. 115 colleges and 29 schools are, or have been, involved in MoLeNET.Approximately 10,000 learners were involved in 2007/08 and around 20,000 learners willhave been involved by the end of the 2008/09 academic year together with more than4,000 staff.'The LSN and consortia led by Further Education colleges have together invested over £12million in MoLeNET. Tribal has been involved with MoLeNET (the Mobile Learning Network)from the very beginning, many of the successful MoLeNET projects have includedTribal’s MyLearning author and the SMS Quiz author.The MobiLearn ProjectThe Mobilearn project, with partners from nine European countries, the United States andAustralia, has a similar vision [Mobilearn 2003]: A new m-learning architecture will supportcreation, brokerage, delivery and tracking of learning and information contents, usingambient intelligence, location-dependence, personalization, multimedia, instant messaging(text, video) and distributed databases. Field trials cover “blended learning” (as part offormal courses); “adventitious, location-dependent learning” (during visits to museums);and “learning to interpret information sources and advice” (acquiring medical informationfor everyday needs). The high connectivity and functionality may lead to new groupbehaviors, akin to the SMS phenomenon.Do these visions make sense? Do they have a chance of success? These questions aredifficult to answer. In general, predictions of the effects of technology are far too ambitiousin the short term, far too modest in the long term, and miss the real point. E-learning itselfis just getting off the ground and is still tied to traditional pedagogical models, while many67

fundamental issues concerning the ownership and distribution of content need to be solvedbefore m-learning can take off.The Mobile Technologies for Mobile Learning (MoTFAL) ProjectThe MoTFAL project involved collaboration between schools in Greece and Spain. Thestudents from Spain would take digital camera enabled PDAs (in the future this will includevideo) into archaeological sites in Spain. The students in their classroom in Greece wouldtext requests for information and photos to the Spanish students who would then complyand respond. The students would also describe distances and send photos with students infront of artefacts to provide an idea of size. This process would then be completed inreverse.The main advantage here is collaboration between the students, with the sharing ofinformation and questions resulting in both parties asking and answering questions theymay not otherwise have thought of. There is certainly the possibility of an increase inappeal with the interactive nature of the media compared to a text book, and the ability toprovide some context by observing people in locations.5. The CATIA ProjectThis section includes information on licensing and the use of satellite-based Very SmallAperture Terminals (VSATs) for social and economic development in Africa. It has beenprepared by the team working on a project called Catalysing Access to ICT in Africa (CATIA)and funded by the International Development Research Centre, the Department forInternational Development, and others working in this area. The Project seeks to promoteaccess to VSAT solutions through the development of a regional consensus and aninformation system that facilitates the implementation of effective satellite regulations.The Global VSAT Forum and is honoured to lead the satellite project and, together withsupport from our distinguished partners, is pleased to present for your reference the VSATregulatory information contained in this section.6. K-12 & Vocational TrainingTech Leaders in K-12• 2002 – Maine: First Statewide 1:1 Initiative– Apple MacBooks for every middle school student– Cost of $40M for first 4 years + $13M thereafter– Spearheaded by Governor, Angus King– Economic Development, tech-literate workforce– Fall 2009 – 55% local districts funding H.S. 1:1– Students love visual and collaborative learning– Remains as the only statewide program68

Source: Technology & Learning – School CIO Making 1:1 Work, Jan 2010Future of Open Source in K-12Open Technologies Leadership Initiative, onthe maintenance and user training that comeswith using open source solutions.Source T.H.E. Journal May, 2010MALL ( Mobile Assisted Language Learning) case studies in Nan Chiau Primary School,Singapore. The first case study was a mobile-assisted classroom-based English lesson forPrimary 2 class ,i.e 8 years old students with the aim of reinforcing students understandingand proper use of six prepositions. Students were provided with PocketPCs on a 1:1 basisand asked to take photographs of people and objects outside the classroom to show theuse of the prepositions. The second case study called “ Move, Idioms” was a pilot study ofa seamless learning design for a Primary 5 class in which students study and apply 29common Chinese idioms. Students were provided with smartphones on 24/7 basis duringthe whole 9 week period of study. They were encouraged to make sentences with theirlearned idioms and post them on wikis.These 2 cases present combination of formal (in-class) and informal (out -class) settingswith teacher facilitated and sometimes more student centric of student-initiated wherethe responsibility of learning lies partly with the student. The results from the 2 casesaccording to the authors ( (Wong and Looi, 2006) were quite promising.A technique of mobile learning for relating paper maps and electronic informationresources using radio frequency identification (RFID), mobile device and Wi-Fi technology.The system combining paper maps with electronic guide resources. Information about atraining problem or region is accessed by waving a handheld computer equipped with anRFID reader above the region of interest on a paper map. Mobile device have been used astools for navigation learning and mobile-learning information. It presents the prototypingefforts, including vocational education and training problems learned about using RFID formixed media interfaces.69

Figure III.1 m-learning content combined with RFID systemThis system given the advantages of handheld technologies, the exponential growth of itsuse in vocational training and the computing and data management capabilities of the PDAit would seem a logical and powerful tool to support the mobile use of portfolios in thetraining program learning environment. ( Horng and Sun, 2010).The K-Nect projectProject K-Nect is designed to create a supplemental resource for secondary at-risk studentsto focus on increasing their math skills through a common and popular technology – mobilesmartphones. Ninth graders in several public schools in the State of North Carolinareceived smartphones to access supplemental math content aligned with their teachers’lesson plans and course objectives. Students communicate and collaborate with each otherand access tutors outside of the school day to help them master math skills andknowledge. The smartphones and service are free of charge to the students and theirschools due to a grant provided by Qualcomm, as part of its Wireless Reach initiative.On the K-Nect project, when asked what sorts of technology students would like tosee in the classroom, 90% of them preferred mobile devices.On the K-Nect project, students also wanted access to social networking facilitiessuch as blogs and instant messages on the devices.70

7. The KLIV projectThe KLIV Project.Malmo Hospital and Malmo University in Sweden are conducting the KLIV project. Itinvolves employees at Malmo hospital accessing videos on how to use various pieces ofequipment in the hospitals intensive care unit (ICU). The process for developing andemploying the videos follows a five-step procedure.1. The employees determine what equipment requires video assistance for ease of use.2. The employees discuss the video requirements and plan the shoot.3. The employees make videos of the equipment being used, detailing sequences and anycomplex steps involved.4. The video is reviewed informally and then formally.5. The video is either then remade, or deployed into the hospital for use by employees. Barcodes are placed on any equipment in the ICU with videos available. The employeeapproaches the piece of equipment and scans the bar to receive the appropriate videodemonstration without needing to remember the name of the equipment.The primary advantage here is faster and easier access to information, although the entireprocess is learner centred and promotes collaboration in that as a group theycollaboratively decide what videos need to be made, and then they make and informallyreview them71

8. The Ubi-Learn ProjectThe general objective of the project Ubi-Learn is to design a complex learning “dispositif”as defined in Peraya (1999), taking into account the dimensions of ubiquity and mobility.Ubi-Learn leans on the emergence of a new shape of computer systems called UbiquitousComputing as mentioned in Weiser(1991) or ambient Computing. The miniaturization ofcomponents and elements of Human-computer Interfaces, associated to the developmentof the connectivity (networks wireless telegraphy, network P2P1, etc.) allows to think tointeractive environments where the interaction is completely distributed in a big quantityof communicating objects. In the field of the education, we think that effectively thedevelopment of the advanced mobile telephony (GPRS2 or UMTS3) and local networkswireless telegraphy (Wifi4-802/11 or Bluetooth), have already begun to transform ways oflearning, and bring to the creation of adapted info structures.If several scientific works have already allowed the investigation of these technologicalfields, it’s necessary to notice that they have not yet allowed find out new educationalmodalities, which would really taking advantage of the mobility presented in Laroussi(2003).RESEARCH ISSUESWe try through this study and this project to answer certain research questions, which arethe following ones:- How can we make interface for mobile learning more opened and powerful in Derycke(2002)- How can we conceive resources adapted to the mobile learning?- What are pedagogical paradigms that can benefit from ubiquity and mobility?- How can we conceive distributed cognitive system by using nomads’ objects?- What is the role of mobile devices in a learning environment?- What is the role of mobile devices in a collaborative environment?- Language of description for a mobile and interactive learning (Scorm, EML, etc.)- How should wireless technologies be designed to ensure that the needs of learners aremet?- What are some learner-centered design methodologies?72

Figure III.2 , Scenario of interaction in UbiLearn73

9. School SAT in IrelandAn initiative funded by the European Space Agency, focuses on improving access to theInternet and delivering education-focused Internet services with an innovative two-way“Internet via satellite” network to remote Irish schools, see Figure III.3. ATiT Irelandmanaged the project, with Intel Innovation Centre and others providing the architectureand technical expertise. The project provided small satellite dishes to nine post-primaryschools in areas poorly served by broadband. The local authority had had difficultyfacilitating Internet access requirements for the schools in this region and decided that asatellite service could play an important role in meeting these needs. ATiT Irelandimplemented the satellite infrastructure and set up a multicasting service that pushedselected educational content from a number of leading sources, including Intel InnovationCentre’s school Learning Technology platform on a weekly basis. Caching the content on aserver at each school provided local access for students and teachers, which enabled a richmedia learning experience. For interactive tasks, such as filling out questionnaires andonline research, users could access the Internet through the satellite link. Using satellitetechnology for this type of service offers several advantages:Gives schools fast access to the InternetCan be installed in any school regardless of locationCan be installed quickly—on average equipment setup at each school took half adayProvides a secure, managed network for schoolsGives stakeholders a system capable of pushing specific web-based content anddigital resources to all schools instantlyCan be integrated with other compatible services where such services existFigure III.3,SchoolSat Technology overview74

10. Use of m-learning in UniversitiesBall State University Research99.8 percent of students have a cell phoneNearly nine in 10 students with smart phones access the Internet97% of students send/receive text message; 30% e-mail; 25% IM97% smart phone owners take and send photographs; 87% take and send videoThe United Kingdom and Europe• A 10 month trial of a mobile learning organiser with 17 Master of Science students at theUniversity of Birmingham (Corlett, Sharples, Bull & Chan, 2005). The organisers were usedto deliver course materials, messages, submissions and facilitate collaborativecommunication. Findings: Generallypositive feedback, but only 30% were using the device everyday by the end of the trial.Some technical problems were mentioned, plus some perceived limitations.• Uniwap II: Students in a teacher training course at University of Helsinki used mobiledevices to discuss teaching methods collaboratively with teachers and other studentswhilst on teaching pracs (Seppala & Alamaki, 2002). They also used SMS and digital imagesas a part of supervision.Findings: Heavy use of the program Uniwap II indicates that students engaged with theproject and it succeeded in creating flexible teaching solutions.• Alumni of The Open University’s Masters in Online and Distance Education weresurveyed to examine how far mobile devices were embedded in their personal andprofessional lives (Pettit & Kukulska Hulme, 2006). Findings: Use-patterns haveimplications for educational use and further details are needed on how WMDs are usedand by which groups.• The use of Podcasts by Universities in the UK and Europe to deliver educational content:Bath University, the Open University, Warwick University, Nottingham University andUlster UniversitySouth Africa, Australia and AsiaM-Learning and vocational education: This project describes mobile innovations in fourTAFEs within Australia. The mobile devices were used in the delivery of learning toworkplaces, to deliver self-induction offsite and to deliver creative learning initiatives(Ragus, Meredith, Dacey, Richter, Paterson & Hayes, 2005).Findings: Findings from each initiative are generally positive. There is evidence that theseprograms have been ongoing for a period of time and have been evaluated and changed.This project describes how English language lessons were delivered 3 times per day touniversity students via SMS at Kinjo Gakuin University, Japan (Thornton & Houser, 2004).Findings: Tests between the students involved in the M-Learning and traditional studentsshowed that they performed better in language tests.75

The use of SMS to create channels of communication between lecturer/tutor with firstyear undergraduate students at Griffith University (Horstmanshof, 2004). The project wasaimed at providing support and encouragement to students in order to help them withpersisting in their studies.Findings: SMS provided students with connection and community between themselves andtheir tutors and this had a positive influence on persistence.The use of SMS in microeconomics experiments at the University of Sydney (Cheung,2004). SMS messaging was used as a response mechanism for problem-solvingexperiments. Findings: SMS help to overcome logistical problems.The potential use of Wireless Mobile Devices (WMDs) at Deakin University has beenexplored by Armatas, Holt and Rice (2005). Findings: Mobile technologies have the abilityto push information to students and support the existing online learning platforms.The use of SMS with students enrolled in 3 university programs at the University ofPretoria, South Africa. This project describes how the WMDs were used to provide learningopportunities to learners without access to learning or who continually moving (Brown,2005).Findings: M-Learning in Africa reaches more people than online learning due to theproliferation of mobile networks.The use of Podcasts by Australian Universities to deliver educational content: QueenslandUniversity of Technology, Curtin University, University of Sydney and Melbourne UniversityCanada and the USAThe M-Library project at Athabasca University (Coa, Tin, McGreal, Ally & Coffey, 2006). Amobile university library website was established that was available to all students.Findings: This project acknowledges that improvements need to be made to the delivery ofthe learning platforms but positive feedback from users encourages further developments.M-Learning applications that were linked to existing course websites were piloted onundergraduate and postgraduate students at the Lowell College of Management,University of Massachusetts (Motiwalla, 2005).Findings: Perceived by students as an effective tool or aid to enable flexible learning.The ActiveCampus Project at the University of California, explored wireless context-awarecomputing as a means of creating a learning community (Griswold, et al, 2004).Findings: Mobile technologies support classroom activities.76

The use of Podcasts by Universities in the USA and Canada to deliver educational content:Harvard, Yale, John Hopkins University, University of Wisconsin, Penn State University,Brock University and University of Western Ontario.Appendix 4 contains case studies and projects in mobile learning in higher education insome USA colleges and universities.11. Use of m-learning in EnterprisesTomi Ahonen Almanac 20104.6 billion subscriptions - 68% of planet3.4 billion unique users - half the planet1.2 billion PCs (including notebooks)3x as many camera phones in use today thanany kind of stand-alone camera, digital or film based ever manufactured1.13 billion handsets sold last year compared to270 million new PCsMore internet users on mobile than on personal ComputersUse Case #1: Mine Lab (Taiwan)PocketSCORMSCORM reader on mobile devices + LMS Server +SCORM repositoryPart of larger Hard SCORM projectCan dynamically adjust the content to adaptFirst released in June 2004 for Windows MobileUse Case #1: Mine Lab (Taiwan)PAD SCORMStand-alone Native App for SCORM content that supports iPhone, iPodTouch, and iPadReleased in 2010Submitted to iTunes App storeNotable Findings: MINE Lab (Taiwan)Both Pocket SCORM & PAD SCORM Apps provideoffline/disconnected capability in case connectivity is lostBoth Support SCORM 1.2 and SCORM 2004Native Mobile Apps provide more local storage capability, and better support formultimedia and human interaction than Mobile Web Apps.Biggest challenges were not technical, but related to:Promoting their products77

Finding and keeping SMEs & instructors onboard to create the materials High cost ofdevelopmentUse Case #2: Bank of AmericaGoLearn – First started development/pilot in 2006Largest use caseRepurposed existing SCORM content to fit on smaller screen (BlackBerry)Can differentiate between mobile & computer based learnersTracking activations, completions, and demographicsConduct surveys to collect Level 1 data (Kirkpatrick Model)SCORM needed in order to provide standard way of tracking completions & bookmarkingUsing Intuition Player to handle SCORMNotable Findings: Bank of America12% higher completion rate during initial 45-day pilotAveraged 45% less time to complete content on mobile device (no loss of comprehension)Completion Locations:32% business travel, 24%work commuting, 26% athome, %18 officeUse Case #3: AccentureFirst began Pilot in 2007; internal success now part of their offering to customersConducted surveys during prototype phaseGoal was 100% mastery of compliance training92% of those surveyed would jump at the opportunity to use their mobile devices for thiscompliance trainingRepurposed existing SCORM content in-house to fit on smaller screenSCORM needed for standard tracking of completions (Intuition Player)Internet connection needed only during initial download and when completedNotable Findings: AccentureMore than 1,000 completions (2009)Overall learner satisfaction ratings averaged 4.4 on a 5.0 scaleCompared to 4.0 for traditional e-learning coursesUse Case #4: Upside LearningFirst released in February 2010Developed both web-based (mobile browser) App and Native AppWeb-based (mobile browser) App implemented using JavaScriptProvides front-end LMS functionalityAccommodate multiple devices using device detection script and checking the followingheaders:78

user-agent (most widely used)x-operamini-phone-ua (opera mobile browser)x-wap-profile (older wap devices)x-skyfire-phone (skyfire mobile browser)Developed solution that doesn’t use pop ups or framesetsRequires continuous internet connectionUse Case #5: LitmosCurrently in beta stage with a handful of customersWeb-based (mobile browser) App provides front-end LMS functionalityFocused on HTML5, CSS, and JavaScript for developmentCurrently targeting iPhone and Android with plans to support BlackBerryProvide tracking of audio, video, and SCORM packagesBack-end LMS automatically creates multiple optimized video formats Certified for SCORM1.2Working on offline storage of CMI data using SQLite DB (supported by webkit browsers)Notable Findings: LitmosDeveloping Mobile Web Apps enforces the KISS principle.Agile approach to Mobile App development allows for more immediate updatesUse Case #6: OnPoint DigitalRelease date upcoming (currently in beta); CellCast Mobile SCORM PlayerTargeting: Windows Mobile, BlackBerry, iPhone, iPad, Android, and Symbian (Nokia)Native App approach using SDK & build CellCast widgets for each platform fordevelopmentAlso offer Web-based (mobile browser) App that doesn’t use pop up windows or framesetsCan support Flash-based SCORM content on:Windows Mobile 6.0 & 6.5Android 2.2No problems with supporting SCORM 1.2 & 2004JavaScript support is consistent across mobile devicesLightweight mobile API for SCORM with less complexity & offline support?Current screen size challenges for developers trying to repurpose existing content willimproveNexus One Android now supports 800x480 Apple's new iPhone 4.0 now supports 960x640displayUse Case #7: Rustici SoftwareEarly stage of offering a mobile solution, but completed the following:Integrated SCORM Cloud (web-service SCORM engine) with MoodleDeveloped SCORM content prototype using JQTouch framework for iPhone79

Upcoming integrations of SCORM Cloud with:Google AppsGoogle Cloud CourseWorpressFacebookUse Case #8: VCOM3DPrototype effort started in March 2010Developed exclusively for JKDDC (JKO and ROCCE)Developed other Apps for language & cultural training for MilitaryConsists of two Apps:Login, EnrollmentCourse ContentInitially targeted for iPod Touch, but was expanded tosupport:iPhone & iPadHTC EvoDroid IncredibleNexus OneSCORM 2004 2nd and 3rd EditionAPI communication from Mobile App to JKO uses JavaScriptStudent’s progress is tracked within the App and only looks for active connection whencourse is completedMaking specific use of cmi.learner_id, cmi.learner_name, cmi.exit,cmi.completion_statusESF Mobile Learning ProjectThe ESF Mobile Learning Project aimed to develop methods of using mobile technologies toengage learners (employees) in Skills for Life learning in industries where learners find itdifficult to access learning because of difficult shift patterns or dispersed patterns ofworking, primarily in the cleaning and transport industries. Its objectives were to engagelearners and support their progress towards Skills for Life qualifications, embedded invocational competence, using a blend of learning approaches. These approaches includedthe use of mobile devices such as mobile phones and PPCs. The project used the Move Onapproach, which involves careful screening, assessment and targeting of learners to helpthem make progress quickly and efficiently, ideally going on to take the NationalQualifications in Adult Literacy and Numeracy.There was also a capacity-building aspect to the project to focus on developing capability atLevels 2, 3 and 4 for staff who were working to recruit, support or teach the learners. Tribalhad capacity to work with partners to contribute to the delivery of this part of the project. It80

was envisaged that the project would work with the United Road Transport Union andother unions to identify some of the learners in this cohort.Partners include: Tribal, Middlesborough College, Newham College, People’s College81

12. Theoretical Perspectives of m-learning projectsWhile there are many practical reasons to adopt m-learning strategies and technologies inhigher education (cf., Gayeski, 2007), theoretical justification is arguably even moreimportant. O’Malley et al., (2005) pointed out that when there is scant empirical evidenceof effective learning with mobile technologies, guidelines for use should be theoryinformed.Fishman, Soloway, Krajcik, Marx and Blumenfeld (2001) contended that a lack oftheoretically grounded guidelines represent ‘a major impediment to the successful use ofnew technologies’ (p. 7).Examples of m-learning projects within their theoretical perspectives82

Research Gaps & DirectionsIf we are interested in enhancing student learning, a priority must be to design m-learningand teaching strategies that involve active learning, for example, in experiential fieldwork,simulations, role plays and games (Leigh, 2004). Learning and teaching strategies areneeded that provide opportunities for learner adaption and reflection (Laurillard, 1993),that encourage critical thinking, and that support students professional developmentthrough self and peer evaluation, feedback, review and assessment opportunities (Rabanand Litchfield, 2007). Effective and practical strategies are needed that support learnersdevelopment of understandings and skills in our identified graduate attributes, curriculumobjectives and stated learning outcomes.Five suggested action research directions are all significant issues in m-learning and allneed to be better investigated; mobile supported fieldwork, fostering interactivity on-campus using mobile devices, ubiquitous learning supported by mobile devices, m-learning for each discipline strategies for low-cost m-learning use.Strategies for low-cost m-learning use: Reducing m-learning implementation and usecostsThe investigation of low-cost practices for using mobile technology for learning clearly hasgreat strategic importance. Cost is a major barrier to introducing mlearning into learningand teaching practice. There are two main issues here; 1. the price of the mobile devicesand 2. the usage charges billed by telecommunications providers. To overcome thesebarriers to m-learning this research direction could aim to achieve these outcomes;Assessment of the factors which affect students’ willingness and motivation to use theirown mobile devices in a variety of learning activities.Development of strategies on learning activities suitable for use with student ownedmobile devices, particularly mobile phones and digital cameras. Investigation of technicalprotocols for downloading from mobile devices to university PCs via USB cable or overuniversity wireless networks, and so bypassing telecommunication providers’ networks.Policy-makers, teachers, trainers and instructional designers alike need sound research andevaluation to help them in:• Policy-making, planning, leading and managing.• Resource management and costing.83

• Change management, staff development, evaluation, quality assurance andaccreditation.• Learner assessment and learner support.• Cultural factors in learning.• International collaboration.• Lifelong learning and non-formal adult and community education.As technology changes pedagogy also need to change or to adapt, research on pedagogyand educational scenarios to enhance the learner’s experience requires furtherexploration. On the other hand any advancement in mobile technology or electrical energywill be beneficial in overcoming technological barriers and constraints to mLearning.Example of a research questions:How to couple mobile terminals with radio transmitters?Can mobile technologies lead to improved students performance in foundation courses?How to make mLearning suitable for practical disciplines?What is the roadmap towards the development of standards for mobile learning?Can mobile learning answer to cross border accreditation and recognition?How far mLearning can be efficient to disabled learners?Best PracticesSince learning through mobile devices is still limited both technically (speed of data access,memory capabilities and media support) and economically (cost of devices, cost of wirelessdata access), while developing standards and best practices we must give consideration toaddressing these barriers.Here are a few best practices to consider:Minimize Data Entry: Avoid making learners use their phone keyboards too much as thesecan interrupt learning, and become tedious and time consuming. At most, keep answers tooptional choices or short fill-in-the-blanks to check understanding.Use Text Support: Structure learning material to be used for general reference, likedefinitions and how-to guides. This may not allow for complete learning material, but canprovide learning support through notes, which can be easily read and accessed quickly.Avoid Costs to Learner: If the student is incurring costs to learn via their mobile devices,that’s a big problem. So while implementing mobile learning keep in mind downloadingcosts if any, as well as data access costs.84

Test Design Approaches: To figure what content works best you need to try differentoptions. Do you provide a text summary and then ask questions? Do you detail a processand then provide visual support? Do you link to online videos? Try multiple options and seewhat works best for your students.Provide Offline Options: Downloading information and content is not yet commonplaceand can still be a hindrance to many. Content does not necessarily have to be delivered viawireless connection or the internet. You could also offer PC access though memory cardswhich can then be “sideloaded” to a mobile device.General Best PracticesGather Requirements: “If You Fail toPlan, Then You’re Planning to Fail”Define goals and requirements for your projectPrototype, prototype, prototype (start small, think big)Make distinction between “learning” and “performancesupport”Identify target device(s) and potential OS version(s)Native App or Web App? Or Both?Who will provide support? Help Desk?General Best PracticesDesign with Usability and Accessibility inMindDetermine smallest screen area to support (4x6 cards)When repurposing content, provide a comparable learningexperience:Replicate assessment interactions whenever possible (true/false; drag/drop)Use bullets to make contextual information more conciseIncrease use of color, bold, and font types to boost effectiveness/preventloss of emphasisReduce or replace audio and video with static graphics and transcriptsFollow W3C guidelines for creating Accessible content:With BlackBerry there is significant differences between browsersExplicitly setting the width and height of an image in the HTML canresolve issues with text wrapping around images85

General Best PracticesPlan for the Disconnected Mobile UserProvide an offline or disconnected version of yourcontent?Poor connectivity issues can result in bad user experience86

RecommendationsThe list of recommendations will serve as guidelines for successful m-learning strategiesand deployment. The lessons learnt from past case studies and projects form the basis forthese recommendations.1. M-learning must not be confined to learning on a mobile phone2. Any m-learning project should be blended with other learning modes and viewed ina holistic manner. The percentage of activities to be converted into mobile may bedefined using the triangular framework.3. Evaluation must focus on learning rather than performance.4. Pedagogy needs to be adapted to the technology chosen.5. Learning should continue offline, example though offline players, given that batterylife time and access to electricity are major constraints in some countries.6. There is a need to have many more pilot projects in Africa to gauge the impact ofm-learning on the continent.7. Some technological challenges if solved or with appropriate alternatives, forinstance coupling mobile terminals for radio broadcasts in rural areas may havesubstantial impact on the objectives on a very large scale.8. Exploit the potential of emerging technologies such as the Cloud and 4G and LTEBroadband.9. Empower institutions to integrate m-learning pedagogy and tools in the curriculumdevelopment10. Build capacity in the development of mobile content and applications for the m-learning market in Africa.11. Exploit the potential of multimedia & advanced graphics design to capture interestof low achievers.12. Satellite communications and other forms of production of energy will boost mobileinternet access in rural areas.13. A mobile community is beneficial for a mobile learner to evolve comfortably.14. Enhancing user educational experience demands innovations in m-learningscenarios and systems.15. To accommodate m-learning strategies through projects in national ICT strategicplanning.16. Contextualizing mobile learning may support cultural and language identities.17. Disabled persons can take maximum of m-learning if properly designed.87

18. The mobile technology can be efficiently used for institutional and studentsadministration. For example, simple applications like notification of deadlines forsubmission of projects with SMS.19. A cost model for infrastructure, applications, devices and services should be workedout in any feasibility study of an m-learning project.20. The m-learning activities as well as the applications and devices provided tostudents should be managed by the institution; appropriate procedures must bedesigned and adhered to.21. The stakeholders in an m-learning system must be trained accordingly.22. Team building and collaborative can be encouraged by m-learning23. Apart from learning content the mobile technology offers a variety ofcomplementary functionalities and opportunities that can be loaded on a handhelddevice.24. With the advent of more powerful handheld devices with rich media content atlower costs, much of the learning will happen outside classroom in informalsettings, subsequently institutions will have to adapt to new scenarios.25. M-learning has no single formula for all subjects areas and context, each scenarioand topic is a unique case. Some subjects may seem easier on the m-learning modethan others.26. The advantage of the mobile phone is that it was initially designed for voice andaudio communications which are the most significant ones in teaching. Learningcontent with voice and audio could be very effective I m-learning mode.27. M-learning can be implemented on small scale rather than starting directly withlarge scale megaprojects equivalent to virtual campuses in e-learning.28. To develop content respecting the AICC or SCORM standards in case ofinteroperability with e-learning LMSs if an institution is willing to track and conductassessment.88

A Framework for Mobile Learning and TrainingWe have presented the various frameworks applied in the literature and on real lifeprojects in Part I of this document. The framework proposed in this research study hasbeen inspired from existing frameworks with the aim to provide a pragmatic simple tool forany institution to plan and implement for any mobile learning project. Emphasis is laidupon here on the project management approach. A mobile learning project is beforeeverything a project that requires proper project management and leadership to besuccessful.The first step of applying the framework would be to setup an m-learning projectcommittee to lead and drive the project. This committee should comprise the differentstakeholders namely a chairman, a technologist, a pedagogue, network operator, subjectspecialist and a student in case of higher education.The 10 components to be considered within the framework are grouped into 2 blocks, theconceptual phase and the running phase. In a timeline the running phase comes after theconceptual phase but the components in one block are not necessarily consecutive. Eachcomponent comprises a set of queries, questions and computations that need to beaddressed in the decision making process.Currently, each m-learning project is a unique project, the standardization andcommercialization of the mobile projects have not yet enabled reuse or replication ofthose projects in other situations and contexts. Presently, there are few off the shelvesproducts for m-learning contrary to e-learning or traditional distance education replicationor transposition from one country to another was quite feasible, smooth and effective.Subsequently, all mobile learning scenarios need to be looked upon on a case to case basiswith the appropriate questions and checklists listed below must be answered first.89

The Conceptual Phase- Cost Model ( sub levels: technology, infrastructure, services)Mobile device deployment strategy, 1:1Internet connectivityLicensing schemeOff the shelves productsROI & ROTIMaintenance & Support CostsCourse contentTutors & mentors feesEconomies of scaleWho will fund the project?Cost is pretty affordable as comparatively less recurring cost and one-time investment- Requirements (sub levels: pedagogical issues, design, formal/informal settings)The institution should understand at the outset whether an m-learning system orcomponent is required and will be helpful to the learners and the institution itself, i.e whatare the needs for mobile learning?Different methodologies exist to determine the need to go for m-learning; it could be atraining needs analysis or a case to case scenarios for example space can be a constraint toa c c o m m o d a t e m o r e s t u d e n t s .Suitability of the programme or course to m-leaningWhy a mobile learning project?Assess the technology with pros & cons the most appropriate for the project.Match with curriculum needs.What is the percentage of blended learning & integration with existing or other VLEs?How much of learning & how much teaching?Design of the course contentPedagogical issuesThe project should correspond to the learning theory identified and vice versa, the table insection 12 in Part II draws examples of the different learning theories and correspondingpast projects.91

- Stakeholders (sub levels: learners profile, institution, service providers)Who are the learners?Profile of the learnersAcademic support staffNetwork operatorService providerAll stakeholders in the mobile echo systemEnsure the system will be usable and acceptable for all stakeholders- Targets (sub levels: population type, geographical reach, set objectives)We need to define the type of mLearning to be adopted. Is it a performance centricapproach, a learner centric approach, an institution centric approach, an instructor centricapproach, a peer to peer approach?What are the objectives set?What are the learning outcomes?Curriculum adapted?What’s complementary to in-class ?How to cater for practical sessions?TutorialsModule map92

- Uniqueness (sub levels: degree of innovation, level of customization, integrationinto curriculum)Innovative scenariosEnhance learner’s experienceLevel of customization on existing solutionsScope of the projectWhat is the ratio of time allocated to mobile and to traditional learning?What value does mobile technology add to the learner?What percentage of the content should go mobile?We should not re-invent the wheel in view of any pilot projectThe Running Phase- Sustainability (sub levels: train the trainers, viability, recurrent)Teachers should be trained to assist the learners and other teachersKeep the momentum of the programmeAgile techniques to accommodate changes and adapt the systemEnhance current and new instructional activitiesLessons learntEnsure security and privacy of the learners and the institution- Collaboration (sub levels: interactive tools, motivation, activities design)Enhance collaboration & sharingMultimedia and tools for collaborationYoungsters like graphics & multimedia and interactionTeam building & problems solving- Effectiveness (sub levels: quality assurance, assessment, examinations)Quality control and assuranceAssessment ..Examinable or not..Condition system..Feedback from learnersExaminable or notCredit systemProfessional certification93

- Academic support (sub levels: supervision, tutorials, practical sessions, additionalresources)Academic supervision, how is it conducted?Exams and supportAdditional resources- Administration (sub levels: administrative, financial)Teaching supportGuidelines for usage of the deviceDeadlinesAssistance, request for interruptionAlertsFinancial notificationsBooks on loanDevelop strategies and procedures for management of devices94

CONCLUSIONAs a matter of fact, mobile cell phone has been the fastest adopted technology for the pastdecade in the world. This is very true for the African continent where the growth insubscriptions of mobile phones is the highest. Concurrently, many institutions andorganizations have been exploiting the mobile technology to achieve pre-defined goals informal and informal educational settings. There are pre-conceived opinions about whatmobile learning is and how to go for it.The findings of this research study briefly explained in the 3 major parts I,II,III have helpedin enumerating the research gaps and directions, some best practices, listing therecommendations and as per the goal of the TOR, to come up with a framework for theimplementation of mobile learning and training.The first objective set for Part I was “explaining what mobile learning is”. We have seenthat there are trivial definitions of mobile learning and that technology, pedagogy andknowledge are the key elements in any mobile learning system. We have highlighted thespecificity of mobile learning such as context awareness and its virtue when combined withthe Internet and other VLEs and also found that mLearning is not merely an extension of e-learning but a paradigm shift in integrating technology into education.The second objective for Part I was “presenting current status of mobile learning as well aslatest research”. Here we have seen the current mobile learning situation in formal andinformal settings as well as in the enterprise. Mobile learning is in its 2 nd generationcoinciding with the 4 G of mobile technology and there are numerous short term pilotprojects and initiatives across the globe. The latest research has been summarised in theresearch gaps and directions section.The third objective of Part I was “outlining the challenges faced by when designing andimplementing mobile learning”. The primary barrier is here the lack of strategy and vision.Other challenges are equally important namely the pedagogical match with thetechnology. It has also been noted that apart from restrictions imposed by the hand helddevice such as small screen size, mLearning remains in the informal domain due to lack ofstandards and the didactic instructor centric approach that instructors tend to revert back.It’s true mLearning by it’s nature tends to render training informal, thus either learners arehighly motivated or collaboration and multimedia retain the their interests.Part II corresponds to the objective “compiling advances, initiatives and applications inmobile learning”. We have seen here the economic potential for growth of mobile learningand the emerging technologies that will revolutionise mLearning as from 2010. These arethe 4G rollout and the advent of a cocktail of technologies like IPv6, Web 2.0, IMS,augmented learning and in memory analytics. Products and suppliers have been listed inAppendix 3.95

The first objective set for Part III was “documenting case studies of how mobile learning isbeing used to teach and train in different places worldwide. The case studies and projectscompiled and reported in Part III are very meaningful and reveal the complexity ofmLearning projects. Since 2001 , there have been a series of initiatives and projects atinstitutional, entreprise and few at governmental levels. The majority of them for a shortduration of 4 to 8 months and most of the time training is informal. We have noticed aregression of mLearning projects in higher education and a focus on content development.Technology is no more a barrier in the developing world as well as in the developed one.Case studies from China and Bangladesh have shown that teachers continuous training inrural areas are very much possible with mLearning. What really differs from one project toanother is the educational scenario, and sometimes with unknown or unmentionedtheoretical perspective. Some projects can be emulated to other parts of the world. Morecase studies and projects are compiled in Appendix 4.The second objective set for Part III was “discuss the future of use of mobile learning ineducation, training and informal settings”. Several future scenarios have been reported.Attention was drawn on how large carriers together with other stakeholders are proposingmLearning on a subscription basis and new products such IT certification content is alreadyon the market. One could be future project relevant the African context was identified, it’sabout the use of mLearning to leverage the pass rate for students in foundation courseswith insufficient entry requirements for mainstream tertiary undergraduate programmes.Another one could be the improvement in Maths for secondary students throughmLearning.The new framework proposed is a generic one that can be applied on a case to case basisas each mobile learning project seems to be unique by itself. The framework presents 2blocks of critical factors, one conceptual and the other at runtime. The 2 new projectsidentified above can be conceived with the help of this framework.Mobile learning and training implementations require de facto project management skillsbefore any consideration. With advent of new technologies new opportunities, challengesand paradigms will appear, by how much these technologies will drive the educationalgoals need to be further investigated. There has been interesting mobile projects in Africaprincipally relevant to its development, very few indeed in the educational sector, mostsignificant one happening in South Africa. There are interesting success stories acrossworld that can be adapted, emulated and translated to the African context, but alsoindigenous specificities that must be addressed.96

Appendix 2Conferences & WorkshopsMlearnThe Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education or WMTE series began inVaxjo, Sweden in 2002 (http://lttf.ieee.org/wmte2002/).The International Conference on Open and Online Learning (ICOOL)IADIS is the International Association for Development of the Information Society(http://www.iadis.org/).The Mobile Learning Conference 2011 MobiLearnMoLeNET Mobile Learning Conference:www.molenet.org.uk/moleconf/learningconference2010/OrganisationsWLE Centre: Mobile Learning Symposia and the London Mobile Learning Group (LMLG)Futurelab (http://www.futurelab.org.uk/)G1:1 (http://www.g1on1.org/)PLANBectaKineo, www.kineo.comKaleidoscope, www.noe-kaleidoscope.org/Mlearnopedia: http://cc.mlearnopedia.com/2010/conferences/mobile-learning/Mobilelearningsig, http://www.mobilelearningsig.com/content/case-studiesThe London Mobile Learning Group: http://www.londonmobilelearning.net/mLearning international journalsThe International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning (http://www.igiglobal.com/ijmbl)Elsevier Special Issue of the Journal of Systems and Software on “Mobile Applications: Status andTrends”.The International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation (IJMLO);www.inderscience.comInternational Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (IJIM)International association of mobile learningJournal of Mobile Information SystemsAsian Journal of Distance EducationAsia Pacific Journal of EducationAsia Pacific Education ReviewIndian Journal of Open LearningMalaysian Journal of Distance EducationOpen University Hong Kong’s97

Turkish Online Journal of Distance EducationDistance Education in ChinaKorea’s Journal of Lifelong Learning Society98

Appendix 3Tools for Applications & Content DevelopmentKey mobile learning authoring tools include:Captivate, Creative Suite & Dreamweaver—Adobe Systems, Inc. (USA)Presenter & Engage—Articulate Global Inc. (USA)Camtasia Studio—TechSmith Corporation (USA)Desire2Learn 2Go—Desire2Learn (Canada)DominKnow Mobile—DominKnow, Inc. (Canada)Drona—Deltecs Infotech (India)Float Learning—Float Learning (USA)Lectora Publisher—Travantis (USA)iQpakk—MentorMate (USA)MyLearning Authoring Tool—Tribal/CTAD (UK)Push Mobile Media—Push Mobile Media (USA)Toolbook—SumTotal (USA)UpsideLMS Mobile—Upside Learning (India)Vcommunicator Authoring Suite—Vcom3D (USA)vMobiLearn—Vistacast LLC (USA)WebBuilder—ReadyGo (USA)Xyleme, Inc, www.xyleme.comAvantGo is a producer of mBusiness products for palmtops and pocket pcs.IBrite has developed an authoring product for putting content together for the Palm PC.http://www.ibrite.com/download_software.htm.Transition is an award-winning provider of Lectora and IBM Lotus e-learning productsand services.Isopia provides this definition of mLearning: 'With the power and functionality of SunLearnTone LMS extended to mobile devices, Sun enables enterprises to offer a seamless,blended learning experience extending from classrooms and desktops, to PDAs, two-waypagers, mobile phones and hybrid devices'.Experient.com have published a white paper titled Mobile eLearning Systems whichpromotes its Calypso product. Calypso enhances current technologies, it is said, that do notadequately exploit the potential of the internet for learning. Calypso allows learning anytime, any place, any where without constant access to, or persistent use of, the internet.99

INSEAD, NOKIA, and ICUS formed an Asia-Pacific consortium to pilot m-learning. The initialresult of their endeavor was the development and deployment of an e-course delivered viaWAP-enabled NOKIA phones. The course, eBusiness on the Move, was developed to makeuse of both WAP (wireless) and Web (wired) technologies, allowing participants to accesscontent via phone and computer.List of Learning Management System (LMS),most of them with m-learning options. WebCT BlackBoard Learning Space IntraLearn Top Class eCollege Click2learn Authorware First Class Docent LearnLinc Virtual-U SiteScape Web Course in a Box UniLearn Generation 21 Phoenix Pathlore Saba Learning Enterprise Pathware Knowledgesoft VCampus EduSystem Serf LUVIT Mentorware The Learning Manager QuestionMark Eloquent rainersoft WebBoard Convene.com Quest PlaceWare Embanet OLI Ucompass IVLE Integrity eLearning InterWise Millennium Theorix Inspire Jones e-education Prometheus Anlon Class Act! Colloquia Southrock U4all.com100

SafariMailSafari is the iPads web browser. It allows you toview complete web pages as they would appearon a standard computer. You can zoom into textor images easily for a closer look. You can havemultiple pages and/or sites open at once using“tabbed” browsing. Text and images can becopied for use in other apps.Mail is an email app that allows you to access andmanage all of your email. It will allow you tomanage multiple email accounts e.g. you can syncyour EduMail account to it, and also attach aGmail or Yahoo account. Mail works closely withthe Contacts and Calendar apps to make sure youare always organised.PhotosThe Photos app organises all of the images onyour iPad. You can create impressive lookingslideshows from directly within the app. When animage is selected you can email it to someone,set it as wallpaper for your iPad, or ʻcopyʼ it foruse in another app.iPodThe iPad is also a fully featured digital mediaplayer. The iPod app allows you to play yourmusic, download and listen to podcasts andaudiobooks.MapsMaps draws on Google Maps to provide digitalmaps and satellite images of almost anywhere.Great for Humanities projects, or just taking alook at what your home looks like from space!NotesSimple word processing and note-taking can bedone using the Notes app and the onscreenkeyboard. Notes can be synced via iTunes to yourcomputer, or emailed to yourself for furtherpolishing in a word processor such as MS Word,or Apple Pages (Pages is also available as an iPadapp allowing a fully featured word processor on101

the iPad).CalendarThe Calendar app has the look and feel of atraditional desktop calendar, with the addedbonus of being able to view day, week or monthto a page. Entries made on the calendar can beset to automatically sync to an email account(such as your EduMail account).YouTubeThe YouTube app brings to the iPad all of the richlearning resources that have been shared onYouTube. Need to learn how to use Photoshop -YouTube it! Want to bake the perfect souffle -check out a step-by-step video on YouTube!102

Appendix 4http://saulnier.typepad.com/learning_technology/2010/10/mobile-learning-in-highereducation.htmlMobile Learning in Higher EducationI recently attended a NERCOMP event on Mobile Learning in Higher Education. NERCOMP- the NorthEast Regional Computing Program -- is an EDUCAUSE affiliate. The "day ofdiscovery" was hosted by Kristin Lofblad Sullivan, Manager of Instructional Technology atHarvard University's Graduate School of Education.Session: mLearning 101The first session was presented by Jason Gorman, Instructional Designer, Harvard GraduateSchool of Education (HGSE), Gino Beniamino, Instructional Technologist, HGSE, and SusanEppling, Instructional Media Developer, HGSE.Mobile devices were defined as anything you can take outside the classroom and connectto the internet or a network via a broadband connection. Clearly there is a proliferation ofdiverse software platforms and devices that meet this criteria and that was noted as achallenge. But the opportunities for education are staggering given the statistics:Out of a total U.S. population of 308MM, there are 285MM cell phones.More people in india have access to cell phone than toilet.41% of the global population of 6.3 BB carry mobile phones.For real-time updates see the PhoneCount website."Nomophobia" is the fear of being out of mobile contact.Challenges to deployment include the need for skilled developers/vendors, faculty fluencyand interest, funding, platform decisions, the lack of common devices, student opinions oftools, the 'digital divide' and access to tools, unrealistic expectations ofstudents/faculty/administrators, technology support, changing opinions of assignmentdesign, and the overall ‘technology happens’ issues concerning technical problems whenusing devices and platforms of this nature. These were organized into three broadcategories: technical, teaching and learning, and institutional.Next we reviewed some sample projects, each showcasing a different type of device andapproach to mobile learning.ABILENE CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITYACU has embarked on a number of mobile initiatives, with some noteworthy projectsinvolving the iPhone and iPad. Students, faculty and staff created a movie called103

Connections to "visualize a new kind of learning environment". Many of the challengesoutlined above were felt. But they achieved some interesting outcomes, including:Creation of a Mobile-Learning Fellows program. Gave half-dozen faculty grants toinnovate in different ways (also had corporatesponsorships/partnerships). Published, discussed with community, disseminatedideas, etc.Closed some computer labs to offset costs89% of students and 87% of faculty rated it a successBut student performance NOT measurably increasedDUKE UNIVERSITYDuke created the Duke Digital Initiative in order to incorporate the use of emergingtechnologies in the classroom. One initiative project centered on the use of "flip-phones"to foster critical reflection through video. For more on the actual project, see the eLearnMagazine article: How Tiny Camcorders are Changing Education and the blog post on 6Recommendations for Teaching with the Flip Video Camera. Outcomes included:Better quality essaysSome fear of technology was notedUnforeseen tech problems were notedUse of video promoted in-class discussionsStudents felt that video was more evocative than textClassroom may become a public space – pro and conSIMMONS COLLEGEThe Biology Mobile Classroom project was reviewed (see overview PDF).This initiativeinvolves taking laptops out into the filed to allow students to crunch numbers and performonsite analysis and experimentation. Dozens of laptops were issued (via grants).Some outcomes and considerations: Powerful hardware/software was needed Participants definitely felt it took learning to a deeper level Participants felt a strong potential for cross-discipline useConsiderations for the futureSome general considerations for the future of mLearning were discussed:Teaching and learning considerations – students have more insights into thistechnology than many teachers doInstitutional considerations for how to fund, train, socialize104

Technology keeps changing -- stay tuned for "Super WiFi" -- the FCC is selling offnew frequencies that will augment mobile capabilities. Also compatibilitystandards – HTML 5, linux 2.2, Mac/PC, etc.E-waste – old cell phones – proper disposal and recycling (see some impactfulphotos of eWaste)PrivacySession: "Walking Ulysses: Joyce's Dublin Today"Walking Ulysses is a mobile learning project created by Boston College professor JosephNugent (and instructional designer Tim Lindgren co-presented). The goal was to afford a21st century visitor to Dublin the ability to walk around and experience, to the greatestdegree possible, the sights, sounds, smells, etc, of Joyce's 20th century city. They aimed toachieve this via the use of collaborative mapping and mobile technologies. Students arethus participants in a hybrid physical/virtual space and are also active contributors to thesite and hence the shared knowledge it extends.They initially tried using Google Maps to trace characters’ paths but were quicklyoverwhelmed its capabilities. Ultimately the BC instructional technology group provided agrant to Prof. Nugent for $10,000 to hire a developer to build something - but what tobuild? Website + iphone app? Couldn’t afford an Apple application, so went with a webapplication + a ‘mobile skin’. The instructional technology group had no prior experiencein this domain but figured it out as they went. They organized content by chapters(chapter = path), then tagged content by ‘sense’ (sound tag, smell tag, etc). They thengave those items location tags and put them on a map. But they wanted the map to bereflective of the time period and hence needed a Google Map-type interface capable offiltering between people, buildings, events, etc. .The team used the Google Maps API but then also worked with the Drupal open-sourcecontent management system both because they found it to be a powerful webdevelopment platform but also because it offered a lot of the basic functionality theydesired (especially when combined with JavaScript for interactivity). They first focused onwireframing/prototyping and started with the web interface prior to the mobileinterface. Ultimately they considered the ‘user on the street’ use cases – a person lands inDublin and wants to explore city through the lens of the novel -- what features andfunctionality would help them?Session: Mobile Learning at Tufts Medical SchoolSpeakers for this session included Susan Albright, Director of Educational Technologies,Technology for Learning in the Health Sciences (TLHS), Tufts University SciencesKnowledgebase (TUSK), and Mark Bailey, Manager of Support for TUSK.105

TUSK is a "dynamic multimedia knowledge management system" that the Medical, Dental,and Veterinary Schools at Tufts and several other international schools use for knowledgemanagement and info-sharing. This year they rolld out a mobile version for the platform inresponse to a number of factors, including lack of computers in partner schools, preceptorsasking for support in office, students wanting to access content ‘on the go’,etc. Additionally, in the healthcare field internationally, the phone IS thecomputer. Globally there are 400 million computers vs. 4 billion cell phones. Nearly 100%of students at partner schools have phones – only 10% have computers. Besides ubiquity,Tufts believes in the learning potential of mobile devices (they cited research by Naismithregarding mobile technologies and learning).The team encountered some design challenges for the mobile piece, including appropriateuse of the new context for information, the screensize, load time, storage, diverse phoneplatforms, etc. Design considerations included understanding user patterns (done viasurvey), achieving objectives using fewer links per page, allowing more scrolling in favor oflarger text size, simplified pages, and ultimately achieving a "one design MANY platforms"solution. Testing was done using free online phone emulators, and the Opera minibrowser was determined to be the baseline minimum technical requirement. The team iskeeping their eye on the "HTML5 vs. Adobe Flash" issues. Mobile content on the siteincludes slides, flash cards for self-assessments, patient log entry forms, etc.Session: Mobile Learning in Executive Education at Harvard Business SchoolSpeakers for this session included Curtis Hermann, Senior Multimedia Engineer, and KatieMartin, Director of Program Innovation, both from the Educational Technology Group atHarvard Business School.In spring 2009, HBS Executive Education launched a pilot program using iPod Touch mobiledevices. This allowed program participants real-time access to program information andcontent from any on-campus location. The devices were provided to over 160 participantswith funding contingent upon an extensive post-use evaluation. The iTouch was chosedbecause it would allow for a single-platform for content development, it did not contain aphone (no plan required), and it was an attractive vehicle for A/V content. Assessment washandled via pre- and post-program surveys, flash polls, focus groups, individual interviews,and weekly journals. Key takeaways: The device was quickly adopted as critical to daily activities, used on average 47minutes/day by participants. They primarily used the device to check email, and tokeep appraised of the program's schedule and announcements. There is also aprogram directory. Participants preferred the anytime/anywhere nature of the device in contrast todesktop computers provided in their living quarters. Audio versions of certain Harvard Business School case studies were provided onthe devices. Pariticipants found these to be a compltement to, but not a106

eplacement for, hardcopy cases. About 1/3 listened and then read, about 1/3 readand then listened, and about 1/3 read and listened simultaneously. A smallpercentage preferred paper only. Most participants agreed that they were betterprepared for case study discussions when they had audio/video components aspart of the learning.Moving forward the program will not provide the devices for participants but they didwork to produce an iPhone app that participants can download in advance ofattending. This app provices similar access to content and information via their programportal. Resourcing a program of this nature required faculty outreach, contentidentification and creation, device adoption, and training/support. Just loadingparticipants' personal devices with content takes a few days of intense support resourcesand is a limiting factor on their ability to scale the program.107

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