Guideline on Treatment of Patients with Severe and Multiple ... - AWMF
Guideline on Treatment of Patients with Severe and Multiple ... - AWMF
Guideline on Treatment of Patients with Severe and Multiple ... - AWMF
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S3 – <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
<strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
English Versi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the German <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> S3 – Leitlinie Polytrauma/Schwerverletzten-Beh<strong>and</strong>lung<br />
(<strong>AWMF</strong>-Registry No. 012/019)<br />
Publisher: German Trauma Society (DGU) (lead)<br />
Office in Langenbeck-Virchow House<br />
Luisenstr. 58/59<br />
10117 Berlin<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> General <strong>and</strong> Visceral Surgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care Medicine<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Endovascular <strong>and</strong> Vascular Surgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> H<strong>and</strong> Surgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head <strong>and</strong> Neck Surgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Neurosurgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Thoracic Surgery<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Urology<br />
German Radiology Society<br />
Addresses for corresp<strong>on</strong>dence: Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. Klaus Michael Stürmer<br />
Head <strong>of</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Committee at the DGU<br />
Director <strong>of</strong> the Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Plastic <strong>and</strong> Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
University Hospital Göttingen – Georg-August-Universität<br />
Robert-Koch Str. 40<br />
37075 Göttingen<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. Pr<strong>of</strong>. h.c. Edmund Neugebauer<br />
Head <strong>of</strong> the Steering Group for the S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Polytrauma<br />
Chair <strong>of</strong> Surgical Research<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine (IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Overall coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. rer. nat. Pr<strong>of</strong>. h.c. Edmund Neugebauer<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine (IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
Coordinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> secti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Prehospital<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Christian Waydhas<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Emergency room<br />
PD Dr. med. Sven Lendemans<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Emergency surgery phase<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Bertil Bouill<strong>on</strong><br />
Cologne City Hospitals gGmbH<br />
Merheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Sports Injuries<br />
51058 Cologne<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Steffen Ruchholtz<br />
University Hospital Giessen/Marburg<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Baldingerstrasse<br />
35043 Marburg<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Dieter Rixen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery & Orthopedics<br />
BG Trauma Hospital Duisburg<br />
Grossenbaumer Allee 250<br />
47249 Duisburg<br />
- ii -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>, methods advice <strong>and</strong> support<br />
Dr. med. Michaela Eikermann (from 07/2010)<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
Christoph Mosch<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
Ulrike Nienaber<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
PD Dr. med. Stefan Sauerl<strong>and</strong> (until 12/2009)<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
Dr. med. Martin Schenkel<br />
Cologne City Hospitals gGmbH<br />
Merheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Sports Injuries<br />
51058 Cologne<br />
Maren Walgenbach<br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
- iii -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Medical societies <strong>and</strong> their delegates who participated in the c<strong>on</strong>sensus process<br />
Dr. med. Michael Bernhard<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong><br />
Intensive Care Medicine)<br />
Fulda Hospital gAG<br />
Central Accident & Emergency<br />
Pacelliallee 4<br />
36043 Fulda<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Bernd W. Böttiger<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong><br />
Intensive Care Medicine)<br />
University Hospital Cologne<br />
Clinic for Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Operative<br />
Intensive Care<br />
Kerpener Str. 62<br />
50937 Cologne<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Thomas Bürger<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Endovascular <strong>and</strong> Vascular<br />
Surgery)<br />
Kurhessisches Diak<strong>on</strong>issenhaus<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Vascular Surgery<br />
Goethestr. 85<br />
34119 Kassel<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Matthias Fischer<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong><br />
Intensive Care Medicine)<br />
Klinik am Eichert Göppingen<br />
Clinic for Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Operative<br />
Intensive Care, Emergency <strong>Treatment</strong> & Pain<br />
Therapy<br />
Eichertstr. 3<br />
73035 Göppingen<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Dr. med. dent. Ralf Gutwald<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial<br />
Surgery)<br />
University Hospital Freiburg<br />
Clinic for Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery<br />
Hugstetterstr. 55<br />
79106 Freiburg<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Markus Hohenfellner<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Urology)<br />
University Hospital Heidelberg<br />
Urology Clinic<br />
Im Neuenheimer Feld 110<br />
69120 Heidelberg<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Ernst Klar<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> General <strong>and</strong> Visceral<br />
Surgery)<br />
University Hospital Rostock<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> General, Thoracic, Vascular &<br />
Transplantati<strong>on</strong> Surgery<br />
Schillingallee 35<br />
18055 Rostock<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Eckhard Rickels<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Neurosurgery)<br />
Celle General Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Neurotraumatology<br />
Siemensplatz 4<br />
29223 Celle<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Jürgen Schüttler<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong><br />
Intensive Care Medicine)<br />
University Hospital Erlangen<br />
Clinic for Anesthesiology<br />
Krankenhausstr. 12<br />
91054 Erlangen<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Andreas Seekamp<br />
(German Trauma Society)<br />
University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein (Kiel<br />
Campus)<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Arnold-Heller-Str. 7<br />
24105 Kiel<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Klaus Michael Stürmer<br />
(German Trauma Society)<br />
University Hospital Göttingen – Georg-<br />
August University<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Trauma Surgery, Plastic <strong>and</strong> Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Robert-Koch Str. 40<br />
37075 Göttingen<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Lothar Swoboda<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Thoracic Surgery<br />
Eissendorfer Pferdeweg 17a<br />
21075 Hamburg<br />
- iv -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Thomas J. Vogl<br />
(German Radiology Society)<br />
University Hospital Frankfurt<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Diagnostic & Interventi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Radiology<br />
Theodor-Stern-Kai 7<br />
60590 Frankfurt/Main<br />
Dr. med. Frank Waldfahrer<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> Oto-Rhino-Laryngology,<br />
Head <strong>and</strong> Neck Surgery)<br />
University Hospital Erlangen<br />
Oto-Rhino-Laryngology Clinic<br />
Waldstrasse 1<br />
91054 Erlangen<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Margot Wüstner-H<strong>of</strong>mann<br />
(German Society <strong>of</strong> H<strong>and</strong> Surgery)<br />
Klinik Rosengasse GmbH<br />
Rosengasse 19<br />
89073 Ulm/D<strong>on</strong>au<br />
- v -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Authors/co-authors <strong>of</strong> individual chapters<br />
Dr. med. MSc. Ulf Aschenbrenner<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 1.9, 2.15<br />
PD Dr. med. Hermann Bail<br />
South Nuremberg Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma & Orthopedic Surgery<br />
Breslauer Str. 201<br />
90471 Nuremberg<br />
Ch. 1.4, 1.7, 2.5<br />
Dr. med. Marc Banerjee<br />
Cologne City Hospitals gGmbH<br />
Merheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Sports Injuries<br />
51058 Cologne<br />
Ch. 3.10<br />
Dr. med. Mark Bardenheuer<br />
L<strong>and</strong>shut Hospital gGmbH<br />
Clinic for Orthopedics & Trauma Surgery<br />
Robert-Koch Str. 1<br />
84034 L<strong>and</strong>shut<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Dr. med. Christoph Bartl<br />
University Hospital Ulm<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong>, Plastic &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Steinhövelstr. 9<br />
89070 Ulm<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
Dr. med. Michael Bayeff-Fill<strong>of</strong>f<br />
Rosenheim Hospital<br />
Central Accident & Emergency<br />
Pettenk<strong>of</strong>erstr. 10<br />
83022 Rosenheim<br />
Ch. 1.4, 1.6, 2.10, 3.8<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Alex<strong>and</strong>er Beck<br />
Juliusspital Würzburg<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Orthopedics, Trauma &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Juliuspromenade 19<br />
97070 Würzburg<br />
Ch. 1.4, 1.6, 1.10<br />
Dr. med. Michael Bernhard<br />
Fulda Hospital gAG<br />
Central Accident & Emergency<br />
Pacelliallee 4<br />
36043 Fulda<br />
Ch. 1.2, 2.15, 2.16<br />
PD Dr. med. Achim Biewener<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic for Trauma & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 1.4, 1.9<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Jochen Blum<br />
Worms Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Gabriel-v<strong>on</strong>-Seidl-Strasse 81<br />
67550 Worms<br />
Ch. 3.8<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Bernd W. Böttiger<br />
University Hospital Cologne<br />
Clinic for Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Operative<br />
Intensive Care<br />
Kerpener Str. 62<br />
50937 Cologne<br />
Ch. 1.2, 2.15, 2.16<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Bertil Bouill<strong>on</strong><br />
Cologne City Hospitals gGmbH<br />
Merheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Sports Injuries<br />
51058 Cologne<br />
Ch. 1.4, 3.10<br />
- vi -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Dr. med. Jörg Braun<br />
DRF Stiftung Luftrettung gemeinnützige AG,<br />
Medical Divisi<strong>on</strong><br />
Rita-Maiburg-Str. 2<br />
70794 Filderstadt<br />
Ch. 1.9<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Volker Bühren<br />
BG Trauma Hospital Murnau<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Trauma Surgery & Sports<br />
Orthopedics<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Küntscher-Str. 8<br />
82418 Murnau am Staffelsee<br />
Ch. 2.9, 3.7<br />
Dr. med. Markus Burkhardt<br />
University Hospital <strong>of</strong> the Sauerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Kirrberger Strasse 100<br />
66424 Homburg/Saar<br />
Ch. 2.7<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Klaus Dresing<br />
University Hospital Göttingen – Georg-<br />
August University<br />
Clinic for Trauma, Plastic & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Robert-Koch Str. 40<br />
37075 Göttingen<br />
Ch. 2.2<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Axel Ekkernkamp<br />
Trauma Hospital Berlin<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery & Orthopedics<br />
Warener Str. 7<br />
12683 Berlin<br />
Ch. 3.3, 3.4<br />
Christian Fiebig<br />
University Hospital Frankfurt<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Diagnostic & Interventi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Radiology<br />
Theodor-Stern-Kai 7<br />
60590 Frankfurt/Main<br />
Ch. 2.17<br />
Dr. med. Marc Fischbacher<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Ch. 1.2, 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Markus Fischer<br />
ATOS Clinic Practice<br />
Bismarckstr. 9-15<br />
69115 Heidelberg<br />
Ch. 2.14<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Matthias Fischer<br />
Klinik am Eichert Göppingen<br />
Clinic for Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Operative<br />
Intensive Care, Emergency <strong>Treatment</strong> & Pain<br />
Therapy<br />
Eichertstr. 3<br />
73035 Göppingen<br />
Ch. 1.2, 2.15<br />
Dr. med. Mark D. Frank<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinical for Anesthesiology & Intensive<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong><br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 1.9<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Florian Gebhard<br />
University Hospital Ulm<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong>, Plastic &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Steinhövelstr. 9<br />
89070 Ulm<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Dr. med. dent. Ralf Gutwald<br />
University Hospital Freiburg<br />
Clinic for Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery<br />
Hugstetterstr. 55<br />
79106 Freiburg<br />
Ch. 2.13, 3.12<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Norbert P. Haas<br />
Charité – Campus Virchow Clinic<br />
Clinic for Trauma & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Augustenburger Platz 1<br />
13353 Berlin<br />
Ch. 2.5<br />
Dr. med. Sebastian Hentsch<br />
German Federal Military Hospital Koblenz<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Trauma & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Rübenacher Str. 170<br />
56072 Koblenz<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
- vii -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Karl Hörmann<br />
University Hospital Mannheim<br />
Oto-Rhino-Laryngology Clinic<br />
Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3<br />
68167 Mannheim<br />
Ch. 2.14, 3.13<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Markus Hohenfellner<br />
University Hospital Heidelberg<br />
Urology Clinic<br />
Im Neuenheimer Feld 110<br />
69120 Heidelberg<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
PD Dr. med. Dr. med. dent. Bettina<br />
Hohlweg-Majert<br />
University Hospital Freiburg<br />
Clinic for Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery<br />
Hugstetterstr. 55<br />
79106 Freiburg<br />
Ch. 2.13, 3.12<br />
Dr. med. Ewald Hüls<br />
Celle General Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Neurotraumatology<br />
Siemensplatz 4<br />
29223 Celle<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Dr. med. Björn Hußmann<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Ch. 2.10<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Christoph Josten<br />
University Hospital Leipzig<br />
Clinic & Outpatient Clinic for Trauma &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Liebigstr. 20<br />
04103 Leipzig<br />
Ch. 2.15<br />
PD Dr. med. Karl-Georg Kanz<br />
Munich University Hospital<br />
Surgery Clinic & Outpatient Clinic<br />
Nussbaumstr. 20<br />
80336 Munich<br />
Ch. 1.2, 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Lothar Kinzl<br />
University Hospital Ulm<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong>, Plastic &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Steinhövelstr. 9<br />
89070 Ulm<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
Dr. med. Christian Kleber<br />
Charité – Campus Virchow Clinic<br />
Clinic for Trauma & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Augustenburger Platz 1<br />
13353 Berlin<br />
Ch. 1.7<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Markus W. Knöferl<br />
University Hospital Ulm<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong>, Plastic &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Steinhövelstr. 9<br />
89070 Ulm<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
PD Dr. med. Christian A. Kühne<br />
University Hospital Giessen/Marburg<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Baldingerstrasse<br />
35043 Marburg<br />
Ch. 2.2, 2.3<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Christian K. Lackner<br />
Munich University Hospital<br />
Institute for Emergency Medicine &<br />
Medicine Management<br />
Schillerstr. 53<br />
80336 Munich<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
PD Dr. med. Sven Lendemans<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Ch. 2.1, 2.10<br />
Dr. med. Dr. med. dent. Niels Liebehenschel<br />
University Hospital Freiburg<br />
Clinic for Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery<br />
Hugstetterstr. 55<br />
79106 Freiburg<br />
Ch. 2.13, 3.12<br />
- viii -
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
PD Dr. med. Ulrich C. Liener<br />
Marienhospital Stuttgart<br />
Clinic for Orthopedics & Trauma Surgery<br />
Böheimstr. 37<br />
70199 Stuttgart<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
Dr. med. Heiko Lier<br />
University Hospital Cologne<br />
Clinic for Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Operative<br />
Intensive Care<br />
Kerpener Str. 62<br />
50937 Cologne<br />
Ch. 2.16<br />
Dr. med. Tobias Lindner<br />
Charité – Campus Virchow Clinic<br />
Clinic for Trauma & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Augustenburger Platz 1<br />
13353 Berlin<br />
Ch. 1.7, 2.5<br />
Thomas H. Lynch<br />
St. James’s Hospital<br />
Trinity College<br />
James’s Street<br />
Dublin 8 (Irel<strong>and</strong>)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Martin G. Mack<br />
University Hospital Frankfurt<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Diagnostic & Interventi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Radiology<br />
Theodor-Stern-Kai 7<br />
60590 Frankfurt/Main<br />
Ch. 2.17<br />
Dipl.-Med. Ivan Marintschev<br />
University Hospital Jena<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Erlanger Allee 101<br />
07747 Jena<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
PD Dr. med. Gerrit Matthes<br />
Trauma Hospital Berlin<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery & Orthopedics<br />
Warener Str. 7<br />
12683 Berlin<br />
Ch. 1.2, 1.4, 3.3, 3.4<br />
Dr. med. Hubert Mayer<br />
Surgical Group Practice am Vincentinum<br />
Franziskanergasse 14<br />
86152 Augsburg<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Dr. med. Yoram Mor<br />
Dept. <strong>of</strong> Urology<br />
The Chaim Sheba Medical Center<br />
Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, 52621 (Israel)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Udo Obertacke<br />
University Hospital Mannheim<br />
Orthopedics Trauma Surgery Center<br />
Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3<br />
68167 Mannheim<br />
Ch. 2.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Hans-Jörg Oestern<br />
Celle General Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Neurotraumatology<br />
Siemensplatz 4<br />
29223 Celle<br />
Ch. 3.10<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Jesco Pfitzenmaier<br />
Protestant Hospital Bielefeld<br />
Clinic for Urology<br />
Schildescher Strasse 99<br />
33611 Bielefeld<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Luis Martínez-Piñeiro<br />
University Hospital La Paz<br />
Paseo de la Castellana, 261<br />
28046 Madrid (Spain)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Eugen Plas<br />
City Hospital Lainz<br />
Wolkersbergenstrasse 1<br />
1130 Vienna (Austria)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Tim Pohlemann<br />
University Hospital <strong>of</strong> the Sauerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Kirrberger Strasse 100<br />
66424 Homburg/Saar<br />
Ch. 2.7<br />
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PD Dr. med. Stefan Rammelt<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic & Outpatient Clinic for Trauma &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 2.12, 3.11<br />
Dr. med. Marcus Raum<br />
Helios Clinic Siegburg<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Orthopedics & Traumatology<br />
Ringstr. 49<br />
53721 Siegburg<br />
Ch. 1.3, 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Gerd Regel<br />
Rosenheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Pettenk<strong>of</strong>erstr. 10<br />
83022 Rosenheim<br />
Ch. 2.10<br />
Dr. med. Alex<strong>and</strong>er Reske<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic & Outpatient Clinic for<br />
Anesthesiology & Intensive <strong>Treatment</strong><br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 2.15<br />
Dr. med. Andreas Reske<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic & Outpatient Clinic for<br />
Anesthesiology & Intensive <strong>Treatment</strong><br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 2.15<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Eckhard Rickels<br />
Celle General Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Neurotraumatology<br />
Siemensplatz 4<br />
29223 Celle<br />
Ch. 1.5, 2.6, 3.5<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Dieter Rixen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery & Orthopedics<br />
BG Trauma Hospital Duisburg<br />
Grossenbaumer Allee 250<br />
47249 Duisburg<br />
Ch. 3.1, 3.10<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Steffen Ruchholtz<br />
University Hospital Giessen/Marburg<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Baldingerstrasse<br />
35043 Marburg<br />
Ch. 2.2<br />
Richard A. Santucci<br />
Detroit Receiving Hospital<br />
Wayne State University School <strong>of</strong> Medicine<br />
Detroit, Michigan (USA)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
PD Dr. med. Stefan Sauerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM)<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Witten, Herdecke<br />
Ostmerheimerstr. 200<br />
51109 Cologne<br />
Ch. 1.4, 1.8, 2.8, 2.15, 3.6, 3.10<br />
Dr. med. Ulrich Schächinger<br />
University Hospital Regensburg<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Trauma Surgery<br />
Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11<br />
93053 Regensburg<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Michael Schädel-Höpfner<br />
University Hospital Dusseldorf<br />
Clinic for Trauma & H<strong>and</strong> Surgery<br />
Moorenstrasse 5<br />
40225 Düsseldorf<br />
Ch. 2.11, 3.9<br />
Dr. med. Bodo Schiffmann<br />
Muthstrasse 22<br />
74889 Sinsheim<br />
Ch. 2.14, 3.13<br />
Mechthild Schiffmann<br />
St.Maria Hospital Frankfurt<br />
Richard-Wagner-Str. 14<br />
60318 Frankfurt/Main<br />
Ch. 2.14, 3.13<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Thomas Schildhauer<br />
BG Trauma Hospital Bergmannsheil<br />
Surgical University Hospital <strong>and</strong> Outpatient<br />
Clinic<br />
Bürkle-de-la-Camp-Platz 1<br />
44789 Bochum<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Dr. med. dent. Rainer<br />
Schmelzeisen<br />
University Hospital Freiburg<br />
Clinic for Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery<br />
Hugstetterstr. 55<br />
79106 Freiburg<br />
Ch. 2.13, 3.12<br />
Dr. med. Dierk Schreiter<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic for Visceral, Thoracic <strong>and</strong> Vascular<br />
Surgery<br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 1.9, 2.15<br />
PD Dr. med. Karsten Schwerdtfeger<br />
University Hospital <strong>of</strong> the Sauerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Clinic for Neurosurgery<br />
Kirrbergerstrasse<br />
66421 Homburg/Saar<br />
Ch. 1.5, 2.6, 3.5<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Andreas Seekamp<br />
University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein (Kiel<br />
Campus)<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Arnold-Heller-Str. 7<br />
24105 Kiel<br />
Ch. 1.4, 2.7<br />
PD. Dr. med. Julia Seifert<br />
Trauma Hospital Berlin<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery & Orthopedics<br />
Warener Str. 7<br />
12683 Berlin<br />
Ch. 3.3, 3.4<br />
Dr. med. Daniel Seitz<br />
University Hospital Ulm<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong>, Plastic &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Steinhövelstr. 9<br />
89070 Ulm<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
Efraim Serafetinides<br />
417 NIMTS<br />
Athens (Greece)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Hartmut Siebert<br />
Diak<strong>on</strong>ie Hospital Schwäbisch-Hall<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Surgery II<br />
Diak<strong>on</strong>iestr. 10<br />
74523 Schwäbisch-Hall<br />
Ch. 2.11, 3.9<br />
PD Dr. med. Christian Simanski<br />
Cologne City Hospitals gGmbH<br />
Merheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Sports Injuries<br />
51058 Cologne<br />
Ch. 3.10<br />
PD Dr. med. Dirk Stengel<br />
Trauma Hospital Berlin<br />
Center for Clinical Research<br />
Warener Str. 7<br />
12683 Berlin<br />
Ch. 3.3, 3.4<br />
Dr. med. Erwin Stolpe<br />
Gartenseeweg 8<br />
82402 Seeshaupt<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Johannes Sturm<br />
Schlüterstr. 32<br />
48149 Münster<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Klaus Michael Stürmer<br />
University Hospital Göttingen – Georg-<br />
August University<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Trauma Surgery, Plastic <strong>and</strong><br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Robert-Koch Str. 40<br />
37075 Göttingen<br />
Ch. 2.2<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Lothar Swoboda<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Thoracic Surgery<br />
Eisendorfer Pferdeweg 17a<br />
21075 Hamburg<br />
Ch. 3.2<br />
PD Dr. med. Georg Täger<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Ch. 2.10<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Dr. med. Thorsten Tjardes<br />
Cologne City Hospitals gGmbH<br />
Merheim Hospital<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery, Orthopedics &<br />
Sports Injuries<br />
51058 Cologne<br />
Ch. 3.10<br />
Levent Türkeri<br />
Marmara University School <strong>of</strong> Medicine<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Urology<br />
34688 Haydarpaşa – Istanbul (Turkey)<br />
Ch. 1.8, 2.8, 3.6<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Gregor Voggenreiter<br />
Kösching Clinic<br />
Orthopedic Traumatological Center, Hospital<br />
im Naturpark Altmühltal<br />
Ostenstr. 31<br />
85072 Eichstätt<br />
Ch. 2.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Thomas J. Vogl<br />
University Hospital Frankfurt<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Diagnostic & Interventi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Radiology<br />
Theodor-Stern-Kai 7<br />
60590 Frankfurt/Main<br />
Ch. 2.17<br />
PD Dr. med. Felix Walcher<br />
University Hospital Frankfurt<br />
Clinic for Trauma, H<strong>and</strong> & Rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
Surgery<br />
Theodor-Stern-Kai 7<br />
60590 Frankfurt<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Dr. med. Frank Waldfahrer<br />
University Hospital Erlangen<br />
Oto-Rhino-Laryngology Clinic, Head &<br />
Neck Surgery<br />
Waldstrasse 1<br />
91054 Erlangen<br />
Ch. 2.14, 3.13<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Christian Waydhas<br />
University Hospital Essen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery<br />
Hufel<strong>and</strong>str. 55<br />
45147 Essen<br />
Ch. 1.1, 1.2, 1.4<br />
Dr. med. Michael Weinlich<br />
Medc<strong>on</strong>team GmbH<br />
Gerhard-Kindler-Str. 6<br />
72770 Reutlingen<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Dr. med. Christoph Georg Wölfl<br />
BG Trauma Hospital Ludwigshafen<br />
Clinic for Trauma Surgery & Orthopedics<br />
Ludwig-Guttmann-Str. 13<br />
67071 Ludwigshafen<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Alex<strong>and</strong>er Woltmann<br />
BG Trauma Hospital Murnau<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Trauma Surgery<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Küntscher-Str. 8<br />
82418 Murnau am Staffelsee<br />
Ch. 2.9, 3.7<br />
Dr. med. Nedim Yücel<br />
Practice for Orthopedics & Trauma Surgery<br />
Dülmener Str. 60<br />
48653 Coesfeld<br />
Ch. 3.10<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Gerald Zimmermann<br />
Theresienkrankenhaus Mannheim<br />
Trauma Surgery<br />
Bassermannstr. 1<br />
68165 Mannheim<br />
Ch. 1.4<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. med. Hans Zwipp<br />
University Hospital Dresden<br />
Clinic & Outpatient Clinic for Trauma &<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive Surgery<br />
Fetscherstr. 74<br />
01307 Dresden<br />
Ch. 1.9, 2.12, 3.11<br />
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C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tents...................................................................................................................................xii<br />
List <strong>of</strong> tables........................................................................................................................... xiv<br />
List <strong>of</strong> figures .......................................................................................................................... xv<br />
List <strong>of</strong> abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s.............................................................................................................. xvi<br />
A Rati<strong>on</strong>ale und goals .......................................................................................................... 1<br />
A.1 Publisher/experts/medical associati<strong>on</strong>s/authors............................................ 4<br />
A.2 Target user group............................................................................................. 6<br />
B Methods............................................................................................................................. 7<br />
B.1 Literature search <strong>and</strong> selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> evidence................................................... 7<br />
B.2 Formulating the recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> finding c<strong>on</strong>sensus............................ 9<br />
B.3 Distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong>.................................................................. 10<br />
B.4 Quality indicators <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong>................................................................. 10<br />
B.5 Validity <strong>and</strong> updating <strong>of</strong> guideline ............................................................... 11<br />
B.6 Funding <strong>of</strong> the guideline <strong>and</strong> disclosure <strong>of</strong> potential c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>of</strong> interests11<br />
1 Prehospital ...................................................................................................................... 14<br />
1.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong> .................................................................................................... 14<br />
1.2 Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia..................... 17<br />
1.3 Volume replacement ...................................................................................... 40<br />
1.4 Thorax ............................................................................................................. 51<br />
1.5 Traumatic brain injury.................................................................................. 86<br />
1.6 Spine ................................................................................................................ 93<br />
1.7 Extremities .................................................................................................... 104<br />
1.8 Genitourinary tract ...................................................................................... 114<br />
1.9 Transport <strong>and</strong> designated hospital ............................................................. 116<br />
1.10 Mass casualty incident (MCI) ..................................................................... 122<br />
2 Emergency room .......................................................................................................... 131<br />
2.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong> .................................................................................................. 131<br />
2.2 The emergency room - pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources.................... 135<br />
2.3 Criteria for emergency room activati<strong>on</strong>..................................................... 144<br />
2.4 Thorax ........................................................................................................... 152<br />
2.5 Abdomen ....................................................................................................... 176<br />
2.6 Traumatic brain injury................................................................................ 189<br />
2.7 Pelvis.............................................................................................................. 197<br />
2.8 Genitourinary tract ...................................................................................... 211<br />
Page<br />
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2.9 Spine .............................................................................................................. 226<br />
2.10 Extremities .................................................................................................... 240<br />
2.11 H<strong>and</strong> .............................................................................................................. 248<br />
2.12 Foot ................................................................................................................ 251<br />
2.13 M<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface ................................................................................. 253<br />
2.14 Neck ............................................................................................................... 256<br />
2.15 Resuscitati<strong>on</strong>................................................................................................. 260<br />
2.16 Coagulati<strong>on</strong> system ...................................................................................... 269<br />
2.17 Interventi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding .............................................................. 291<br />
3 Emergency surgery phase............................................................................................ 297<br />
3.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong> .................................................................................................. 297<br />
3.2 Thorax ........................................................................................................... 300<br />
3.3 Diaphragm .................................................................................................... 309<br />
3.4 Abdomen ....................................................................................................... 311<br />
3.5 Traumatic brain injury................................................................................ 336<br />
3.6 Genitourinary tract ...................................................................................... 341<br />
3.7 Spine .............................................................................................................. 354<br />
3.8 Upper extremity............................................................................................ 363<br />
3.9 H<strong>and</strong> .............................................................................................................. 368<br />
3.10 Lower extremity ........................................................................................... 382<br />
3.11 Foot ................................................................................................................ 402<br />
3.12 M<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface ................................................................................. 412<br />
3.13 Neck ............................................................................................................... 418<br />
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List <strong>of</strong> tables<br />
Table 1: <strong>AWMF</strong> table <strong>of</strong> levels for guideline development [4]......................................................1<br />
Table 2: CEBM evidence classificati<strong>on</strong> [9] ....................................................................................8<br />
Table 3: Prehospital volume replacement - mortality ...................................................................41<br />
Table 4: Diagnostic valency <strong>of</strong> a pathologic auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding <strong>with</strong> regard to a<br />
hemo/pneumothorax ................................................................................................54<br />
Table 5: Diagnostic valency <strong>of</strong> dyspnea <strong>and</strong> tachypnea <strong>with</strong> regard to hemo/pneumothorax......54<br />
Table 6: Diagnostic valency <strong>of</strong> thoracic pain <strong>with</strong> regard to hemo/pneumothorax ......................55<br />
Table 7: Statistical probabilities for the presence <strong>of</strong> a clinically relevant hemopneumothorax in<br />
various combinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> findings after blunt chest injury (basic assumpti<strong>on</strong>: 10%<br />
prevalence as pretest probability <strong>and</strong> independence <strong>of</strong> test) ...................................55<br />
Table 8: Incidence <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax in the presence <strong>of</strong> chest injury............................................56<br />
Table 9: Complicati<strong>on</strong> rates for pleural drains inserted in the prehospital versus in-hospital phase<br />
.................................................................................................................................64<br />
Table 10: Complicati<strong>on</strong>s when inserting a pleural drain...............................................................83<br />
Table 11: Compositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> specialist grade physicians in the enlarged emergency<br />
room team in relati<strong>on</strong> to the care level ..................................................................141<br />
Table 12: Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) [8]:...........................................................................260<br />
Table 13: Drug opti<strong>on</strong>s for coagulati<strong>on</strong> therapy .........................................................................285<br />
Table 14: Midline laparotomy versus transverse upper abdominal laparotomy in abdominal<br />
trauma ....................................................................................................................312<br />
Table 15: Damage C<strong>on</strong>trol versus definitive management .........................................................314<br />
Table 16: Methods for abdominal wall closure...........................................................................316<br />
Table 17: Sec<strong>on</strong>d look after packing...........................................................................................318<br />
Table 18: Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong>......................................................................................................321<br />
Table 19: Angiography................................................................................................................322<br />
Table 20: Interventi<strong>on</strong>s after blunt splenic injuries.....................................................................323<br />
Table 21: Interventi<strong>on</strong>s after blunt or penetrating splenic injuries .............................................326<br />
Table 22: Primary anastomosis versus ileostomy after penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injury .......................329<br />
Table 23: H<strong>and</strong> suture versus stapler after penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injury...........................................330<br />
Table 24: H<strong>and</strong> suture versus stapler after penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injury...........................................331<br />
Table 25: Grading classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> renal trauma according to the American Associati<strong>on</strong> for the<br />
Surgery <strong>of</strong> Trauma (AAST) [117].........................................................................342<br />
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List <strong>of</strong> figures<br />
Figure 1: Operati<strong>on</strong>al algorithm for mass casualty incident (MCI) [7] ......................................125<br />
Figure 2: Triage <strong>of</strong> injured pers<strong>on</strong>s at mass casualty incident [7] ..............................................127<br />
Figure 3: <strong>Treatment</strong> algorithm for complex pelvic trauma [49] .................................................206<br />
Figure 4: CPR algorithm according to the ERC <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s [36]................................................264<br />
Figure 5: Algorithm <strong>on</strong> the diagnostic <strong>and</strong> therapeutic procedure for suspected renal injuries..347<br />
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List <strong>of</strong> abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A. Artery<br />
a. p. Anteroposterior<br />
AAST American Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong> Trauma<br />
ABC Assessment <strong>of</strong> blood c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
ABCD Airway/Breathing/Circulati<strong>on</strong>/Disability<br />
ACS Abdominal compartment syndrome<br />
ACS COT American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Committee <strong>on</strong> Trauma<br />
ACTH Adrenocorticotropic horm<strong>on</strong>e<br />
AIS Abbreviated Injury Scale<br />
AJ Ankle joint<br />
ALI Acute lung injury<br />
ALS Advanced Life Support<br />
APC Apheresis platelet c<strong>on</strong>centrate<br />
aPTT Activated partial thromboplastin time<br />
ArbStättV Workplace Regulati<strong>on</strong><br />
ARDS Acute respiratory distress syndrome<br />
ASIA-IMSOP American Spinal Injury Associati<strong>on</strong> – Internati<strong>on</strong>al Medical Society<br />
<strong>of</strong> Paraplegia<br />
ASR Workplace Directive<br />
ASS Acetyl salicylic acid<br />
AT Antithrombin<br />
ATLS ® Advanced Trauma Life Support<br />
AUC Area under the curve<br />
<strong>AWMF</strong> Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Scientific Medical Societies in Germany<br />
ÄZQ Medical Center for Quality in Medicine<br />
BÄK German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong><br />
BE Base excess, base deviati<strong>on</strong><br />
BG Berufsgenossenschaftliches [Statutory Accident Insurance Company]<br />
BGA Blood gas analysis<br />
BLS Basic Life Support<br />
BP Blood pressure<br />
BS Body surface<br />
BW Body weight<br />
C 1-7 Cervical spine<br />
CA C<strong>on</strong>trast agent<br />
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Ca ++ Calcium<br />
CCT Cranial computed tomography/tomogram<br />
CEBM Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine<br />
CI C<strong>on</strong>fidence interval<br />
CK-MB Creatine kinase MB<br />
COPD Chr<strong>on</strong>ic obstructive pulm<strong>on</strong>ary disease<br />
CPAP C<strong>on</strong>tinuous positive airway pressure<br />
CPP Cerebral perfusi<strong>on</strong> pressure<br />
CPR Cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong><br />
CRASH Clinical R<strong>and</strong>omizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Antifibrinolytics in Significant<br />
Hemorrhage<br />
CS Cervical spine<br />
CST Cosyntropine stimulati<strong>on</strong> test<br />
CT Computed tomography/tomogram<br />
CTA CT angiography<br />
DC Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
DDAVP Desmopressin<br />
DGAI German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care Medicine<br />
DGNC German Society <strong>of</strong> Neurosurgery<br />
DGU German Trauma Society<br />
DIC Disseminated intravasal coagulopathy<br />
DIVI German Interdisciplinary Associati<strong>on</strong> for Intensive <strong>and</strong> Emergency<br />
Care<br />
DL Definitive laparotomy<br />
DO2I Oxygen delivery index<br />
DPL Diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage<br />
DSA Digital subtracti<strong>on</strong> angiography<br />
DSTC Definitive surgical trauma care<br />
EAES European Associati<strong>on</strong> for Endoscopic Surgery<br />
EAST Eastern Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong> Trauma<br />
ECG Electrocardiogram<br />
EL<br />
EMS<br />
Evidence level<br />
Emergency medical systems<br />
EMT Emergency Medical Technician<br />
ENT Otorhinolaryngology therapy<br />
ER Emergency room<br />
ERC European Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> Council<br />
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ERG Electroretinogram<br />
ETC European Trauma Course<br />
FÄ/FA Specialist physician<br />
FAST Focused assessment <strong>with</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography for trauma<br />
FFP Fresh frozen plasma<br />
FR French (equals 1 Charrière [CH] <strong>and</strong> thus ⅓ mm)<br />
GCS Glasgow Coma Scale/Score<br />
GoR Grade <strong>of</strong> Recommendati<strong>on</strong><br />
GOS Glasgow Outcome Scale<br />
h Hour<br />
Hb Hemoglobin<br />
HES Hydroxy ethyl starch<br />
HFS Hannover fracture scale<br />
ICP Intracranial pressure<br />
ICU Intensive care unit<br />
IFOM Institute for Research in Operative Medicine (IFOM)<br />
INR Internati<strong>on</strong>al Normalized Ratio (subsequent st<strong>and</strong>ardizati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
Quick value)<br />
INSECT Interrupted or C<strong>on</strong>tinuous Slowly Absorbable Sutures – Evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong><br />
Abdominal Closure Techniques<br />
ISS Injury severity score<br />
ICU Intensive care unit<br />
IU Internati<strong>on</strong>al unit<br />
IVP Intravenous pyelography<br />
L 1-5 Lumbar spine<br />
LÄK German regi<strong>on</strong>al medical associati<strong>on</strong><br />
LEAP Lower Extremity Assessment Project<br />
LISS Less invasive stabilizati<strong>on</strong> system<br />
LoE Level <strong>of</strong> Evidence<br />
LS Lumbar spine<br />
LSI Limb Salvage Index<br />
MAL Mean axillary line<br />
MCI Mass casualty incident<br />
MCL Medioclavicular line<br />
MESS Mangled Extremity Severity Score<br />
MILS Manual in-line stabilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
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MPH Miles per hour<br />
mrem Millirem (equals 0.01 millisievert)<br />
MRI Magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging<br />
MRT Medical radiologic technologist<br />
MSCT Multi-slice helical computed tomography<br />
NaCl Sodium chloride<br />
NASCIS Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study<br />
NASS CDS Nati<strong>on</strong>al Automotive Sampling System Crashworthiness Data<br />
System<br />
NEF Emergency physician vehicle<br />
NISSSA Nerve injury, Ischemia, S<strong>of</strong>t-tissue injury, Skeletal injury, Shock <strong>and</strong><br />
Age <strong>of</strong> patient<br />
NS<br />
n. s.<br />
Paranasal sinuses<br />
Not significant<br />
OMS Oral <strong>and</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial surgery<br />
OP Operati<strong>on</strong>/surgery<br />
OPSI Overwhelming Postsplenectomy Syndrome<br />
OR Odds ratio<br />
pAOD Peripheral arterial occlusive disease<br />
PASG Pneumatic anti-shock garment<br />
PC Platelet c<strong>on</strong>centrate<br />
PCC Prothrombin complex c<strong>on</strong>centrate<br />
PHTLS ® Prehospital Trauma Life Support<br />
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate<br />
POVATI Postsurgical Pain Outcome <strong>of</strong> Vertical <strong>and</strong> Transverse Abdominal<br />
Incisi<strong>on</strong><br />
PPV Positive predictive value<br />
PRBC Packed red blood cells<br />
PSI Predictive Salvage Index<br />
PTFE Polytetrafluorethylene<br />
PTS Polytrauma Score<br />
PTT Partial thromboplastin time<br />
QM Quality management<br />
RCT R<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial<br />
RISC Revised Injury Severity Classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
ROSC Return <strong>of</strong> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous circulati<strong>on</strong><br />
ROTEM Rotati<strong>on</strong>al thromboelastometry<br />
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RöV German X-ray Ordinance<br />
RR Relative risk<br />
RSI Rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong><br />
RTA Road traffic accident<br />
RTH Rescue helicopter<br />
RTS Revised trauma score<br />
RTW Ambulance<br />
RX X-ray<br />
S Spine<br />
SAGES Society <strong>of</strong> American Gastrointestinal <strong>and</strong> Endoscopic Surge<strong>on</strong>s<br />
SBP Systolic blood pressure<br />
SCIWORA Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality<br />
SIRS Systemic inflammatory resp<strong>on</strong>se syndrome<br />
START Simple Triage And Rapid <strong>Treatment</strong><br />
T 1-12 Thoracic vertebrae<br />
TARN Trauma audit <strong>and</strong> research network<br />
TASH-Score Trauma Associated <strong>Severe</strong> Hemorrhage Score<br />
TBI Traumatic brain injury<br />
TEE Transthoracic/transesophageal echocardiography<br />
TEG Thromboelastography<br />
TIC Trauma-induced coagulopathy<br />
tPA Tissue-specific plasminogen activator<br />
Trali Transfusi<strong>on</strong>-associated acute lung failure<br />
TRGS Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances<br />
TRIS Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane<br />
TRIS Trauma Injury Severity Score Method<br />
TS Thoracic spine<br />
TTAC Trauma Team Activati<strong>on</strong> Criteria<br />
i. v. Intravenous<br />
VEP Visually evoked potential<br />
WMD Weighted mean difference<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
A Rati<strong>on</strong>ale und goals<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
Medical guidelines are systematically developed decisi<strong>on</strong> aids for service providers <strong>and</strong> patients<br />
<strong>on</strong> the appropriate method applicable in specific health problems [1]. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s are important<br />
tools for providing a rati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> transparent basis for decisi<strong>on</strong>s in medical care [2]. Through<br />
imparting knowledge, they are intended to c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards improving care [3].<br />
The process <strong>of</strong> developing guidelines must be systematic, independent <strong>and</strong> transparent [2].<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> development for Level 3 guidelines follows the criteria according to the <strong>AWMF</strong>/ÄZQ<br />
[German Medical Center for Quality in Medicine] specificati<strong>on</strong>s including all elements <strong>of</strong><br />
systematic development [4].<br />
Table 1: <strong>AWMF</strong> table <strong>of</strong> levels for guideline development [4].<br />
Level 1 Experts group:<br />
A representatively formed group <strong>of</strong> experts from the Scientific Medical Society<br />
draws up a guideline in informal c<strong>on</strong>sensus, which is approved by the board <strong>of</strong><br />
the society.<br />
Level 2 Formal evidence research or formal c<strong>on</strong>sensus finding:<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s are developed from formally assessed statements in scientific<br />
literature or discussed <strong>and</strong> approved in <strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the proven formal c<strong>on</strong>sensus<br />
processes. Formal c<strong>on</strong>sensus processes c<strong>on</strong>sist <strong>of</strong> the nominal group process, the<br />
Delphi method <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ference.<br />
Level 3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> including all elements <strong>of</strong> systematic development:<br />
Formal c<strong>on</strong>sensus finding, systematic literature search <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>and</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s according to the criteria <strong>of</strong><br />
evidence-based medicine, clinical algorithms, outcome analysis, decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
analysis.<br />
The present guideline is a Level 3 guideline.<br />
Starting positi<strong>on</strong><br />
Accidents are the most comm<strong>on</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> death in children <strong>and</strong> young adults [5]. In 2007, 8.22<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> people were injured in accidents <strong>and</strong> 18,527 people suffered a fatal accident according to<br />
statistics from the German Federal Institute for Occupati<strong>on</strong>al Safety <strong>and</strong> Health (Bundesanstalt<br />
für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin) [6]. The management <strong>of</strong> a severely injured pers<strong>on</strong> is<br />
typically an interdisciplinary task. It presents a major challenge to those involved in the<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> care because <strong>of</strong> the sudden occurrence <strong>of</strong> the accident situati<strong>on</strong>, the unpredictability<br />
<strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> injured pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the heterogeneity <strong>of</strong> the patient populati<strong>on</strong> [7].<br />
An S1 guideline was issued by the German Society <strong>of</strong> Trauma Surgery in 2002 <strong>on</strong> the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> severe injuries. However, there is no upto-date,<br />
general, comprehensive, evidence-based guideline. This was the rati<strong>on</strong>ale for drawing up<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
an interdisciplinary guideline for the management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong><br />
severe injuries.<br />
Requirements <strong>of</strong> the guideline<br />
The guideline must meet the following fundamental requirements:<br />
� <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for the treatment <strong>of</strong> polytrauma <strong>and</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> severe injuries are aids in<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-making in specific situati<strong>on</strong>s, based <strong>on</strong> the current state <strong>of</strong> scientific knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> procedures proven in practice.<br />
� Due to its complexity, there is no single ideal c<strong>on</strong>cept for the treatment <strong>of</strong> polytrauma <strong>and</strong><br />
patients <strong>with</strong> severe injuries.<br />
� <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s need to be c<strong>on</strong>stantly m<strong>on</strong>itored <strong>and</strong> adapted to the current state <strong>of</strong> knowledge.<br />
� Using the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s in this guideline, it should be possible to treat the vast majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> severely injured/multiply injured patients.<br />
� Routine m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> treatment <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring the effect <strong>of</strong> treatment are necessary.<br />
� Regular discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> all involved (physicians, nursing staff, patients, if possible patients’<br />
families) should make the goals <strong>and</strong> methods <strong>of</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> polytrauma <strong>and</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
severe injuries transparent.<br />
Aims <strong>of</strong> the guideline<br />
This interdisciplinary S3 guideline is an evidence-based <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sensus-based tool <strong>with</strong> the aim<br />
<strong>of</strong> improving the management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> severe injuries. The<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s are intended to c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards the optimizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> structural <strong>and</strong> process<br />
quality in hospitals <strong>and</strong> in prehospital management <strong>and</strong>, through their implementati<strong>on</strong>, help to<br />
improve outcome quality in terms <strong>of</strong> case fatality rate or quality <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
The guideline, which is based <strong>on</strong> the current state <strong>of</strong> scientific knowledge <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> procedures<br />
proven in practice, is intended to provide a decisi<strong>on</strong>-making aid in specific situati<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
guideline can be used not <strong>on</strong>ly in the acute treatment situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> in the debriefing but also in<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong>s about local protocols by the quality circles in individual hospitals. Legal (<strong>and</strong><br />
insurance) aspects <strong>and</strong> those relevant to billing are not explicitly dealt <strong>with</strong> in this guideline. The<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the German Social Code Book (Sozialgesetzbuch) (SBG VII) apply.<br />
The guideline should be an interdisciplinary decisi<strong>on</strong>-making aid. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, it is also<br />
suitable for drawing up new treatment protocols in individual hospitals <strong>and</strong> for revising protocols<br />
already in existence.<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> the guideline is to support the care <strong>of</strong> the vast majority <strong>of</strong> severely injured pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Individual patients <strong>with</strong> defined pre-existing c<strong>on</strong>comitant diseases or specific injury patterns may<br />
not all be adequately covered due to their specific problems.<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
The guideline is intended to stimulate further discussi<strong>on</strong> to optimize the care <strong>of</strong> severely injured<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>structive criticism is therefore expressly welcomed. Ideally, any amendments<br />
should be briefly summarized, backed up by references <strong>and</strong> forwarded to the publisher.<br />
Apart from the terms <strong>of</strong> reference <strong>of</strong> this guideline, it is intended to draw up interdisciplinary<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>going process management <strong>of</strong> severely injured pers<strong>on</strong>s during the<br />
acute <strong>and</strong> post-acute phase.<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
A.1 Publisher/experts/medical societies/authors<br />
The resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for this guideline lies <strong>with</strong> the German Trauma Society (Deutsche<br />
Gesellschaft für Unfallchirurgie e. V.).<br />
The following medical societies were involved in drawing up the guideline:<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> General <strong>and</strong> Visceral Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Allgemein- und<br />
Viszeralchirurgie e. V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care Medicine (Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin e. V )<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Endovascular <strong>and</strong> Vascular Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
Gefäßchirurgie und Gefäßmedizin e.V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> H<strong>and</strong> Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für H<strong>and</strong>chirurgie e.V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head <strong>and</strong> Neck Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
HNO-Heilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie e.V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Oral <strong>and</strong> Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mund-, Kiefer-<br />
und Gesichtschirurgie e.V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Neurosurgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Neurochirurgie e.V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Thoracic Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Thoraxchirurgie e.V.)<br />
German Trauma Society (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Unfallchirurgie e.V.)<br />
German Society <strong>of</strong> Urology (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Urologie e.V.)<br />
German Radiology Society (Deutsche Röntgengesellschaft e.V.)<br />
Moderati<strong>on</strong>, coordinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> project management<br />
The German Trauma Society as the lead medical associati<strong>on</strong> has devolved central coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
for this guideline to the Institute for Research in Operative Medicine (Institut für Forschung in<br />
der Operativen Medizin) (IFOM). The tasks were:<br />
� coordinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the project group<br />
� methods support <strong>and</strong> quality assurance<br />
� systematic literature search<br />
� procurement <strong>of</strong> literature<br />
� data administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
� structural <strong>and</strong> editorial harm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the guideline texts<br />
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� coordinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> necessary discussi<strong>on</strong>s, meetings, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ferences<br />
� administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> financial resources<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Main treatment phase resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities<br />
The guideline was divided into 3 main treatment phases: prehospital, emergency room, <strong>and</strong><br />
emergency surgery. Coordinators were assigned resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for each <strong>of</strong> these treatment<br />
phases. The tasks were:<br />
� establishing the c<strong>on</strong>tents <strong>of</strong> the guideline<br />
� screening <strong>and</strong> evaluating the literature <strong>on</strong> the different treatment strategies for multiply<br />
injured patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> severe injuries, drawing up <strong>and</strong> coordinating the guideline<br />
texts<br />
The <strong>AWMF</strong>, represented by Pr<strong>of</strong>essor I. Kopp, provided methods guidance in drawing up the<br />
guideline.<br />
A.2 Target user group<br />
The guideline’s target user group is primarily the physicians <strong>and</strong> all other medical pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
involved in the management <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient or <strong>on</strong>e <strong>with</strong> severe injuries. The<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s relate to adult patients. Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the care <strong>of</strong> children <strong>and</strong><br />
adolescents are <strong>on</strong>ly given occasi<strong>on</strong>ally in the guideline.<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
B Methods<br />
The guideline project was first announced in December 2004 <strong>and</strong> again in May 2009.<br />
The guideline <strong>on</strong> the “<strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> severe injuries” was<br />
developed according to a binding process <strong>with</strong> a structured plan. It is the result <strong>of</strong> a systematic<br />
literature search <strong>and</strong> critical evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the evidence from available data using scientific<br />
methods as well as discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> experts in a formal c<strong>on</strong>sensus procedure.<br />
B.1 Literature search <strong>and</strong> selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> evidence<br />
The key questi<strong>on</strong>s for the systematic literature search <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> were formulated <strong>on</strong> the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> preliminary work during 2005. The literature searches were carried out in the MEDLINE<br />
database (via PubMed) using medical keywords (Medical Subject Headings/MeSH), partly<br />
supplemented by a free text search. The filter recommended in PubMed was used to identify<br />
systematic reviews. Supplementary searches were c<strong>on</strong>ducted in the Cochrane Library<br />
(CENTRAL) (in this case <strong>with</strong> keywords <strong>and</strong> text words in the title <strong>and</strong> abstract). The<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong> period selected was 1995-2010, <strong>and</strong> German <strong>and</strong> English as the publicati<strong>on</strong><br />
languages.<br />
The literature searches were carried out partly by the Institute for Research in Operative<br />
Medicine (IFOM) <strong>and</strong> partly by the authors themselves. The results <strong>of</strong> the literature searches,<br />
sorted according to topic, were forwarded to the individual authors resp<strong>on</strong>sible for each topic.<br />
The underlying key questi<strong>on</strong>s, the literature searches carried out <strong>with</strong> date <strong>and</strong> number <strong>of</strong> hits<br />
<strong>and</strong>, if applicable, search limitati<strong>on</strong>s were documented <strong>and</strong> can be found in the appendix to the<br />
separate Methods Report.<br />
Selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the relevant literature<br />
The authors <strong>of</strong> each chapter selected <strong>and</strong> evaluated the literature included in the guideline. This<br />
was carried out according to the criteria <strong>of</strong> evidence-based medicine. Sufficient r<strong>and</strong>omizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
allocati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cealment, blinding <strong>and</strong> the statistical analysis were taken into account.<br />
The evidence statement for the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s was based <strong>on</strong> the evidence classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Oxford Center <strong>of</strong> Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM), March 2009 versi<strong>on</strong>. In formulating the<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, priority was given to studies <strong>with</strong> the highest level <strong>of</strong> evidence available<br />
(LoE).<br />
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Table 2: CEBM evidence classificati<strong>on</strong> [9]<br />
Level Studies <strong>on</strong> therapy/preventi<strong>on</strong>/etiology<br />
1a<br />
1b<br />
1c<br />
2a<br />
2b<br />
2c<br />
3a<br />
3b<br />
Systematic review <strong>of</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials (RCT)<br />
An RCT (<strong>with</strong> narrow c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval)<br />
All or n<strong>on</strong>e principle<br />
Systematic review <strong>of</strong> well-planned cohort studies<br />
A well-planned cohort study or a low-quality RCT<br />
Outcome studies, ecological studies<br />
Systematic review <strong>of</strong> case-c<strong>on</strong>trol studies<br />
Individual case-c<strong>on</strong>trol study<br />
4. Case-series or low-quality cohort/case-c<strong>on</strong>trol studies<br />
5. Expert opini<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out explicit critical appraisal <strong>of</strong> the evidence or based <strong>on</strong><br />
physiology/bench research<br />
Three grades <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong> (GoR) were possible (A, B, O). The wording <strong>of</strong> the key<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> employs “must” “should” or “can” as appropriate. In determining the GoR, in<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to the underlying evidence, benefit-risk evaluati<strong>on</strong>s were also taken into account, as<br />
were the directness <strong>and</strong> homogeneity <strong>of</strong> the evidence al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>with</strong> clinical expertise [2].<br />
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B.2 Formulating the recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> finding c<strong>on</strong>sensus<br />
The medical societies involved each nominated at least <strong>on</strong>e delegate who, as a representative <strong>of</strong><br />
that subject discipline, participated in drawing up the guideline. Each medical society had a vote<br />
in the c<strong>on</strong>sensus process.<br />
The recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the grades <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong> were approved in 5 c<strong>on</strong>sensus<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferences (April 18-19, 2009, June 30, 2009, September 8, 2009, November 26-27, 2009 <strong>and</strong><br />
February 01, 2010):<br />
The course <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong> at these c<strong>on</strong>ferences, assisted by the TED (electr<strong>on</strong>ic voting) system, was in<br />
6 steps:<br />
� the opportunity to review the guideline manuscript before the c<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>and</strong> to compile<br />
notes <strong>on</strong> the proposed recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> grades;<br />
� presentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> explanati<strong>on</strong> from each author resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>on</strong> the pre-formulated proposals<br />
for recommendati<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
� registrati<strong>on</strong> via moderators <strong>of</strong> participants’ opini<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> alternative proposals <strong>on</strong> all<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>with</strong> speaker c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s solely for clarificati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
� voting <strong>on</strong> all recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> grades <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> the cited alternatives;<br />
� discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the points <strong>on</strong> which no “str<strong>on</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>sensus” could be reached in the first round;<br />
� final voting.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s were approved <strong>with</strong> “str<strong>on</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>sensus” (agreement <strong>of</strong> > 95% <strong>of</strong><br />
participants). Areas in which no str<strong>on</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>sensus could be reached are marked in the guideline<br />
<strong>and</strong> the various positi<strong>on</strong>s are expounded. In classifying the c<strong>on</strong>sensus strength, the following<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus grades were decided <strong>on</strong> in advance [9]:<br />
� str<strong>on</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>sensus: > 95% <strong>of</strong> participants agreed<br />
� c<strong>on</strong>sensus: > 75-95% <strong>of</strong> participants agreed<br />
� majority c<strong>on</strong>sensus: > 50–75% <strong>of</strong> participants agreed<br />
� no c<strong>on</strong>sensus: < 50% <strong>of</strong> participants agreed<br />
The records <strong>of</strong> the meetings can be viewed at the Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM). The Delphi method was then applied to recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for which no c<strong>on</strong>sensus could<br />
be reached in the c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ferences. A detailed methods report is available for viewing <strong>on</strong><br />
the <strong>AWMF</strong> website <strong>and</strong> has been filed at the Institute for Research in Operative Medicine<br />
(IFOM).<br />
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B.3 Distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
The guideline is to be distributed in the following ways:<br />
� via the internet: <strong>AWMF</strong> website (http://www.awmf-<strong>on</strong>line.de) <strong>and</strong> the websites <strong>of</strong> the<br />
medical societies <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s involved in the guideline<br />
� via printed media:<br />
− Publicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the guideline as a manual/book by the DGU. A copy will be made<br />
available to all hospitals involved in the DGU Trauma Network. In additi<strong>on</strong>, all<br />
hospitals involved will be notified in writing about where <strong>and</strong> how the guideline<br />
can be viewed <strong>on</strong> the <strong>AWMF</strong> homepage.<br />
− Publicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> extracts <strong>of</strong> the guideline <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> strategies in<br />
journals <strong>of</strong> the medical societies involved.<br />
− To simplify use <strong>of</strong> the guideline, a summary <strong>of</strong> the guideline c<strong>on</strong>taining the key<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s is also to be published in the Deutsches Ärzteblatt [German<br />
medical journal].<br />
� via c<strong>on</strong>ferences, workshops, pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>al training courses <strong>of</strong>fered by the medical societies<br />
involved.<br />
Various complementary measures are to be implemented in this guideline. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
presentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s at c<strong>on</strong>ferences, a link to topic-specific pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>al training<br />
courses is planned.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, implementati<strong>on</strong> at all the German hospitals involved in the trauma network is to be<br />
evaluated approximately <strong>on</strong>e year after publicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the guideline. In particular, it should be<br />
recorded how the guideline has been used <strong>and</strong> what practical suggesti<strong>on</strong>s the participants have<br />
gained from their experience to pass <strong>on</strong> to other users.<br />
B.4 Quality indicators <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
The audit filters were developed as criteria for quality management for the DGU Trauma<br />
Registry. Based <strong>on</strong> the available audit filters, the following criteria were established for this<br />
guideline:<br />
Process quality for evaluati<strong>on</strong> in the prehospital phase:<br />
� durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> prehospital time between accident <strong>and</strong> hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> for severely injured<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> ISS ≥ 16 [∅min ± SD]<br />
� intubati<strong>on</strong> rate in patients <strong>with</strong> severe chest injury (AIS 4-5) by the emergency physician<br />
[%, n/total]<br />
� intubati<strong>on</strong> rate in patients <strong>with</strong> suspected traumatic brain injury (unc<strong>on</strong>scious, Glasgow<br />
Coma Scale [GCS] ≤ 8) [%, n/total]<br />
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Process quality for evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> emergency room management:<br />
� time between hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> a chest X-ray in severely injured<br />
patients (ISS ≥ 16) [∅ min ± SD]<br />
� time between hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> an ultrasound scan <strong>of</strong> the<br />
abdomen/chest in cases <strong>of</strong> severe trauma (ISS ≥ 16) [∅ min ± SD]<br />
� time until performance <strong>of</strong> a computed tomography (CT) scan <strong>of</strong> the cranium (CCT) in prehospital<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients (GCS ≤ 8) [∅ min ± SD]<br />
� time until performance <strong>of</strong> a full-body CT scan <strong>on</strong> all patients, if carried out [∅ min ± SD]<br />
� time from emergency admissi<strong>on</strong> arrival to completi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> diagnostic study in severely injured<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s if this has been completed normally (ISS ≥ 16) [∅ min ± SD]<br />
� time from emergency admissi<strong>on</strong> arrival to completi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> diagnostic study in severely injured<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s if this has been interrupted due to emergency (ISS ≥ 16) [∅ min ± SD]<br />
Outcome quality for overall evaluati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
� st<strong>and</strong>ardized mortality rate: observed mortality divided by the expected prognosis based <strong>on</strong><br />
RISC (Revised Injury Severity Classificati<strong>on</strong>) in severely injured pers<strong>on</strong>s (ISS ≥ 16)<br />
� st<strong>and</strong>ardized mortality rate: observed mortality divided by the expected prognosis based <strong>on</strong><br />
TRISS (Trauma Injury Severity Score Method) in severely injured pers<strong>on</strong>s (ISS ≥ 16)<br />
The routine recording <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> these data <strong>of</strong>fer a vital opportunity to m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
improvements in quality in the management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> severe<br />
injuries. It is not possible to ascertain from this which effects are due to the guideline. Quality<br />
indicators should c<strong>on</strong>tinue to be developed based <strong>on</strong> the aforementi<strong>on</strong>ed criteria.<br />
B.5 Validity <strong>and</strong> updating <strong>of</strong> guideline<br />
This guideline is valid until December 2014. The German Trauma Society is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for<br />
introducing an updating process. The cooperati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the German Society <strong>of</strong> Plastic,<br />
Rec<strong>on</strong>structive <strong>and</strong> Esthetic Surge<strong>on</strong>s (Deutsche Gesellschaft der Plastischen, Rek<strong>on</strong>struktiven<br />
und Ästhetischen Chirurgen) <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the German Society <strong>of</strong> Burns Medicine (Deutsche<br />
Gesellschaft für Verbrennungsmedizin) <strong>and</strong> the thematic inclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> burns, large skin/s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
defects <strong>and</strong> nerve defect injuries (including plexus injuries) is additi<strong>on</strong>ally planned for this<br />
updating.<br />
B.6 Funding <strong>of</strong> the guideline <strong>and</strong> disclosure <strong>of</strong> potential c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>of</strong> interests<br />
Reimbursement m<strong>on</strong>ies for the methods support, costs for literature acquisiti<strong>on</strong>, costs for<br />
organizing the c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ferences, <strong>and</strong> costs <strong>of</strong> materials were provided by the German<br />
Trauma Society <strong>and</strong> the Institute for Research in Operative Medicine (IFOM) <strong>of</strong> the University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Witten/Herdecke. The participants’ travel costs arising from the c<strong>on</strong>sensus process were<br />
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covered by those medical societies/organizati<strong>on</strong>s sending representatives or by the participants<br />
themselves.<br />
All participants in the c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ference disclosed potential c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>of</strong> interest in writing. A<br />
summary <strong>of</strong> declarati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> potential c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>of</strong> interest from all coordinators, medical society<br />
delegates, draft authors, <strong>and</strong> organizers can be found in the appendix to the separate Methods<br />
Report <strong>of</strong> this guideline. Furthermore, the forms used to disclose potential c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>of</strong> interest<br />
can be requested from the Institute for Research in Operative Medicine (IFOM).<br />
Grateful thanks are extended to the coordinators <strong>of</strong> the individual subsecti<strong>on</strong>s, the authors <strong>and</strong><br />
participants in the c<strong>on</strong>sensus process for their wholly voluntary work.<br />
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References<br />
1. Field, M.J. <strong>and</strong> K.N. Lohr, eds. Clinical Practice<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s: Directi<strong>on</strong>s for a New Program. 1990,<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Academy Press: Washingt<strong>on</strong>, D.C.<br />
2. Council <strong>of</strong> Europe, Developing a Methodology for<br />
drawing up <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong> Best Medical Practices:<br />
Recommendati<strong>on</strong> Rec(2001)13 adopted by the<br />
Committee <strong>of</strong> Ministers <strong>of</strong> the Council <strong>of</strong> Europe <strong>on</strong><br />
10 October 2001 <strong>and</strong> explanatory memor<strong>and</strong>um.<br />
2001, Strasbourg Cedex: Council <strong>of</strong> Europe.<br />
3. Kopp, I.B., [Perspectives in guideline development<br />
<strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> in Germany.]. Z Rheumatol,<br />
2010.<br />
4. Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen<br />
Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. 3-Stufen-Prozess<br />
der Leitlinien-Entwicklung: eine Klassifizierung.<br />
2009; Available from: http://www.uniduesseldorf.de/<strong>AWMF</strong>/ll/ll_s1-s3.htm.<br />
5. Robert Koch-Institut, ed.; Gesundheit in Deutschl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes. 2006,<br />
Robert Koch-Institut: Berlin.<br />
6. Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin.<br />
Unfallstatistik: Unfalltote und Unfallverletzte 2007 in<br />
Deutschl<strong>and</strong>. 2007; Available from:<br />
www.baua.de/cae/servlet/c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
blob/672542/publicati<strong>on</strong>File/49620/Unfallstatistik-<br />
2007.pdf;jsessi<strong>on</strong>id=CC8B45BA699EE9E4E11AC1E<br />
AD359CB34.<br />
7. Bouill<strong>on</strong>, B., et al., Weißbuch Schwerverletzten-<br />
Versorgung. Empfehlungen zur Struktur, Organisati<strong>on</strong><br />
und Ausstattung stati<strong>on</strong>ärer Einrichtungen zur<br />
Schwerverletzten-Versorgung in der Bundesrepu-blik<br />
Deutschl<strong>and</strong>., ed. D.G.f.U.e.V. (DGU). 2006, Berlin:<br />
Dt. Gesellschaft für Unfallchirurgie e.V.<br />
8. Oxford Centre <strong>of</strong> Evidence-based Medicine (CEBM):<br />
Levels <strong>of</strong> Evidence (March 2009); Available from:<br />
www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1025.<br />
9. Schmiegel, W., et al.: S3-Leitlinie “Kolorektales<br />
Karzinom: Available from:<br />
www.krebsgesellschaft.de/download/s3_ll_kolorektal<br />
es_karzinom_2008.pdf.<br />
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1 Prehospital<br />
1.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
Within the structured emergency services, the pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>al treatment <strong>of</strong> severely injured patients<br />
starts right at the accident scene. The subsequent course can be set at this stage. So, even for this<br />
initial treatment phase, it is expedient <strong>and</strong> necessary to develop the clearest priorities <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies for dealing <strong>with</strong> the situati<strong>on</strong>. Due to the difficult envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in the<br />
prehospital emergency situati<strong>on</strong>, the evidence level is low yet the full diversity <strong>of</strong> experience <strong>and</strong><br />
expert knowledge is c<strong>on</strong>siderable. Moreover, the benefit-risk evaluati<strong>on</strong> is disputed in a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>s, not least in c<strong>on</strong>sidering the point at which an essentially indicated interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
should be carried out, for example, in the prehospital phase or <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>ce admitted to hospital.<br />
Finally, the polarizati<strong>on</strong> between “stay <strong>and</strong> treat” <strong>and</strong> “load <strong>and</strong> go” also plays a role here. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, a large amount <strong>of</strong> scientific knowledge has been gained from different emergency<br />
systems <strong>and</strong> its transferability to specific situati<strong>on</strong>s in Germany is <strong>of</strong>ten ambiguous.<br />
Those active <strong>on</strong> the spot want a highly specific recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> broad validity but this<br />
desire is in c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>with</strong> the unfortunately <strong>of</strong>ten weak data available <strong>and</strong> the resulting unreliable<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s. This desire can <strong>on</strong>ly be met by achieving a c<strong>on</strong>sensus am<strong>on</strong>g the experts, <strong>on</strong> the<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing that scientific uncertainty c<strong>on</strong>tinues to exist in such areas <strong>and</strong> that there are<br />
differences between different emergency systems <strong>and</strong> cultures.<br />
The structuring <strong>of</strong> the prehospital guideline secti<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> several c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. Basically,<br />
the management <strong>of</strong> a (potentially) severely injured patient involves a sequence <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
follow certain priorities. Every detail <strong>and</strong> individual step <strong>of</strong> the sequence itself cannot be<br />
evidence-based <strong>with</strong> pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> general validity. Moreover, many individual circumstances relating<br />
to the actual patient have to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered so that not all possible sequence models can be<br />
depicted. The c<strong>on</strong>tents <strong>of</strong> the guideline were therefore not oriented to a specific sequence<br />
algorithm but focused instead <strong>on</strong> individual aspects. These secti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>centrate <strong>on</strong> anatomic<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s (head, chest, abdomen, spine, extremities, <strong>and</strong> pelvis). In the prehospital phase, very few<br />
invasive interventi<strong>on</strong>al opti<strong>on</strong>s are available; <strong>of</strong> these the most important (volume replacement,<br />
airway management, chest drain) are dealt <strong>with</strong> in terms <strong>of</strong> indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The individual aspects, interventi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> guidelines must be embedded in a general pathway <strong>of</strong><br />
acti<strong>on</strong> that sets priorities <strong>and</strong> prescribes acti<strong>on</strong> pathways <strong>and</strong> sequences. A framework <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind can be provided by programs such as Prehospital Trauma Life Support (PHTLS), Advanced<br />
Trauma Life Support (ATLS), European Trauma Course (ETC), <strong>and</strong> others. As such programs<br />
already exist <strong>and</strong> the individual steps cannot be individually scientifically proven, as indicated<br />
above, the attempt was not made to develop such a program in this guideline package. The<br />
individual guidelines are not intended to replace these programs but to represent the aspects<br />
embedded in them.<br />
Besides directly treating the individual patient, general aspects also play a role in the prehospital<br />
phase. On the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>, a decisi<strong>on</strong> must be made about the designated hospital. It must be able<br />
to treat all acute, life-threatening injuries immediately <strong>and</strong> independently. The initial-treating<br />
hospital must have clear, well-ordered transfer strategies for injuries which require a special<br />
structure or expertise. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the increasing number <strong>of</strong> trauma networks being set up, the<br />
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recommendati<strong>on</strong>s in the White Paper <strong>of</strong> the German Trauma Society [1] may be <strong>of</strong> great benefit<br />
here [2]. The resulting local <strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al regulati<strong>on</strong>s can provide the emergency physician <strong>with</strong><br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al support when selecting a suitable designated hospital. Besides the hospital structure,<br />
however, organizati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> logistical circumstances, weather <strong>and</strong> road c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s or the time <strong>of</strong><br />
day can also be significant in additi<strong>on</strong> to purely medical c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. Inextricably linked to<br />
this is the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> whether the patient is in fact severely injured. Criteria for this purpose are<br />
defined which are aligned to actual detected or suspected injuries, impairment <strong>of</strong> vital functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
or mechanisms <strong>of</strong> injury. Finally, a balance must be found between the desire to underestimate as<br />
few patients as possible <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequence <strong>of</strong> classifying too many patients unnecessarily as<br />
severely injured (overtriage). C<strong>on</strong>versely, although undertriage reduces the number <strong>of</strong><br />
unnecessary emergency room alerts, it is at the cost <strong>of</strong> having underestimated more genuinely<br />
severely injured patients. The latter is viewed by many as the more critical model. Every trauma<br />
center should come to an agreement about this <strong>with</strong>in its network or <strong>with</strong> the emergency services<br />
in its area.<br />
The mass casualty incident represents a rare yet particularly challenging situati<strong>on</strong>. Until the<br />
arrival <strong>of</strong> the <strong>on</strong>-duty lead emergency physician, the emergency physician who arrives <strong>on</strong> the<br />
scene first must take over this functi<strong>on</strong>. The switch from individual medical care to triage<br />
represents a special challenge <strong>and</strong> the algorithm should provide support here.<br />
Many important, central domains are dealt <strong>with</strong> in the present editi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the prehospital<br />
polytrauma guideline. But some major topics, for example, pain therapy or prehospital<br />
management <strong>of</strong> traumatic brain injury, are not included. These are to be drawn up in future<br />
stages <strong>of</strong> guideline development, as well as other topics that are requested by the users.<br />
Overall, the rapid, smoothly running medical care <strong>of</strong> (severely) injured patients is the focus <strong>of</strong> all<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>. In this c<strong>on</strong>text, the emergency services must work h<strong>and</strong>-in-h<strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> the hospitals. To<br />
this end, the 2008 Key Points Paper [3] <strong>on</strong> emergency medical management <strong>of</strong> patients in<br />
hospital <strong>and</strong> prehospital dem<strong>and</strong>s that definitive clinical treatment shall be achieved <strong>with</strong>in 90<br />
minutes for major emergency medical clinical pictures such as a severely injured patient. To<br />
make this possible, a time <strong>of</strong> 60 minutes from emergency call to hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> must be<br />
achieved. The scope <strong>of</strong> emergency physician care must be aimed at these targets.<br />
Prehospital - Introducti<strong>on</strong> 15
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
References<br />
1. Bouill<strong>on</strong>, B., V. Bühren, et al. (2006). Weißbuch<br />
Schwerverletzten-Versorgung. Empfehlungen zur<br />
Struk-tur,Organizati<strong>on</strong> und Ausstattung stati<strong>on</strong>ärer<br />
Einrichtungen zur Schwerverletzten-Versorgung in<br />
der Bundesrepublik Deutschl<strong>and</strong>. German Society for<br />
Trauma Surgery e.V.<br />
2. Eckpunktepapier zur notfallmedizinischen<br />
Versorgung der Bevölkerung in Klinik und Präklinik<br />
(2008) Arbeitsgemeinschaft Südwestdeutscher<br />
Notärzte (agswn), Institut für Notfallmedizin und<br />
Medizinmanagement (INM), Bundesärztekammer<br />
(BÄK), Bundesvereinigung der<br />
Arbeitsgemeinschaften der Notärzte Deutschl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
(BAND), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anästhesiologie<br />
und Intensivmedizin (DGAI), Deutsche Gesellschaft<br />
für Chirurgie (DGCH), Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
Kardiologie (DGK), Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
Neurochirurgie (DGNC), Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
Unfallchirurgie (DGU), Deutsche Gesellschaft für<br />
Ne<strong>on</strong>atologie und Pädiatrische Intensivmedizin<br />
(GNPI), Arbeiter Samariter Bund (ASB),<br />
Unternehmerverb<strong>and</strong> privater Rettungsdienste (BKS),<br />
Deutsches Rotes Kreuz (DRK), Johanniter-Unfall-<br />
Hilfe (JUH), Malteser Hilfsdienst (MHD), Ständige<br />
K<strong>on</strong>ferenz für den Rettungsdienst (SKRD). Notfall<br />
und Rettungsmedizin 11:421-422<br />
Prehospital - Introducti<strong>on</strong> 16
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
1.2 Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia<br />
Summary<br />
Endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> hence definitive securing <strong>of</strong> the airways, <strong>with</strong> the<br />
aim <strong>of</strong> the best possible oxygenati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient, is a central therapeutic<br />
measure in emergency medicine [80]. The basic vital functi<strong>on</strong>s directly linked to survival have to<br />
be secured. The “A” for airway <strong>and</strong> “B” for breathing are First Aid measures found in<br />
established st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>on</strong> trauma care <strong>and</strong> therefore have a particular value in terms <strong>of</strong> weighting<br />
in both the prehospital <strong>and</strong> the early hospital management [3, 74, 107].<br />
Variati<strong>on</strong>s in the emergency medical services (EMS) internati<strong>on</strong>ally pose a problem. Whereas<br />
paramedics are <strong>of</strong>ten used in the Anglo-American regi<strong>on</strong>, the emergency physician system is<br />
widely used in c<strong>on</strong>tinental Europe. But even here there are differences. In Germany, (specialist)<br />
physicians in all disciplines can be involved in the emergency service after acquiring an<br />
appropriate additi<strong>on</strong>al qualificati<strong>on</strong> but in Sc<strong>and</strong>inavian countries this is mainly the prerogative<br />
<strong>of</strong> anesthesiologists [9]. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, the evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> internati<strong>on</strong>al studies <strong>on</strong> the topic <strong>of</strong><br />
securing the airway in the prehospital phase reveals that emergency services pers<strong>on</strong>nel have<br />
different levels <strong>of</strong> training. Depending <strong>on</strong> the pers<strong>on</strong>nel employed <strong>and</strong> how comm<strong>on</strong>ly they<br />
perform intubati<strong>on</strong>, a high rate <strong>of</strong> esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong>s is found in up to 12% <strong>of</strong> cases in the<br />
literature [20]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there is a high rate <strong>of</strong> failed intubati<strong>on</strong>s (up to 15%) [99]. In<br />
paramedic systems, n<strong>on</strong>-guideline-compliant airway management is more comm<strong>on</strong> [39]. Due to<br />
the different clinical routine <strong>of</strong> the users, negative outcomes in particular cannot be transferred<br />
directly from paramedic systems to the German emergency services <strong>and</strong> emergency physician<br />
system [60, 89]. In the Federal Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany, the agreed minimum qualificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
“Additi<strong>on</strong>al qualificati<strong>on</strong> in emergency medicine” <strong>and</strong> the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> emergency anesthesia<br />
in the emergency physician system <strong>of</strong>fers a different scenario compared to the Anglo-American<br />
paramedic system.<br />
The following features <strong>of</strong> the prehospital setting can <strong>and</strong> must influence the establishing <strong>of</strong><br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> planning <strong>of</strong> anesthesia, intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
� level <strong>of</strong> experience <strong>and</strong> routine training <strong>of</strong> emergency physician<br />
� circumstances <strong>of</strong> the medical emergency (e.g., patient is trapped, rescue time)<br />
� type <strong>of</strong> transport (l<strong>and</strong>-based versus air support)<br />
� transport time<br />
� c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries around the airway <strong>and</strong> anything (assessable) that impedes intubati<strong>on</strong><br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the individual case, the indicati<strong>on</strong> to carry out or not to carry out prehospital<br />
anesthesia, intubati<strong>on</strong>/airway management <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> ranges between the extremes <strong>of</strong><br />
“advanced training level, l<strong>on</strong>g transport time, simple airway” <strong>and</strong> “little experience, short<br />
transport time, predicted difficult airway management”. In any event, sufficient oxygenati<strong>on</strong><br />
must be secured by appropriate measures.<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 17
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
If no methodologically high-quality studies were available, a recommendati<strong>on</strong> would still be<br />
issued by a c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>of</strong> experts if clinically relevant. The following recommendati<strong>on</strong>s cover<br />
emergency anesthesia, airway management <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> in the prehospital phase <strong>and</strong><br />
emergency room management.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Emergency anesthesia, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> must be<br />
carried out in the prehospital phase in multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> apnea<br />
or gasping ( 29<br />
breaths per minute)<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
The multiply injured patient must be preoxygenated before anesthesia. GoR A<br />
The in-hospital endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>, emergency anesthesia <strong>and</strong><br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> must be carried out by trained, experienced anesthesiologists.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
<strong>Severe</strong> multiple injuries have a serious effect <strong>on</strong> the integrity <strong>of</strong> the human body in its entirety.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to the acute trauma c<strong>on</strong>sequences for the individual body secti<strong>on</strong>s, it causes a<br />
mediator-mediated whole-body reacti<strong>on</strong>, i.e. Systemic Inflammatory Resp<strong>on</strong>se Syndrome (SIRS)<br />
[26, 54]. Tissue oxygenati<strong>on</strong> takes <strong>on</strong> special significance in this damage cascade. Tissue<br />
oxygenati<strong>on</strong> can <strong>on</strong>ly be achieved if uptake, transport <strong>and</strong> release <strong>of</strong> oxygen are guaranteed.<br />
Oxygen uptake is <strong>on</strong>ly possible if the airway is secured, <strong>and</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> is the gold<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard according to the current European <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-European guidelines [32, 73, 74]. A severe<br />
impairment <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sciousness due to a traumatic brain injury <strong>with</strong> a Glasgow Coma Score (GCS)<br />
< 9 is regarded as an intubati<strong>on</strong> indicati<strong>on</strong> [8]. Endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> for the c<strong>on</strong>sciousnessimpaired<br />
trauma patient <strong>with</strong> a GCS ≤ 8 is also recommended both prehospital <strong>and</strong> in-hospital<br />
according to the guideline <strong>of</strong> the Eastern Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong> Trauma (EAST) [32] <strong>and</strong><br />
other training programs (e.g., ATLS ® [3]). Hypoxia <strong>and</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong> are the “lethal duo” which<br />
induces sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage particularly in polytrauma <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury [18, 19, 52, 87,<br />
90]. It must be further pointed out that even patients <strong>with</strong> a GCS <strong>of</strong> 13 or 14, who were intubated<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 18
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
endotracheally in the prehospital phase, displayed abnormal cerebral computed tomography<br />
(38%) <strong>and</strong> intracranial bleeding (28%) [36]. In a prehospital cohort study, it was shown that<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> has a positive effect <strong>on</strong> survival following severe traumatic brain injury<br />
[56]. Another retrospective study showed a reduced case fatality rate for children <strong>with</strong> severe<br />
traumatic brain injury who were intubated by emergency physicians in the prehospital phase as<br />
compared to those receiving care <strong>on</strong> Basic Life Support (BLS) <strong>and</strong> delayed intubati<strong>on</strong> in regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
trauma centers [91]. If c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> is limited to a pediatric patient populati<strong>on</strong>, the prehospital<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in this study was carried out by emergency medical pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>with</strong> good<br />
transferability to the German emergency physician system. Using the Trauma <strong>and</strong> Injury<br />
Severity Score (TRISS) method, another study also c<strong>on</strong>firms that prehospital endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> leads to improved outcomes in survival <strong>and</strong> neurologic functi<strong>on</strong> [38]. Another paper<br />
further showed an improvement in measured systolic blood pressure, oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> endtidal<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide (etCO2 compared to the baseline values prior to prehospital intubati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> severe traumatic brain injury [11].<br />
Current review papers, however, refer to heterogeneous patient collectives, differing emergency<br />
services systems <strong>and</strong> differently trained users <strong>and</strong> therefore do not always come to a positive<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> about intubati<strong>on</strong> [9, 12, 25, 31, 60, 62, 69, 74, 98, 100]. The EAST guideline group<br />
also tackled this problem. In the “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for Emergency Intubati<strong>on</strong> immediately following<br />
traumatic injury”, it was claimed that there are no r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials <strong>on</strong> this research<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, however, the authors <strong>of</strong> the EAST <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> also found no studies<br />
that could present an alternative treatment strategy proven to be effective. In summary,<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> was assessed overall as such an established procedure in hypoxia/apnea<br />
that, despite a lack <strong>of</strong> scientific evidence, a Grade A recommendati<strong>on</strong> was formulated [73]. Other<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s for endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> (e.g., chest injury) are c<strong>on</strong>troversial issues in the literature<br />
[78]. There was evidence that hypoxia <strong>and</strong> respiratory insufficiency were a c<strong>on</strong>sequence <strong>of</strong><br />
severe chest injury (multiple rib fractures, pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>, unstable chest wall).<br />
Endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> is recommended if the hypoxia cannot be remedied by oxygenati<strong>on</strong>, by<br />
the exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax, <strong>and</strong> by basic airway management procedures [32].<br />
Prehospital endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> severe chest injury is suitable for preventing<br />
hypoxia <strong>and</strong> hypoventilati<strong>on</strong>, which are associated <strong>with</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary neurologic damage <strong>and</strong><br />
extremely severe c<strong>on</strong>sequences for the rest <strong>of</strong> the body. However, <strong>with</strong> difficult, prol<strong>on</strong>ged<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts <strong>and</strong> the associated hypoventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> danger <strong>of</strong> hypoxia, endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> itself can cause procedure-related sec<strong>on</strong>dary harms or even death. A database analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Trauma Registry <strong>of</strong> the German Trauma Society showed no advantage in prehospital<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> chest injury <strong>with</strong>out respiratory insufficiency [78].<br />
However, severe chest injury <strong>with</strong> respiratory insufficiency does present an indicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
prehospital endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> whereby the decisi<strong>on</strong> to intubate should be dependent <strong>on</strong> the<br />
respiratory insufficiency <strong>and</strong> not <strong>on</strong> the (suspected) diagnosis <strong>of</strong> severe chest injury, which is<br />
associated <strong>with</strong> a certain degree <strong>of</strong> uncertainty [7].<br />
Endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> is included as an “Advanced Life Support” procedure in the prehospital<br />
acti<strong>on</strong> algorithms <strong>of</strong> various training programs (e.g., PHTLS ® [71]. Using a scoring system to<br />
evaluate management problems plus the relevant autopsy reports, a series <strong>of</strong> fatal traffic<br />
accidents were retrospectively analyzed to characterize the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> prehospital care <strong>and</strong><br />
potentially avoidable fatal incidents [76]. This flagged up an extended “prehospital <strong>and</strong> early in-<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 19
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
hospital care period” <strong>and</strong> a “lack <strong>of</strong> airway securing using intubati<strong>on</strong>” as factors which led to the<br />
incidence <strong>of</strong> avoidable fatal incidents [76].<br />
A retrospective cohort study <strong>of</strong> 570 intubated patients compared to 8,137 n<strong>on</strong>-intubated patients<br />
showed that the prehospital intubated patients had a prehospital phase which was between 5.2-<br />
10.7 minutes l<strong>on</strong>ger than the n<strong>on</strong>-intubated patients [24]. The effect <strong>of</strong> early intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in 2<br />
hours following trauma <strong>on</strong> the incidence <strong>of</strong> subsequent organ failure was evaluated in a<br />
prospective n<strong>on</strong>-r<strong>and</strong>omized study [97]. Despite a significantly higher degree <strong>of</strong> injury, there<br />
was a lowered incidence <strong>of</strong> organ failure <strong>and</strong> lower case fatality rate in the group <strong>of</strong> patients who<br />
were endotracheally intubated “early” <strong>with</strong>in 2 hours following trauma, compared to the “later”<br />
intubated patients. The following factors must therefore be taken into account in selecting the<br />
best time to introduce anesthesia <strong>and</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>: injury pattern, pers<strong>on</strong>al experience<br />
<strong>of</strong> the emergency physician/anesthesiologist, envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, transport distance,<br />
available equipment <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s associated <strong>with</strong> the procedure. Taking these points into<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>, the definitive care that the multiply injured patient should receive is emergency<br />
anesthesia <strong>with</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong>. With the appropriate indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
appropriate training level, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> should be performed prehospital but, at the<br />
latest, during emergency room management. According to the analysis <strong>of</strong> data from the Trauma<br />
Registry <strong>of</strong> the German Trauma Society, out <strong>of</strong> 24,771 patients, 31% were unc<strong>on</strong>scious at the<br />
accident scene (GCS < 9), 19% had severe hemodynamic instability (systolic blood pressure<br />
< 90 mmHg) <strong>and</strong>, overall, 55% <strong>of</strong> patients were endotracheally intubated by the emergency<br />
physician during the prehospital phase [77]. According to this analysis, in the case <strong>of</strong> 9% <strong>of</strong><br />
multiply injured patients, it was necessary to disc<strong>on</strong>tinue the emergency room phase in hospital<br />
in favor <strong>of</strong> an emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>/surgery; a total <strong>of</strong> 77% <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients<br />
received surgery <strong>and</strong> 87% needed intensive care [77]. Due to a traumatic brain injury <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
chest injury, many multiply injured patients required intensive care ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> invasive<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> therapy <strong>and</strong> all required adequate pain relief. In the study menti<strong>on</strong>ed, the mean<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> period for multiply injured patients was 9 days [77].<br />
In order to prevent the harmful effects <strong>of</strong> hypoxia <strong>and</strong> hypoventilati<strong>on</strong>, emergency anesthesia<br />
<strong>and</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> should be introduced prehospital or, at the latest,<br />
during emergency room care for the appropriate indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> the appropriate training<br />
level. A large retrospective study using a trauma registry from a Level I trauma center studied<br />
6,088 patients who received endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in the first hour following hospital<br />
admissi<strong>on</strong> [88]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, according to this trauma registry, a further 26,000 trauma patients<br />
were endotracheally intubated after the first hour <strong>of</strong> hospital care <strong>on</strong> the day <strong>of</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong>. In the<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> experienced anesthesiologists, the “rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong>” proved in these cases to<br />
be an effective, safe procedure in hospital care: no patient died as a result <strong>of</strong> endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>. Of 6,088 patients, 6,008 were successfully intubated orotracheally (98.7%) <strong>and</strong> a<br />
further 59 nasotracheally (0.97%). Only 17 patients (0.28%) had to have a cricothyroidotomy<br />
<strong>and</strong> 4 patients (0.07%) received an emergency tracheotomy. Following the endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>, 3 more patients received an emergency tracheotomy during the course [88]. In<br />
another retrospective study <strong>of</strong> a m<strong>on</strong>ocenter trauma registry, 1,000 trauma patients (9.9% out <strong>of</strong><br />
10,137 patients) who had been endotracheally intubated <strong>with</strong>in 2 hours <strong>of</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
Trauma Center were studied [85]. At < 1%, the incidence <strong>of</strong> surgically securing the airway was<br />
uncomm<strong>on</strong> in this study as well. Aspirati<strong>on</strong> occurred in 1.1% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 20
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Early intubati<strong>on</strong> was seen as safe <strong>and</strong> effective by the authors [85]. These data also c<strong>on</strong>firm that<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> trauma patients is a safe procedure in the h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> trained pers<strong>on</strong>nel.<br />
Another retrospective study from a paramedic-supported system <strong>with</strong> 175 endotracheally<br />
intubated patients showed a success rate <strong>of</strong> 96.6% <strong>with</strong> a markedly higher cricothyroidotomy<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> 2.3% [37]. In 1.1% <strong>of</strong> cases, the patient was ventilated by bag-valve-mask during transfer<br />
to hospital. There were 5 instances found <strong>of</strong> right mainstem dislocati<strong>on</strong> (2.9%) <strong>and</strong> 2 cases <strong>of</strong><br />
tube dislocati<strong>on</strong> (1.1%). No case <strong>of</strong> failed intubati<strong>on</strong> was documented.<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> a trauma registry, 3,571 prehospital endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
trauma patients were compared <strong>with</strong> 746 in the emergency room phase [6]. The endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> first carried out during emergency admissi<strong>on</strong> was associated <strong>with</strong> a higher risk <strong>of</strong> a<br />
fatal course compared both to n<strong>on</strong>-intubated patients (odds ratio [OR] 3.1; 95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence<br />
interval [-CI]; 2.1–4.5, p < 0.0001) <strong>and</strong> to patients who had already been endotracheally<br />
intubated in the prehospital phase (OR 3.0; 95% CI: 1.9–4.9, p < 0.0001) [6]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it was<br />
shown that patients who had been endotracheally intubated in the prehospital phase did not have<br />
a higher risk <strong>of</strong> dying than n<strong>on</strong>-intubated patients in the emergency room phase (OR: 1.1; 95%<br />
CI: 0.7–1.9; p = 0.6). The authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded that the patients who were endotracheally intubated<br />
during emergency admissi<strong>on</strong> should have already been intubated in the prehospital phase [6].<br />
In a prehospital cohort study <strong>with</strong> comparable injury severity (ISS 23 versus 24) <strong>and</strong> similar<br />
durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> care (27 versus 29 min, p = n.s.), 60 patients were treated by emergency services<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel (emergency medical technician [EMT], intubati<strong>on</strong> rate 3%) <strong>and</strong> 64 patients in<br />
Advanced Life Support mode by emergency physicians (intubati<strong>on</strong> rate 100%). Oxygen<br />
saturati<strong>on</strong> was significantly improved up<strong>on</strong> arrival in hospital (SaO2: 86 versus 96; p = 0.04) <strong>and</strong><br />
systolic blood pressure was significantly higher (105 versus 132 mmHg, p = 0.03). There was no<br />
difference in all-cause case fatality rate (42% versus 40%, p = 0.76). However, a sub-group<br />
analysis showed a significant survival advantage for those patients <strong>with</strong> a GCS between 6 <strong>and</strong> 8<br />
who had been treated by an emergency physician (case fatality rate: 78 versus 24%, p < 0.01; OR<br />
3.85, 95% CI: 1.84–6.38, p < 0.001). The authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded that the case fatality rate is reduced<br />
by a prehospital emergency physician system <strong>of</strong>fering rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong>, sufficient<br />
oxygenati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> circulati<strong>on</strong> drug therapy particularly for patients <strong>with</strong> clouded c<strong>on</strong>sciousness<br />
[56].<br />
In the German-speaking emergency physician system, pediatric <strong>and</strong> adult emergency patients<br />
can be endotracheally intubated <strong>with</strong> a very high success rate if this procedure is carried out by<br />
experienced <strong>and</strong> trained pers<strong>on</strong>nel. In a prospective study over a period <strong>of</strong> 8 years, 4% <strong>of</strong> all<br />
pediatric emergency patients (82 out <strong>of</strong> 2,040 children) were endotracheally intubated [35].<br />
Pediatric emergency callouts made up 5.6% <strong>of</strong> all emergency calls (2,040 out <strong>of</strong> 36,677<br />
emergency physician callouts). Anesthesiologists carried out 58 <strong>of</strong> the pediatric endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> a success rate <strong>of</strong> 98.3%. Based <strong>on</strong> the incidence, the known number <strong>of</strong><br />
emergency physicians employed each year, <strong>and</strong> their absolute number <strong>of</strong> callouts, it was<br />
calculated that each emergency physician in the emergency physician service has a gap <strong>of</strong>, <strong>on</strong><br />
average, 3 years between pediatric endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> 13 years between infant<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>s. These results show that endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in childhood is rare<br />
outside the hospital setting <strong>and</strong> special attenti<strong>on</strong> must therefore be paid to maintaining specialist<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 21
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
expertise <strong>and</strong> appropriate training outside the emergency services <strong>and</strong> emergency physician<br />
service.<br />
A prospective study <strong>of</strong> a cohort <strong>of</strong> 16,559 patients managed in the prehospital phase included<br />
2,850 trauma patients <strong>of</strong> which 259 (9.1%) were endotracheally intubated. More than 2 attempts<br />
were required in 3.9% <strong>of</strong> cases before endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> was successful, <strong>and</strong> there was a<br />
failed intubati<strong>on</strong> in 3.9% <strong>of</strong> cases. A difficult airway was described in 18.2% <strong>of</strong> cases. In<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong>, patients <strong>with</strong> cardiac arrest had a difficult airway in <strong>on</strong>ly 16.7% <strong>of</strong> cases. This study<br />
also showed a success rate <strong>of</strong> 98.0% by anesthesia-trained emergency physicians [94]. Another<br />
prospective study <strong>of</strong> an emergency physician system showed a success rate <strong>of</strong> 98.5% in 598<br />
patients (<strong>of</strong> which 10% were trauma patients ) [92]. In another prospective study, endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> by anesthesia-trained emergency physicians achieved a 100% success rate in a<br />
collective <strong>of</strong> 342 patients [n = 235 (68.7%) trauma patients]. In this case, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong><br />
was successful at the first attempt in 87.4% <strong>of</strong> cases, at the sec<strong>on</strong>d attempt in 11.1% <strong>and</strong> at the<br />
third attempt in 1.5% [48]. Another study <strong>of</strong> the German emergency physician system showed a<br />
success rate <strong>of</strong> 97.9% in prehospital endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> trauma patients [1].<br />
In a retrospective cohort study <strong>with</strong> 194 patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury, there was a<br />
significant difference in the case fatality rate between patients treated <strong>with</strong> basic life support<br />
(BLS) procedures in the l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency services <strong>and</strong> patients who were treated <strong>with</strong><br />
advanced life support (ALS) procedures by anesthesiologists in the air-borne emergency services<br />
(25 versus 21 %, p < 0.05). In this study, the survival rate <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury<br />
who were treated highly significantly <strong>with</strong> more invasive measures in the air rescue group<br />
(intubati<strong>on</strong> 92 versus 36%, chest drain 5 versus 0%) was better than the survival rate <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
treated in the l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency services (54 versus 44%, p < 0.05) [10].<br />
Procedural-related complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Regarding procedural-related complicati<strong>on</strong>s, a retrospective study using data from a trauma<br />
registry showed that there was no higher risk <strong>of</strong> pneum<strong>on</strong>ia developing in 271 prehospital <strong>and</strong><br />
357 in-hospital endotracheally intubated trauma patients [96]. Regarding epidemiological data,<br />
prehospital intubated patients showed a lower GCS (4 versus 8, p < 0.001) <strong>and</strong> a higher injury<br />
severity according to the ISS (25 versus 22, p < 0.007) but otherwise no differences in the patient<br />
characteristics. Nevertheless, although it was to be expected, there was no difference in the<br />
length <strong>of</strong> hospital stay for both patient collectives (15.7 versus 15.8 d), in the length <strong>of</strong> intensive<br />
care stay (7.6 versus 7.3 d), in the number <strong>of</strong> days <strong>on</strong> a ventilator (7.8 versus 7.2 d), in the case<br />
fatality rate (31.7 versus 28.2%), <strong>and</strong> in the rate <strong>of</strong> resistant bacteria (46% in each case). On<br />
average, it took 3 days until the <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> pneum<strong>on</strong>ia in both groups <strong>and</strong> the pneum<strong>on</strong>ia rate was<br />
also not significantly different in both groups [96]. However, a significantly increased rate <strong>of</strong><br />
pneum<strong>on</strong>ia following prehospital intubati<strong>on</strong> compared to in-hospital intubati<strong>on</strong> was observed in<br />
another study [86]. However, this had no influence <strong>on</strong> the 30-day case fatality rate <strong>and</strong> the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> days in intensive care. Moreover, the group <strong>of</strong> prehospital intubated patients had an<br />
increased injury severity. In another study, frequency <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary complicati<strong>on</strong>s was found to<br />
be related to injury severity but not to intubati<strong>on</strong> mishaps [84]. It cannot be definitely proven that<br />
prehospital endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> is related to the incidence <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary complicati<strong>on</strong>s. In a<br />
retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 244 patients endotracheally intubated in the prehospital phase by an<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 22
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
emergency physician, desaturati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> an SpO2 < 90% was documented in 18% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>and</strong><br />
hypotensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg in 13% <strong>of</strong> cases. The two complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
did not occur in parallel in any <strong>of</strong> the cases [72]. Overall, a low complicati<strong>on</strong> rate can be<br />
accordingly assumed.<br />
Preoxygenati<strong>on</strong><br />
To avoid a fall in oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> during the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> anesthesia <strong>and</strong> endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>, the multiply injured patient should, if practicable, be preoxygenated for up to 4<br />
minutes <strong>with</strong> an oxygen c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 100% via a face mask <strong>with</strong> reservoir [74]. In a n<strong>on</strong>r<strong>and</strong>omized<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled study <strong>of</strong> 34 intensive-care patients, the mean paO2 was (T0) 62<br />
± 15 mmHg at the start <strong>of</strong> preoxygenati<strong>on</strong>, (T4) 84 ± 52 mmHg after 4 minutes, (T6) 88<br />
± 49 mmHg after 6 minutes <strong>and</strong> (T8) 93 ± 55 mmHg after 8 minutes. The differences in paO2<br />
were significantly different between T0 <strong>and</strong> T4–8 , but no statistical differences could be obtained<br />
between the paO2 between T4, T6 <strong>and</strong> T8. 24% <strong>of</strong> patients even showed a reducti<strong>on</strong> in the paO2<br />
between T4 <strong>and</strong> T8. A l<strong>on</strong>ger period <strong>of</strong> preoxygenati<strong>on</strong> for 4 to 8 minutes did not lead to any<br />
further marked improvement in arterial oxygen partial pressure <strong>and</strong> delayed securing the airway<br />
in critical patients [67, 68]. Accordingly, sufficient preoxygenati<strong>on</strong> for 4 minutes has special<br />
importance in securing the airway in multiply injured patients.<br />
Training<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Emergency medical pers<strong>on</strong>nel must be regularly trained in emergency<br />
anesthesia, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> alternative ways <strong>of</strong> securing an<br />
airway (bag-valve-mask, supraglottic airway devices, emergency<br />
cricothyroidotomy).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
In a survey recently carried out am<strong>on</strong>g prehospital trained emergency physicians, they were<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>on</strong> their knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>and</strong> experience in endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the alternative<br />
methods for securing an airway [93]. This survey included the resp<strong>on</strong>ses from 340<br />
anesthesiologists (56.1%) <strong>and</strong> 266 n<strong>on</strong>-anesthesiologists. It revealed that all anesthesia-trained<br />
emergency physicians could dem<strong>on</strong>strate more than 100 endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>s performed in<br />
hospital in c<strong>on</strong>trast to <strong>on</strong>ly 35% <strong>of</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-anesthesiologists performing more than 100 in-hospital<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>s. A similar picture emerges for alternative methods for securing an airway as well.<br />
97.8% <strong>of</strong> anesthesia-trained emergency physicians had used alternative methods for securing an<br />
airway <strong>on</strong> more than 20 occasi<strong>on</strong>s while <strong>on</strong>ly 11.1% <strong>of</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-anesthesia-trained emergency<br />
physicians had equivalent experience (p < 0.05). In additi<strong>on</strong>, it emerges that <strong>on</strong>ly 27% <strong>of</strong><br />
emergency equipment was equipped <strong>with</strong> CO2 m<strong>on</strong>itors. From this study it can be c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
that there is an urgent training need for n<strong>on</strong>-anesthesia-trained emergency physicians in<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>, capnography <strong>and</strong> alternative methods for securing an airway [74].<br />
Studies <strong>on</strong> first-year anesthesiology residents showed that more than 60 intubati<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 23
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
necessary in order to achieve a success rate <strong>of</strong> 90% <strong>with</strong>in the first two endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong><br />
attempts under st<strong>and</strong>ardized, optimum c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in surgery [57]. However, as the success <strong>of</strong><br />
alternative methods for securing an airway (e.g., supraglottic airways: laryngeal mask, laryngeal<br />
tube) can <strong>on</strong>ly be as good as the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding training level in this procedure <strong>and</strong> current<br />
evidence indicates that a corresp<strong>on</strong>ding training level is not available everywhere [93],<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard. This knowledge also illustrates that<br />
emergency medical pers<strong>on</strong>nel should be regularly trained in endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
alternative ways <strong>of</strong> securing an airway [74].<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 24
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Alternative methods for securing an airway<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A difficult airway must be anticipated when endotracheally intubating a<br />
trauma patient.<br />
Alternative methods for securing an airway must be provided when<br />
anesthetizing <strong>and</strong> endotracheally intubating a multiply injured patient.<br />
Fiberoptic intubati<strong>on</strong> must be available as an alternative when anesthetizing<br />
<strong>and</strong> endotracheally intubating in-hospital.<br />
If difficult anesthetizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> are expected, an<br />
anesthesiologist must carry out or supervise this procedure in-hospital<br />
provided this does not cause a delay in an emergency life-saving measure.<br />
Suitable measures must be in place to ensure that an anesthesiologist is<br />
normally <strong>on</strong> site in time<br />
After more than 3 intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts, alternative methods must be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered for ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> securing an airway.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
Due to the framework c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, the endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an emergency patient is<br />
markedly more difficult in the prehospital envir<strong>on</strong>ment than in-hospital. A difficult airway must<br />
therefore always be anticipated when endotracheally intubating a trauma patient [74]. In a large<br />
study <strong>of</strong> 6,088 trauma patients, risk factors <strong>and</strong> difficulties in endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
<strong>of</strong> foreign bodies in the pharynx or larynx, direct injuries to the head or neck <strong>with</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> normal<br />
anatomy in the upper airway, airway edema, pharyngeal tumors, laryngospasms <strong>and</strong> a difficult<br />
pre-existing anatomy[88]. In another study, trauma patients presented difficult airway securing<br />
markedly more frequently (18.2%) than, for example, patients <strong>with</strong> cardiac arrest (16.7%) <strong>and</strong><br />
patients <strong>with</strong> other diseases (9.8%). Reas<strong>on</strong>s described for difficult airway management were the<br />
positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient (48.8% <strong>of</strong> cases), difficult laryngoscopy (42.7% <strong>of</strong> cases), secreti<strong>on</strong> or<br />
aspirati<strong>on</strong> in the oropharynx (15.9% <strong>of</strong> cases) <strong>and</strong> traumatic injuries (including bleeding/burns)<br />
in 13.4% <strong>of</strong> cases [94]. Technical problems occurred in 4.3% <strong>and</strong> other causes in 7.3% <strong>of</strong> cases.<br />
Further studies show a similar frequency <strong>of</strong> causes <strong>of</strong> difficult intubati<strong>on</strong> (blood 19.9%, vomit<br />
15.8%, hypersalivati<strong>on</strong> 13.8%, anatomy 11.7%, changes in anatomy caused by trauma 4.4%,<br />
positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patient 9.4%, lighting c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s 9.1%, technical problems 2.9% [48]. In a<br />
prospective study <strong>with</strong> 598 patients, adverse events <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s occurred significantly<br />
more frequently in patients <strong>with</strong> severe injuries than n<strong>on</strong>-traumatized patients (p = 0.001) [92].<br />
At least <strong>on</strong>e event was documented in 31.1% <strong>of</strong> traumatized patients. The number <strong>of</strong> attempts<br />
required for intubati<strong>on</strong> was also significantly increased in traumatized patients (p = 0.007) [92].<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 25
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
An increased risk <strong>of</strong> difficult intubati<strong>on</strong> exists particularly in patients <strong>with</strong> severe maxill<strong>of</strong>acial<br />
trauma (OR 1.9, 95% CI: 1.0–3.9, p = 0.05) [22]. Maxill<strong>of</strong>acial trauma even represents an<br />
independent factor for difficult airway management (OR 2.1, 95% CI: 1.1–4.4, p = 0.038). A<br />
retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> a trauma registry over a period <strong>of</strong> 7 years identified 90 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
severe maxill<strong>of</strong>acial injuries. Of these, 93% initially received definitive airway securing, in 80%<br />
<strong>of</strong> cases by means <strong>of</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> in 15% <strong>of</strong> cases through surgical airway<br />
securing [21]. On the basis <strong>of</strong> these available data, the trauma patient must definitely be assumed<br />
to be n<strong>on</strong>-fasting. In additi<strong>on</strong>, blood, vomit or other fluids associated <strong>with</strong> a more difficult<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> situati<strong>on</strong> must be expected in the oropharynx to a greater extent. A high-performance<br />
sucti<strong>on</strong> unit must therefore be available as a matter <strong>of</strong> course. For structure- <strong>and</strong> process-related<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s, the possibility <strong>of</strong> a back-up procedure <strong>with</strong> an experienced anesthesiologist <strong>of</strong>ten does<br />
not exist in the prehospital setting but in-hospital the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard is generally to involve an<br />
anesthesiologist in the management when difficult intubati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> anesthesia are expected. In a<br />
prospective cohort study, it was therefore shown that if an attending physician in anesthesiology<br />
was present at in-hospital emergency intubati<strong>on</strong>s, significantly fewer complicati<strong>on</strong>s occurred<br />
(6.1 versus 21.7%, p < 0.0001) [81]. However, there was no difference in the ventilati<strong>on</strong>-free<br />
days <strong>and</strong> the 30-day case fatality rate.<br />
If endotracheal airway securing fails, an appropriate algorithm must be followed, reverting back<br />
to bag-valve-mask ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or alternative methods <strong>of</strong> securing an airway [4, 15, 49, 73,<br />
74]. In a prospective study, intubati<strong>on</strong> success was evaluated in 598 patients in an emergency<br />
physician system solely staffed by anesthesiologists. Endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> was successful at<br />
the first attempt in 85.4% <strong>of</strong> all patients. Only 2.7% required more than two attempts, <strong>and</strong> 1.5%<br />
(n = 9) had supralaryngeal aids such as the Combitube (n = 7), laryngeal mask (n = 1) or an<br />
emergency cricothyroidotomy (n = 1) after the third unsuccessful intubati<strong>on</strong> attempt [92]. The<br />
study illustrates that alternative methods must be provided even in highly pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>al systems<br />
[55].<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 2,833 patients endotracheally intubated in-hospital at a Level I trauma<br />
center, it was shown that the risk <strong>of</strong> airway-associated complicati<strong>on</strong>s was markedly increased<br />
<strong>with</strong> more than 2 intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts: hypoxemia 11.8 versus 70%, regurgitati<strong>on</strong> 1.9 versus 22%,<br />
aspirati<strong>on</strong> 0.8 versus 13%, bradycardia 1.6 versus 21%, cardiac arrest 0.7 versus 11% [65].<br />
Another study, which was prospective <strong>and</strong> multi-center, examined over an 18-m<strong>on</strong>th period how<br />
many intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts (inserting the laryngoscope into the oral cavity) were necessary for<br />
successful endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in emergency patients [101]. In 94% <strong>of</strong> cases, endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> was carried out by paramedics <strong>and</strong> in a further 6% by nurses or emergency physicians.<br />
Overall, 1,941 endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>s were carried out, <strong>of</strong> which 1,272 (65.5%) were in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> cardiac arrest, 463 (23.9%) as intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out drug administrati<strong>on</strong> in patients<br />
<strong>with</strong>out cardiac arrest, 126 (6.5%) as intubati<strong>on</strong>s under sedati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong>out cardiac<br />
arrest, <strong>and</strong> 80 (4.1%) by means <strong>of</strong> rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> using a hypnotic agent <strong>and</strong> a muscle<br />
relaxant. Over 30% <strong>of</strong> patients required more than <strong>on</strong>e intubati<strong>on</strong> attempt to achieve successful<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>. More than 6 intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts were not reported in any case. The<br />
cumulative success rate during the first, sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> third intubati<strong>on</strong> attempt was 70%, 85% <strong>and</strong><br />
90% in patients <strong>with</strong> cardiac arrest. It was thus markedly higher than in the other 3 patient<br />
subgroups <strong>with</strong> intact circulatory functi<strong>on</strong> (intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out drugs: 58%, 69% <strong>and</strong> 73%;<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> under sedati<strong>on</strong>: 44%, 63% <strong>and</strong> 75%; intubati<strong>on</strong> by means <strong>of</strong> rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 26
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
56%, 81% <strong>and</strong> 91%). The specific success rates <strong>of</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> by paramedics, nurses<br />
<strong>and</strong> emergency physicians were not broken down further. The results <strong>of</strong> this study [101] show<br />
that the cumulative success rate <strong>of</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in a paramedic system is markedly<br />
below that <strong>of</strong> emergency physician systems staffed solely by anesthesiologists, whose rate is 97-<br />
100% [48, 92, 94]. However, the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> drugs, as they are used during a rapid<br />
sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> (including muscle relaxants), helps to facilitate endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong>out cardiac arrest <strong>and</strong> thus leads to a markedly higher intubati<strong>on</strong> success. Both are<br />
frequently vital for survival in an emergency situati<strong>on</strong>. According to the above-cited study<br />
results, alternative methods should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered for securing an airway after more than 3<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts [4, 65]. Although fiberoptic procedures are <strong>on</strong>ly available in isolated cases in<br />
the prehospital phase, fiberoptic intubati<strong>on</strong> must be available in-hospital. In all comm<strong>on</strong><br />
guidelines <strong>and</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> emergency airway securing, (awake) fiberoptic intubati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered a possible procedure for securing an airway if there is appropriate experience <strong>and</strong><br />
appropriate envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s [33, 46, 49, 59].<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, emergency cricothyroidotomy is simply the last resort in a “cannot ventilate - cannot<br />
intubate” situati<strong>on</strong> to secure ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> oxygenati<strong>on</strong> in an emergency. In nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong><br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> guidelines, emergency cricothyroidotomy has a firm place in<br />
prehospital <strong>and</strong> hospital phases <strong>and</strong> is indicated if alternative methods for securing an airway <strong>and</strong><br />
bag-valve-mask ventilati<strong>on</strong> are not successful [9, 46, 49, 70].<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 27
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
M<strong>on</strong>itoring emergency anesthesia<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
ECG, blood pressure measurement, pulse oxymetry <strong>and</strong> capnography must be<br />
used to m<strong>on</strong>itor the patient for anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong>, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
The German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care Medicine (DGAI) lays down certain<br />
features for a “st<strong>and</strong>ard workplace” in its update to the directives <strong>on</strong> equipping the<br />
anesthesiology workplace [27]. Special attenti<strong>on</strong> must be paid to the <strong>of</strong>ten difficult prevailing<br />
circumstances (e.g., physical c<strong>on</strong>fines, unfavorable lighting c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, limited resources) in<br />
prehospital emergency medicine <strong>and</strong> particularly in the care <strong>of</strong> trauma patients.<br />
The following items <strong>of</strong> equipment should be available in the prehospital phase for carrying out<br />
<strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring emergency anesthetizati<strong>on</strong> [74]: electrocardiogram (ECG), n<strong>on</strong>-invasive blood<br />
pressure measurement, pulse oxymetry, capnography/capnometry, defibrillator, emergency<br />
respirator, <strong>and</strong> sucti<strong>on</strong> unit. Appropriate equipment must be provided based <strong>on</strong> the guideline<br />
“Airway Management” <strong>of</strong> the German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care Medicine<br />
[15] <strong>and</strong> the German DIN st<strong>and</strong>ards for emergency physician vehicle (NEF) [28], rescue<br />
helicopter (RTH) [29] <strong>and</strong> ambulance (RTW) [30].<br />
In-hospital, the directives <strong>of</strong> the DGAI must be followed in the emergency room <strong>and</strong> in the other<br />
hospital wards [27].<br />
Emergency ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> capnography<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
During endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in the prehospital <strong>and</strong> in-hospital phases,<br />
capnometry/capnography must be used for m<strong>on</strong>itoring tube placement <strong>and</strong><br />
then for m<strong>on</strong>itoring dislocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Normoventilati<strong>on</strong> must be carried out in endotracheally intubated <strong>and</strong><br />
anesthetized trauma patients.<br />
From emergency room treatment <strong>on</strong>wards, ventilati<strong>on</strong> must be m<strong>on</strong>itored<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trolled by frequent arterial blood gas analyses.<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 28
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the prehospital <strong>and</strong> in-hospital phases, capnometry/capnography must always be used during<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> for m<strong>on</strong>itoring the placement <strong>of</strong> the tube <strong>and</strong> then to reduce incidence <strong>of</strong><br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itor ventilati<strong>on</strong>. Capnography is an essential comp<strong>on</strong>ent here in m<strong>on</strong>itoring<br />
the intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated patient [74]. Normoventilati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out in<br />
endotracheally intubated <strong>and</strong> anesthetized trauma patients. From emergency room treatment<br />
<strong>on</strong>wards, ventilati<strong>on</strong> must be m<strong>on</strong>itored <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trolled by frequent arterial blood gas analyses.<br />
Capnography for m<strong>on</strong>itoring tube placement <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong><br />
The most serious complicati<strong>on</strong> in endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> is an unrecognized esophageal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>, which can lead to the death <strong>of</strong> the patient. This is why, both prehospital <strong>and</strong> inhospital,<br />
all methods must be applied to recognize esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> remedy it<br />
immediately.<br />
The percentage <strong>of</strong> esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong>s reported in the literature starts at less than 1% [100,<br />
106] spanning 2% [40], 6% [75], <strong>and</strong> reaching almost 17% [53]. Moreover, a high case fatality<br />
rate was shown as a result <strong>of</strong> tube misplacement in the hypopharynx (33%) or in the esophagus<br />
(56%) [53]. Esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong> is thus not a rare event <strong>and</strong>, particularly in recent years,<br />
various studies have examined this catastrophic complicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
Germany as well. In a prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study, helicopter emergency physicians trained<br />
in anesthesiology identified an esophageal tube placement in 6 out <strong>of</strong> 84 (7.1%) trauma patients,<br />
who had been intubated by l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency physicians before arrival <strong>of</strong> the helicopter, <strong>and</strong><br />
an endobr<strong>on</strong>chial tube placement in 11 (13.1%) [95]. The case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> esophageally<br />
intubated patients was 80% in this study. In another prospective study <strong>with</strong> 598 patients in a<br />
German emergency physician system, the rate <strong>of</strong> esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong>s by n<strong>on</strong>-medical<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel or physicians before arrival <strong>of</strong> the actual emergency physician system was 3.2% [92].<br />
Another prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study revealed esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong> in 5.1% <strong>of</strong> 58 patients,<br />
who had been intubated by the l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency service or emergency physician before<br />
arrival <strong>of</strong> the helicopter emergency physician trained in anesthesiology [43]. In a study focusing<br />
<strong>on</strong> the admitting emergency room team, esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong> was found in 4 out <strong>of</strong> 375<br />
prehospital intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated patients (1.1%) [41].<br />
In a prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study <strong>of</strong> 153 patients, evidence showed that n<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the patients<br />
who had been m<strong>on</strong>itored by capnography had an unrecognized misplaced intubati<strong>on</strong>, but 14 out<br />
<strong>of</strong> the 60 patients (23.3%) not m<strong>on</strong>itored by capnography had [83]. Capnography therefore<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>gs in the st<strong>and</strong>ard equipment <strong>of</strong> the anesthesiology workplace <strong>and</strong> has dramatically<br />
increased the safety <strong>of</strong> anesthesia.<br />
In a prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study <strong>with</strong> 81 patients (n = 58 severe traumatic brain injury [TBI],<br />
n = 6 maxill<strong>of</strong>acial trauma, n = 17 multiple injuries), markedly greater sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity<br />
was dem<strong>on</strong>strated by m<strong>on</strong>itoring tube placement by capnography compared to auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
(sensitivity: 100 versus 94%; specificity: 100 versus 66%, p < 0.01) [44]. These data prove that<br />
capnography must always be used for m<strong>on</strong>itoring tube placement.<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 29
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
A survey found that in Baden-Wurttemberg <strong>on</strong>ly 66% out <strong>of</strong> 116 emergency physician sites had<br />
capnography available in 2005 [42]. There is an urgent need here for optimizati<strong>on</strong>. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it<br />
is unknown how <strong>of</strong>ten available capnography is actually used in prehospital endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>, tube positi<strong>on</strong> verificati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> emergency ventilati<strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring. The goal must be to<br />
reach a capnography rate <strong>of</strong> 100% in the prehospital <strong>and</strong> in-hospital phases. On the basis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
guideline “Airway Management” <strong>of</strong> the German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care<br />
Medicine <strong>and</strong> the German DIN st<strong>and</strong>ards for emergency physician vehicles (NEF) [28], rescue<br />
helicopters (RTH) [29] <strong>and</strong> ambulances (RTW) [30] <strong>on</strong> the m<strong>and</strong>atory availability <strong>of</strong><br />
capnography, the lack <strong>of</strong> appropriate equipment basically c<strong>on</strong>stitutes organizati<strong>on</strong>al negligence<br />
[42].<br />
Capnography for normoventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
The introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> emergency anesthetizati<strong>on</strong> is not <strong>on</strong>ly used to maintain adequate<br />
oxygenati<strong>on</strong> but also effective ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> thus the eliminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide (CO2),<br />
which accumulates in the human metabolism. Both an accumulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> CO2 (hypercapnia <strong>and</strong><br />
hyperventilati<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> hyperventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>secutive hypocapnia can cause damage<br />
particularly in patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury <strong>and</strong> must be avoided in the first 24 hours [14,<br />
16]. This results in a vicious circle <strong>of</strong> elevated intracranial pressure, hypercapnia, hypoxemia,<br />
further cellular swelling/edema <strong>and</strong> subsequent further increase in intracranial pressure.<br />
In a retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> prehospital care data from 100 prehospital intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated<br />
patients, it was shown that an etCO2 > 30 mmHg was attained in 65 patients <strong>and</strong> an etCO2 ≤ 29<br />
mmHg in 35 patients. A lower case fatality rate was noticeably more likely in normoventilated<br />
patients (case fatality rate: 29 versus 46%; OR 0.49, 95% CI: 0.1–1.1, p = 0.10) [17].<br />
In a prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study, <strong>on</strong>ly 155 out <strong>of</strong> 492 patients intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated in the<br />
prehospital phase showed a paCO2 between 30 <strong>and</strong> 35 mmHg in the initial arterial blood gas<br />
analysis (BGA) in the emergency room <strong>and</strong> were thus (according to the study protocol)<br />
normoventilated [102]. Eighty patients (16.3%) who were hypocapnic (paCO2 < 30 mmHg), 188<br />
patients (38.2%) who were mildly hypercapnic (paCO2 36–45 mmHg) <strong>and</strong> 69 patients (14.0 %)<br />
who were severely hypercapnic (paCO2 > 45 mmHg) were ventilated. The injury severity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
severely hypercapnic patients (paCO2 > 45 mmHg) was markedly higher <strong>and</strong> these patients also<br />
had hypoxia, acidosis or hypotensi<strong>on</strong> significantly more frequently compared to the other 3<br />
groups. The case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> prehospital intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated trauma patients both <strong>with</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out TBI was specifically lowered by normoventilati<strong>on</strong> (OR: 0.57, 95% CI: 0.33–0.99),<br />
<strong>with</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> isolated TBI gaining more markedly from normoventilati<strong>on</strong> (OR: 0.31, 95%<br />
CI: 0.31–0.96). According to the available results, hyperventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>secutive hypocapnia<br />
(paCO2 < 30 mmHg) in particular appears to be harmful in severely injured patients. These<br />
results make clear that, from emergency room treatment <strong>on</strong>wards, ventilati<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itored <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trolled by frequent arterial blood gas analyses.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 97 patients, it was shown that patients m<strong>on</strong>itored by capnography had a<br />
significantly higher rate <strong>of</strong> normoventilati<strong>on</strong>s (63.2 versus 20%, p < 0.0001) <strong>and</strong> significantly<br />
fewer hypoventilati<strong>on</strong>s (5.3 versus 37.5%, p < 0.0001) compared to patients who were ventilated<br />
<strong>with</strong>out capnography m<strong>on</strong>itoring but by using the 10-10 rule [47]. Capnography is thus an<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 30
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
orientating procedure in emergency ventilati<strong>on</strong>. When capnography is used for c<strong>on</strong>trolling<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong>, it must be taken into account that the correlati<strong>on</strong> between etCO2 <strong>and</strong> paCO2 is<br />
nevertheless weak (r = 0.277) [104]. As a result <strong>of</strong> a prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study <strong>with</strong> 180<br />
patients, 80% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> an etCO2 <strong>of</strong> 35–40 mmHg were indeed hypoventilated (paCO2<br />
> 40 mmHg). In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 66 intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated trauma patients, those<br />
patients in particular <strong>with</strong> high injury severity according to the ISS, hypotensi<strong>on</strong>, severe chest<br />
injury, <strong>and</strong> metabolic acidosis revealed a larger difference between etCO2 <strong>and</strong> paCO2 [61]. Thus,<br />
the arterial CO2 (paCO2) cannot always be directly inferred from the CO2 (etCO2) obtained by<br />
capnography [74]. This is due to the fact that good correlati<strong>on</strong> between etCO2 <strong>and</strong> paCO2 under<br />
physiologic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s is negatively affected by pulm<strong>on</strong>ary shunt fracti<strong>on</strong>s in pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>s, atelectasis, hypotensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> metabolic acidosis.<br />
Thus, capnography primarily serves to evaluate tube placement <strong>and</strong> to m<strong>on</strong>itor <strong>on</strong>-going<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>with</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol a sec<strong>on</strong>dary use. This was also briefly dem<strong>on</strong>strated in a<br />
retrospective cohort study <strong>with</strong> 547 trauma patients: all trauma patients <strong>and</strong> especially patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> severe TBI gained from paCO2-c<strong>on</strong>trolled ventilati<strong>on</strong> (OR: 0.33, 95% CI: 0.16–0.75). There<br />
was a significant survival advantage if paCO2 was already between 30 <strong>and</strong> 39 mmHg <strong>on</strong><br />
admissi<strong>on</strong> to the emergency room (OR 0.32, 95% CI: 0.14–0.75). In patients whose paCO2 could<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be brought into the target range during their stay in the emergency room, there was <strong>on</strong>ly a<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-significant trend towards a lower case fatality rate (OR 0.48, 95% CI: 0.21–1.09). A<br />
markedly worse survival rate was shown by those trauma patients who initially had a paCO2 <strong>of</strong><br />
30–39 mmHg but were then hypoventilated (paCO2> 39 mmHg) or hyperventilated<br />
(paCO2 < 30 mmHg) or who never attained the target goal <strong>of</strong> a paCO2 <strong>of</strong> 30–39 mmHg during<br />
their stay in the emergency room. This study also illustrates that paCO2 must not be freely<br />
inferred from etCO2 [102].<br />
Using capnography to check tube placement <strong>and</strong> to detect tube dislocati<strong>on</strong>s is advisable <strong>and</strong><br />
essential. Capnography is the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard in st<strong>and</strong>ard anesthesia, <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> management<br />
is markedly better <strong>with</strong> capnography than <strong>with</strong>out this procedure. There are limitati<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> management using capnography due to unpredictable shunt fracti<strong>on</strong>s. For this reas<strong>on</strong>,<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> must be managed by blood gas analysis as early as possible, in other words<br />
immediately up<strong>on</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> to the emergency room.<br />
Lung protective ventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
In a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a small tidal volume (6 ml/kg BW) in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) led to a significantly reduced case<br />
fatality rate <strong>and</strong> a lower incidence <strong>of</strong> barotrauma <strong>and</strong> improved oxygenati<strong>on</strong> compared to<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> high tidal volume [2]. The multi-center r<strong>and</strong>omized, c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
by the ARDS network c<strong>on</strong>firmed these results in a ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> low tidal volume <strong>and</strong> limiting<br />
plateau pressure to ≤ 30 cm H2O in patients <strong>with</strong> ARDS [5]. Chest injuries are observed in<br />
around 60% <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding c<strong>on</strong>sequences (e.g., pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>s, ARDS), <strong>and</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> an acute lung injury (ALI) as an independent factor<br />
is associated <strong>with</strong> the case fatality rate (case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> trauma patients <strong>with</strong> ALI [n = 93]:<br />
23.7 versus <strong>with</strong>out ALI [n = 190]: 8.4%, p < 0.01) [82]. Thus, lung protective ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 31
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
tidal volume <strong>of</strong> 6 ml/kg BW <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> the lowest possible peak pressures must be implemented as<br />
early as possible following endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> [45].<br />
Emergency anesthesia<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
For endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in multiply injured patients, emergency<br />
anesthesia must be carried out as rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> due to the usual<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> a fasting state <strong>and</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> aspirati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Etomidate should be avoided as an inducti<strong>on</strong> agent due to the associated side<br />
effects <strong>on</strong> adrenal functi<strong>on</strong> (ketamine is usually a good alternative here).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
Emergency anesthesia is frequently an unavoidable comp<strong>on</strong>ent <strong>of</strong> the proper care <strong>of</strong> a multiply<br />
injured patient. Anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong> must be carried out in a structured way; if carried out<br />
improperly, it is associated <strong>with</strong> an increased risk <strong>of</strong> morbidity <strong>and</strong> case fatality rate [74]. In a<br />
retrospective study, compared to n<strong>on</strong>-emergency intubati<strong>on</strong> (n = 2,136), emergency intubati<strong>on</strong> (n<br />
= 241) was linked to a markedly higher risk <strong>of</strong> severe hypoxemia (SpO2 < 70%: 25 versus 4.4%,<br />
p < 0.001), regurgitati<strong>on</strong> (25 versus 2.4%, p < 0.001), aspirati<strong>on</strong> (12.8 versus 0.8%), bradycardia<br />
(21.3 versus 1.5%, p < 0.001), arrhythmia (23.4 versus 4.1%, p < 0.001) <strong>and</strong> cardiac arrest (10.2<br />
versus 0.7%, p < 0.001) [66].<br />
In trauma patients, an airway is secured <strong>and</strong> anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong> is normally carried out as rapid<br />
sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> (RSI) (ileus or crash inducti<strong>on</strong>) to secure an airway in the shortest possible<br />
time <strong>with</strong>out aspirati<strong>on</strong> if possible. In a prospective study, an evaluati<strong>on</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>ducted over an<br />
18-m<strong>on</strong>th period <strong>on</strong> how many intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts (inserting the laryngoscope into the oral<br />
cavity) were necessary for successful endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> in 1,941 emergency patients. The<br />
cumulative intubati<strong>on</strong> success in patients <strong>with</strong> intact circulatory functi<strong>on</strong> differed greatly in the<br />
first 3 intubati<strong>on</strong> attempts between patients who received intubati<strong>on</strong> entirely <strong>with</strong>out drugs (58%,<br />
69% <strong>and</strong> 73%), intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly under sedati<strong>on</strong> (44%, 63% <strong>and</strong> 75%) or intubati<strong>on</strong> by means <strong>of</strong><br />
rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> (56%, 81% <strong>and</strong> 91%) [101]. There was a high rate <strong>of</strong> failed intubati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in other studies as well where no muscle relaxants were administered to optimize the intubati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s during anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong> for endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> [34]. Drug-supported<br />
anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong> in terms <strong>of</strong> rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> is therefore vital for the success <strong>of</strong><br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the hemodynamic state <strong>of</strong> the patient, the injury pattern, <strong>and</strong> the pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the physician, various inducti<strong>on</strong> hypnotic agents can be used here (e.g., etomidate,<br />
ketamine, midazolam, prop<strong>of</strong>ol, thiopental). Each <strong>of</strong> these drugs has its own pharmacologic<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>and</strong> associated side effects (e.g., etomidate: superficial anesthesia, affects the adrenal<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>, ketamine: arterial hypertensi<strong>on</strong>, midazolam: slower <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> effect, superficial<br />
anesthesia, prop<strong>of</strong>ol: arterial hypotensi<strong>on</strong>, thiopental: releases histamine <strong>and</strong> triggers asthma,<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 32
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
necrosis due to extravasati<strong>on</strong>). Ketamine in particular can be used, also in combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
midazolam or low-dose prop<strong>of</strong>ol, for rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> marked<br />
hemodynamic instability [51, 64, 74]. For analgesics, fentanyl or sufentanil is suitable for<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ketamine for patients <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> [51, 64, 74].<br />
Etomidate<br />
Etomidate will be looked at in more detail below because important side effects have been<br />
discussed <strong>of</strong> late. In a retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> the data from a trauma registry, the potentially<br />
negative effects from using etomidate in severe trauma were shown [105]. Etomidate was given<br />
to 35 out <strong>of</strong> 94 trauma patients (37%) during rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong>. There were no<br />
differences between the patients treated <strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out etomidate in the demographic data<br />
(age: 36 versus 41 years), the cause <strong>of</strong> trauma, <strong>and</strong> the injury severity (injury severity score: 26<br />
versus 22). After adjustment <strong>of</strong> the data (according to physiology, injury severity <strong>and</strong><br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong>), etomidate was linked to an increased risk <strong>of</strong> ARDS <strong>and</strong> multiple organ failure<br />
(adjusted OR: 3.9, 95% CI: 1.24–12.0). The trauma patients anesthetized <strong>with</strong> a single dose <strong>of</strong><br />
etomidate also had a l<strong>on</strong>ger hospital stay (19 versus 22 d, p < 0.02), more ventilati<strong>on</strong> days (11<br />
versus 14 d, p < 0.04) <strong>and</strong> a l<strong>on</strong>ger intensive care stay (13 versus 16 d, p < 0.02).<br />
In another retrospective study <strong>of</strong> a US trauma registry, the results <strong>of</strong> the cosyntropin stimulati<strong>on</strong><br />
test (CST) <strong>on</strong> 137 trauma patients in intensive care units were examined [23]. 61% <strong>of</strong> the trauma<br />
patients were n<strong>on</strong>-resp<strong>on</strong>ders. Age (51 ± 19 versus 50 ± 19 years), sex (male: 38 versus 57%),<br />
trauma mechanism <strong>and</strong> injury severity (injury severity score: 27 ± 10 versus 31 ± 12, Revised<br />
Trauma Score: 6.5 ± 1.5 versus 5.2 ± 1.8) did not differ significantly between resp<strong>on</strong>ders <strong>and</strong><br />
n<strong>on</strong>-resp<strong>on</strong>ders. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the rate <strong>of</strong> sepsis/septic shock (20 versus 34%, p = 0.12), the need<br />
for mechanical ventilati<strong>on</strong> (98 versus 94%, p = 0.38) <strong>and</strong> the case fatality rate (10 versus 19%,<br />
p = 0.67) did not differ between the two groups. However, there were significant differences in<br />
the incidence <strong>of</strong> hemorrhagic shock (30 versus 54%, p < 0,005), the need for vasopressors (52<br />
versus 78%, p < 0.002), the incidence <strong>of</strong> coagulopathies (13 versus 41%, p < 0.001), the period<br />
in intensive care (13 ± 12 versus 19 ± 14, p < 0.007), the number <strong>of</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> days (12 ± 13<br />
versus 17 ± 17, p < 0.006) <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> etomidate as an inducti<strong>on</strong> hypnotic agent (52 versus<br />
71%, p < 0.03). The authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded that etomidate is <strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the few modifiable risk factors<br />
for the development <strong>of</strong> adrenocortical insufficiency in critically ill trauma patients.<br />
In another prospective, r<strong>and</strong>omized study, after arriving in a Level I trauma center, trauma<br />
patients received either etomidate <strong>and</strong> succinylcholine or fentanyl, midazolam <strong>and</strong><br />
succinylcholine for rapid sequence inducti<strong>on</strong> [50]. The baseline serum cortisol c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
recorded before anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> an ACTH (adrenocorticotropic horm<strong>on</strong>e) test was<br />
carried out. Altogether, 30 patients were examined. The 18 patients in the etomidate group<br />
showed no significant differences compared to the 12 patients treated <strong>with</strong> fentanyl/midazolam<br />
<strong>with</strong> regard to the following patient characteristics (age: 42 ± 25 versus 44 ± 20 years, p = 0.802;<br />
Injury Severity Score: 27 ± 10 versus 20 ± 11 years, p = 0.105; baseline serum cortisol<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>: 31 ± 12 versus 27 ± 10 µg/dl, p = 0.321). The patients treated <strong>with</strong> etomidate<br />
showed a slight rise in serum cortisol c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> after the ACTH test compared to the patients<br />
treated <strong>with</strong> fentanyl/midazolam (4.2 ± 4.9 µg/dl versus 11.2 ± 6.1 µg/dl, p < 0.001). The<br />
patients treated <strong>with</strong> etomidate had a l<strong>on</strong>ger stay in intensive care (8 versus 3 d, p = 0.011), a<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 33
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger period <strong>of</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> (6.3 versus 1.5 d, p = 0.007) <strong>and</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger hospital treatment (14 versus<br />
6 d, p = 0.007). Two trauma patients in this study collective died, <strong>and</strong> both had been treated <strong>with</strong><br />
etomidate. The authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded that other inducti<strong>on</strong> hypnotic agents instead <strong>of</strong> etomidate<br />
should be used for trauma patients.<br />
Overall, the current data status shows rather unfavorable results for the use <strong>of</strong> etomidate in<br />
trauma patients. Thus, etomidate should <strong>on</strong>ly be used <strong>with</strong> great care <strong>and</strong> deliberati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
inducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> trauma patients.<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 34
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Procedure for endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> suspected cervical spine injury<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Manual in-line stabilizati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out for endotracheal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the cervical spine immobilizati<strong>on</strong> device temporarily<br />
removed.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Normally, trauma patients, particularly multiply injured patients, are immobilized <strong>with</strong> a neck<br />
brace until a cervical spine fracture can be excluded by imaging technology. However, a<br />
correctly positi<strong>on</strong>ed cervical spine immobilizati<strong>on</strong> device restricts the mouth opening <strong>and</strong> thus<br />
the ability to insert a laryngoscope during an intubati<strong>on</strong> maneuver. The cervical spine<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong> device prevents reclinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the head. Thus, it was possible in a prospective<br />
multi-center study to identify cervical spine immobilizati<strong>on</strong> as a cause <strong>of</strong> a more difficult<br />
endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> [58]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, some users are replacing the cervical spine<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong> device in endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> by manual in-line stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (MILS). In this<br />
case, the cervical spine is immobilized by another assistant using both h<strong>and</strong>s to immobilize the<br />
cervical spine manually. The subsequent direct laryngoscopy under MILS was the st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>of</strong><br />
care in emergency situati<strong>on</strong>s for many years. However, there is c<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounding MILS<br />
<strong>and</strong> partially negative effects have been described [63, 79]. As an alternative to direct<br />
laryngoscopy, fiberoptic intubati<strong>on</strong> as the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard can be performed <strong>on</strong> alert <strong>and</strong><br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneously breathing patients in a stable cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> by an experienced user<br />
in-hospital [13, 74].<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 35
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
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89. Stiell IG, Nesbitt LP, Pickett W et al. (2008) The<br />
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Urgent airway interventi<strong>on</strong>: does outcome change<br />
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[Effect <strong>of</strong> early intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> posttraumatic<br />
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98. v<strong>on</strong> Elm E, Schoettker P, Henzi I et al. (2009) Prehospital<br />
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Outcomes after out-<strong>of</strong>-hospital endotracheal<br />
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112:846-853<br />
Prehospital – Airway management, ventilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> emergency anesthesia 39
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
1.3 Volume replacement<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Volume replacement should be introduced in severely injured patients, at a<br />
reduced level if there is unc<strong>on</strong>trollable bleeding, in order to keep the<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> at a low stable level <strong>and</strong> not exacerbate the bleeding.<br />
Volume replacement should be carried out <strong>with</strong> the aim <strong>of</strong> restoring<br />
normotensi<strong>on</strong> in hypotensive patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury.<br />
Normotensive patients do not require volume replacement but venous lines<br />
should be placed.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Due to underperfusi<strong>on</strong> from hemorrhaging <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>secutively occurring traumatic-hemorrhagic<br />
shock, there is an imbalance between oxygen supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> in the tissue [83]. This<br />
disturbed microcirculati<strong>on</strong> is held resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the occurrence <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage following<br />
hemorrhagic shock. The goal <strong>of</strong> volume replacement should be to improve microcirculati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
thus organ perfusi<strong>on</strong>. Expert opini<strong>on</strong> therefore holds that aggressive volume replacement has a<br />
favorable effect <strong>on</strong> the outcome for acutely bleeding patients [1, 28, 53, 56]. This rati<strong>on</strong>ale for<br />
the prehospital phase has not been c<strong>on</strong>firmed in r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials. In a r<strong>and</strong>omized<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial [83], prehospital patients were r<strong>and</strong>omized either to receive or not receive<br />
volume replacement. 1,309 patients were included. There was no difference between the groups<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> mortality, morbidity <strong>and</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-term outcome [83].<br />
In a retrospective study by Balogh et al. [8], 156 patients in shock receiving supranormal<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> were compared to patients receiving less treatment which was terminated at the<br />
oxygen delivery index (DO2I) . Raised intraabdominal pressure, which is supposed to be<br />
associated <strong>with</strong> increased organ failure, was observed in the aggressive interventi<strong>on</strong> group.<br />
Another study by Bickell et al. [11] found a negative survival effect from volume replacement<br />
after bleeding. However, this study <strong>on</strong>ly included patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating torso injuries. 1,069<br />
patients were included in the study. In this selected patient group, the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> volume<br />
replacement in the prehospital phase led to an increase in mortality from 30% to 38% <strong>and</strong> to an<br />
increase from 23% to 30% in post-operative complicati<strong>on</strong>s in the group <strong>with</strong> prehospital volume<br />
replacement. The authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded from this that prehospital volume replacement should not be<br />
carried out <strong>and</strong> that surgical treatment should be started as quickly as possible. Many authors go<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>with</strong> this c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> in reviews or experimental studies [9, 45, 48, 60, 67, 77, 82].<br />
However, the authors always highlight there being unc<strong>on</strong>trollable intrathoracic or intraabdominal<br />
bleeding. In such a situati<strong>on</strong>, surgery should be performed as rapidly as possible <strong>and</strong> not be<br />
delayed by prehospital interventi<strong>on</strong>s. The goal should be moderate volume replacement <strong>with</strong><br />
“c<strong>on</strong>trolled hypotensi<strong>on</strong>” <strong>and</strong> a systolic blood pressure <strong>of</strong> about 90 mmHg should be aimed for<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 40
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
[10, 36, 51, 69]. However, even this is questi<strong>on</strong>ed in patients <strong>with</strong> cardiac damage or traumatic<br />
brain injury (TBI) [35, 51, 79]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, other authors partly advocate aggressive<br />
volume replacement, <strong>of</strong>ten addressing a different set <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong>, for example, extremity<br />
injuries <strong>with</strong>out unc<strong>on</strong>trollable bleeding [28, 52, 56, 61, 71]. More recent papers have been<br />
unable to c<strong>on</strong>firm the results obtained by Bickell [44, 94].<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> papers recommend the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> intensive volume replacement up<strong>on</strong><br />
arrival at the hospital <strong>and</strong> after surgery has begun or if there is c<strong>on</strong>trollable bleeding. Again,<br />
expert opini<strong>on</strong> indicates a target hematocrit value <strong>of</strong> 25-30% as the volume to be administered<br />
[12, 40, 55, 56]. C<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> this topic do not exist.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> catecholamines is viewed critically <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly seen as a last resort [46, 56].<br />
In <strong>on</strong>e study, the extended prehospital treatment time due to carrying out volume replacement is<br />
given as 12-13 minutes [83]. The authors interpret this time loss partly as <strong>of</strong> little relevance [83]<br />
<strong>and</strong> partly as a major negative factor for mortality [73]. However, it is unclear whether this<br />
statement from North America can be transferred to the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the German emergency<br />
physician-supported system.<br />
Table 3: Prehospital volume replacement - mortality<br />
Study LoE Patient collective<br />
Turner et al. 2000<br />
[83]<br />
Bickell et al. 1994<br />
[11]<br />
1b<br />
2a<br />
Multiply injured patients<br />
(n = 1,309)<br />
<strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> penetrating chest<br />
injury (n = 1,069)<br />
Mortality <strong>with</strong><br />
volume<br />
replacement<br />
Mortality <strong>with</strong>out<br />
volume<br />
replacement<br />
10.4% 9.8%<br />
38% 30%<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 41
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Crystalloids versus colloids<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Crystalloids should be used for volume replacement in trauma patients. GoR B<br />
Isot<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong> should not be used; preference should be given to<br />
Ringer’s malate, or alternatively Ringer’s acetate or lactated Ringer's<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
GoR B<br />
Human albumin must not be used in prehospital volume replacement. GoR A<br />
If colloidal soluti<strong>on</strong>s are used in hypotensive trauma patients, preference<br />
should be given to HES 130/0.4.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
There is still c<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounding the choice <strong>of</strong> infusi<strong>on</strong> soluti<strong>on</strong> to be used. The majority <strong>of</strong><br />
data is taken from animal experiments or from operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> is limited in its evidential value.<br />
Different results are produced from the meta-analyses carried out. In 1989, Velanovich et al.<br />
showed a reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 12.3% in mortality <strong>of</strong> trauma patients when crystalloid volume<br />
replacement was given [85]. In 1999, Choi et al. c<strong>on</strong>firmed this result <strong>and</strong> hypothesized a lower<br />
mortality after trauma when crystalloids were used [23]. A Cochrane analysis <strong>of</strong> 2008 yielded no<br />
difference between colloids <strong>and</strong> crystalloids after trauma [19, 20, 21]. The authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
from this that colloids could be dispensed <strong>with</strong> as a volume replacement drug as there was no<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> an advantage from colloids, <strong>and</strong> crystalloids were cheaper. A proviso should be<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed here that old, very large-molecule soluti<strong>on</strong>s were used in these reviews <strong>and</strong> the<br />
informative value <strong>of</strong> these reviews is limited. According to the available studies, the newer<br />
colloid hydroxy ethyl starch (HES) 1301/0.4 no l<strong>on</strong>ger seems to have the disadvantages <strong>of</strong> older<br />
starch soluti<strong>on</strong>s [39, 53]. However, a marked deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in coagulati<strong>on</strong> was observed in <strong>on</strong>e<br />
in-vitro study even for more modern volume soluti<strong>on</strong>s including hypert<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
effect was not observed when using lactated Ringer's soluti<strong>on</strong> or 0.9% saline soluti<strong>on</strong> [14].<br />
Lactated Ringer’s soluti<strong>on</strong> is the preferred choice <strong>of</strong> crystalloid over isot<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong> [30,<br />
41, 43, 78]. Experimental papers showed evidence <strong>of</strong> diluti<strong>on</strong>al acidosis occurring after infusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> large amounts <strong>of</strong> isot<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong> [62, 63]. The additi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> lactate to a Ringer’s<br />
balanced electrolyte soluti<strong>on</strong> prevents diluti<strong>on</strong>al acidosis through the metabolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lactate to bicarb<strong>on</strong>ate <strong>and</strong> water, thus buffering the bicarb<strong>on</strong>ate pool. More recent experimental<br />
papers have found evidence <strong>of</strong> disadvantages in lactated Ringer's soluti<strong>on</strong>. According to these<br />
papers, lactated Ringer's soluti<strong>on</strong> triggers the activati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> neutrophil granulocytes, thus causing<br />
more lung damage [4, 5, 6, 66]. The rate <strong>of</strong> granulocyte apoptosis is also apparently increased<br />
[32]. There is no evidence <strong>of</strong> this in clinical studies.<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 42
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Plasma lactate is used as a shock parameter in diagnosis. Lactated Ringer's soluti<strong>on</strong> leads to an<br />
iatrogenic increase in plasma lactate level <strong>and</strong> can thus interfere <strong>with</strong> the diagnosis [64, 65].<br />
Ringer’s malate or Ringer’s acetate can be used instead. In animal experiments there was<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> lower mortality <strong>with</strong> Ringer’s malate. In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, the use <strong>of</strong> lactated Ringer's<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong> no l<strong>on</strong>ger appears to be worthy <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A Cochrane Review did not identify any evidence that <strong>on</strong>e colloid is significantly superior to the<br />
other in the choice <strong>of</strong> colloid to be used [18]. The risk <strong>of</strong> an anaphylactic reacti<strong>on</strong> to a colloid<br />
can be classified as minimal. In 1997, Ring [68] published his findings in The Lancet <strong>on</strong> the<br />
probability <strong>of</strong> an immune reacti<strong>on</strong> to HES as 0.006%, to dextran as 0.0008% <strong>and</strong> to gelatine as<br />
0.038%. Individual research papers seem to want to see an advantage <strong>of</strong> HES over the other<br />
colloids [1, 54, 74]. In a large series in France, the tolerance <strong>of</strong> different colloids was studied in<br />
19,593 patients. 48.1% received gelatine soluti<strong>on</strong>s, 27.6% starch soluti<strong>on</strong>s, 15.7% albumin, <strong>and</strong><br />
9.5% dextrans. Overall, 43 anaphylactic reacti<strong>on</strong>s were observed (0.219%). The distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
between the different volume soluti<strong>on</strong>s was as follows: 0.345% for gelatine, 0.273% for<br />
dextrans, 0.099% for albumin, <strong>and</strong> 0.058% for starch. 20% <strong>of</strong> all allergic reacti<strong>on</strong>s were serious<br />
to very serious (grade III <strong>and</strong> IV). In a multivariate analysis, independent risk factors were<br />
identified as the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> gelatine (OR 4.81), dextran (OR 3.83), a medical history <strong>of</strong><br />
allergy to drugs (OR 3.16), <strong>and</strong> male sex (OR 1.98). Thus, a 6-fold smaller risk <strong>of</strong> anaphylaxis<br />
was observed for starch soluti<strong>on</strong>s compared to gelatine <strong>and</strong> a 4.7 times lower risk for dextran<br />
[54].<br />
In 1990, Hankeln et al. tested HES 200/0.6 compared to human albumin in a r<strong>and</strong>omized study<br />
<strong>of</strong> 40 patients <strong>with</strong> vascular interventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> were able to establish an optimum volume effect<br />
for HES 200/0.6 [41]. According to other studies as well, human albumin as a colloid seems to<br />
be associated <strong>with</strong> increased mortality <strong>and</strong> is not to be recommended [41]. The influence <strong>of</strong><br />
colloids <strong>on</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> seems negligible [53]. Albumin does not appear to play a role in volume<br />
replacement [37].<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 43
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s can be used in multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> hypotensive<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> after blunt trauma.<br />
Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s should be used in penetrating trauma if prehospital<br />
volume replacement is carried out.<br />
A hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> can be used in hypotensive patients <strong>with</strong> severe<br />
traumatic brain injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
In recent years, the hypert<strong>on</strong>ic 7.5% saline soluti<strong>on</strong> has increasingly gained in importance,<br />
especially in prehospital volume replacement. As already described above, the microcirculatory<br />
disturbance is the harmful factor in hemorrhagic-traumatic shock.<br />
The mechanism <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> mobilizing intracellular <strong>and</strong><br />
interstitial fluid into the intravasal space <strong>and</strong> thus <strong>on</strong> improving microcirculati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> total<br />
rheology.<br />
The dosage <strong>of</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> is limited in order to counteract harmful hypernatremia. Based<br />
mainly <strong>on</strong> experimental papers, the optimum dosage has been established at 4 ml/kg body weight<br />
(BW). A single administrati<strong>on</strong> is prescribed.<br />
Microcirculatory disturbance during hemorrhaging is the main factor for late complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
occurring. Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong> leads to interstitial <strong>and</strong> intracellular volume rapidly<br />
mobilizing into the intravasal space <strong>and</strong> thus to c<strong>on</strong>secutively improving rheology <strong>and</strong> thereby<br />
the microcirculatory system [49]. No significant advantages <strong>of</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> have been<br />
found in c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies. Bunn et al. (2004) studied hypert<strong>on</strong>ic versus isot<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s in a<br />
Cochrane Review [20]. The authors came to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that the available data was still<br />
insufficient to make a final judgment <strong>on</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>. In two c<strong>on</strong>trolled r<strong>and</strong>omized trials,<br />
Mattox et al. (1991) <strong>and</strong> Vassar et al. (1991) argued an advantage <strong>of</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
survival especially after traumatic brain injury [59, 84]. A paper by Alpar et al. (2004) follows<br />
the same line where an improvement in outcome is described in 180 patients especially after<br />
traumatic brain injury [2]. However, another c<strong>on</strong>trolled study from 2004 revealed that there was<br />
no significant difference to be observed in 229 patients in the l<strong>on</strong>g-term outcome after traumatic<br />
brain injury [29]. Moreover, Vassar et al. (1993) reported that the additi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> dextrans did not<br />
bring any benefit for survival after trauma <strong>and</strong> bleeding [84]. This finding is c<strong>on</strong>tradicted by<br />
several papers which found a clear benefit from the additi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> dextran [28, 49, 86, 87].<br />
A positive effect <strong>on</strong> the clinical treatment <strong>of</strong> traumatic brain injury has been found in other<br />
studies. Wade (1997) <strong>and</strong> Vassar (1993) showed an effect <strong>on</strong> mortality after traumatic brain<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 44
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
injury <strong>and</strong> initial treatment <strong>with</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> [84, 90]. Vassar found that the mortality rate<br />
dropped from 49 to 60% <strong>and</strong> Wade’s mortality rate from 26.9 to 37.0% <strong>with</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the follow-up treatment for increased intracranial pressure, a lowering effect is described<br />
particularly for the combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>/HES [42, 47, 75, 91, 92, 93]. However,<br />
this effect could not be c<strong>on</strong>firmed in a c<strong>on</strong>trolled clinical trial [76]. Nor could any advantage<br />
from the hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> be detected in another current paper by Bulger et al. published in<br />
JAMA <strong>with</strong> the result that the study was disc<strong>on</strong>tinued after 1,313 patients [15]. Wade et al.<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted a comparative study in terms <strong>of</strong> a short meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 14 papers <strong>on</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
saline soluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out the additi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> dextran <strong>and</strong> found no relevant advantage in<br />
hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s [90]. In a paper from 2003, the same author describes a positive effect <strong>of</strong><br />
hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s in penetrating traumas. In a double-blind study <strong>with</strong> 230 patients, the<br />
patients initially received either hypert<strong>on</strong>ic sodium chloride (NaCl) or isot<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
mortality <strong>of</strong> the patients who were treated <strong>with</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic NaCl soluti<strong>on</strong> was 82.5% versus<br />
75.5%, which was a significant improvement. The surgery rate <strong>and</strong> bleeding rate were equal. The<br />
authors thus c<strong>on</strong>cluded that hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s improve the survival rate in penetrating traumas<br />
<strong>with</strong>out increasing bleeding [89].<br />
In a current study by Bulger et al. [17], lactated Ringer's soluti<strong>on</strong> was compared to hypert<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
NaCl soluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> dextran in a group <strong>of</strong> 209 multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma. The<br />
endpoint <strong>of</strong> this study was ARDS-free survival. As there were no differences, the study was<br />
disc<strong>on</strong>tinued after an intenti<strong>on</strong>-to-treat analysis. In a subgroup analysis, an advantage for<br />
hypert<strong>on</strong>ic NaCl soluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> dextran was <strong>on</strong>ly found after massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>. Even the most<br />
recent publicati<strong>on</strong> from this working group did not show any advantages for hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
after hemorrhagic shock [16]. In fact, a higher mortality rate was observed in patients not<br />
requiring transfusi<strong>on</strong> after being given hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong> [28-day mortality-- hypert<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> dextrans: 10%; hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>: 12.2% <strong>and</strong> 0.9% saline soluti<strong>on</strong>: 4.8%,<br />
p < 0.01) [16].<br />
Immunologic effects are likewise ascribed to the hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>. Thus, experimental papers<br />
describe a reducti<strong>on</strong> in neutrophil activati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> in the pro-inflammatory cascade [4, 5, 6, 7, 26,<br />
27, 31, 33, 66, 81]. No evidence has yet been found <strong>on</strong> the clinical importance <strong>of</strong> these effects.<br />
Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic soluti<strong>on</strong>s lead to a rapid rise in blood pressure <strong>and</strong> a reducti<strong>on</strong> in volume requirement<br />
[3, 13, 22, 24, 38, 50, 57, 58, 93]. How far this influences the treatment outcome cannot be found<br />
in the literature.<br />
With regard to the dosage, Rocha <strong>and</strong> Silva (1990) showed in dogs that a 7.5% soluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
4 ml/kg BW corresp<strong>on</strong>ds to the optimum dosage [70]; this was c<strong>on</strong>firmed again by Wade et al.<br />
(2003) [88].<br />
Anti-shock trousers<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Anti-shock trousers must not be used for circulatory support in multiply GoR A<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 45
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
injured patients.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The anti-shock trousers (pneumatic anti-shock garment [PASG]) were promoted particularly in<br />
the 1980s <strong>and</strong> were <strong>of</strong>ten used in the military sector. S<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage <strong>and</strong> compartment<br />
syndromes brought their use into questi<strong>on</strong>. The current Cochrane Review from the year 2000 no<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger recommends the use <strong>of</strong> anti-shock trousers. There are indicati<strong>on</strong>s that the PASG increases<br />
mortality <strong>and</strong> extends the period <strong>of</strong> intensive treatment <strong>and</strong> hospital treatment [34]. Relevant<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s after using anti-shock trousers have been described in several reviews <strong>and</strong> original<br />
papers [25, 80]. According to the literature available, the PASG should no l<strong>on</strong>ger be<br />
recommended.<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 46
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
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1.4 Thorax<br />
Diagnostic tests<br />
The decisi<strong>on</strong> whether to carry out drainage or decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pleural space is based <strong>on</strong><br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>, assessment <strong>of</strong> findings (diagnosis), <strong>and</strong> benefit-risk evaluati<strong>on</strong> (diagnosis certainty<br />
<strong>with</strong> limited diagnostic opti<strong>on</strong>s, time factor, c<strong>on</strong>comitant circumstances, <strong>and</strong> risks attached to the<br />
method itself).<br />
Examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the thorax <strong>and</strong> respiratory functi<strong>on</strong> must be carried<br />
out.<br />
The examinati<strong>on</strong> should include as a minimum the measurement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
respiratory rate <strong>and</strong> auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the lungs. The examinati<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
repeated.<br />
The following can be helpful: inspecti<strong>on</strong> (bilaterally unequal in respiratory<br />
excursi<strong>on</strong>, unilateral bulging, paradoxical respirati<strong>on</strong>), palpati<strong>on</strong> (pain,<br />
crepitati<strong>on</strong>s, subcutaneous emphysema, instability) <strong>and</strong> percussi<strong>on</strong> (hyperres<strong>on</strong>ant<br />
percussi<strong>on</strong>) <strong>of</strong> the thorax together <strong>with</strong> pulse oxymetry <strong>and</strong>, in<br />
ventilated patients, m<strong>on</strong>itoring ventilati<strong>on</strong> pressure.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Initial examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
The physical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient is required for establishing a diagnosis, which in turn is a<br />
prerequisite for treatment interventi<strong>on</strong>s. An acute life-threatening disorder can <strong>on</strong>ly be<br />
recognized by examinati<strong>on</strong>. Even <strong>with</strong>out scientific pro<strong>of</strong>, it appears to be absolutely essential<br />
[89].<br />
Scientific studies <strong>on</strong> the type <strong>and</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> physical examinati<strong>on</strong> are mainly <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> auscultati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
measuring respiratory rate <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> clarifying sp<strong>on</strong>taneous pain <strong>and</strong> tenderness. Thus, <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
experience can define the required scope <strong>of</strong> the physical examinati<strong>on</strong> in the prehospital<br />
emergency examinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the emergency situati<strong>on</strong> at the accident scene, the initial examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the thorax should<br />
include (after checking <strong>and</strong> securing the vital functi<strong>on</strong>s) checking the respiratory rate <strong>and</strong><br />
auscultati<strong>on</strong> (presence <strong>of</strong> breath sounds, bilaterally equal breath sounds) [14, 36, 39, 40]. All<br />
these signs are correlated to significant pathologies or have a direct influence <strong>on</strong> medical<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s. Other useful examinati<strong>on</strong>s can be inspecti<strong>on</strong> (for signs <strong>of</strong> injury, symmetry <strong>of</strong> the<br />
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thorax, symmetry <strong>of</strong> respiratory excursi<strong>on</strong>, paradoxical respirati<strong>on</strong>, dyspnea, distended neck<br />
veins) <strong>and</strong> palpati<strong>on</strong> (subcutaneous emphysema, pain points, crepitati<strong>on</strong>s, instabilities in the<br />
b<strong>on</strong>y structure <strong>of</strong> the thorax). M<strong>on</strong>itoring ventilati<strong>on</strong> pressure <strong>and</strong> pulse oxymetry can be added<br />
in the course <strong>of</strong> further management [55].<br />
All the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed examinati<strong>on</strong>s are used to detect relevant, threatening or potentially<br />
threatening disorders <strong>and</strong> injuries, which altogether can make it necessary to administer<br />
immediate <strong>and</strong> specific treatment or make a logistical decisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the spot. All diagnostic<br />
procedures that can be introduced prehospital are <strong>with</strong>out specific risk, the <strong>on</strong>ly disadvantage<br />
being the loss <strong>of</strong> time, which is usually minimal.<br />
The different findings are to some extent greatly dependent <strong>on</strong> the examiner, the patient <strong>and</strong> the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. For instance, noise can make auscultati<strong>on</strong> more difficult or impossible. Such<br />
circumstances must be taken into account when selecting <strong>and</strong> interpreting the primary diagnostic<br />
study [36, 40, 80, 135].<br />
Several researchers showed that, under in-hospital c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> (lung<br />
sliding, lung point, comet tail, etc.) allows good <strong>and</strong> accurate detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax <strong>and</strong><br />
hemothorax (review in [87]). However, there is no experience in prehospital applicati<strong>on</strong> so a<br />
general recommendati<strong>on</strong> cannot be made.<br />
Patient m<strong>on</strong>itoring<br />
The respiratory rate <strong>and</strong>, if applicable, ventilati<strong>on</strong> pressure should be checked <strong>and</strong> auscultati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> pulse oxymetry performed during the course since a disorder in the respiratory system, a<br />
misplacement <strong>of</strong> the tube, tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax or acute respiratory insufficiency can develop<br />
dynamically. The follow-up examinati<strong>on</strong> can serve as a performance check <strong>of</strong> the treatment<br />
administered.<br />
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Diagnosing pneumothorax<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A suspected diagnosis <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax <strong>and</strong>/or hemothorax must be made if<br />
breath sounds are weaker or absent <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e side (after checking correct<br />
placement <strong>of</strong> the tube). Absence <strong>of</strong> such auscultati<strong>on</strong> findings largely rules<br />
out a larger pneumothorax, especially if the patient is normopneic <strong>and</strong> has no<br />
chest pain.<br />
The potential progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a small pneumothorax which cannot initially be<br />
diagnosed in the prehospital phase should be taken into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
There are currently no methods available for definite prehospital detecti<strong>on</strong> or exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
pneumothorax. This is <strong>on</strong>ly clinically possible by computed tomography (exclusi<strong>on</strong>).<br />
Auscultati<strong>on</strong><br />
The studies <strong>on</strong> diagnostic accuracy <strong>of</strong> auscultati<strong>on</strong> are summarized in<br />
Table 4. The specificity <strong>of</strong> a unilateral weakened or absent breath sound for the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
pneumothorax is very high at 93-98%. The positive predictive value, i.e. the probability <strong>of</strong> there<br />
actually being a pneumothorax in the presence <strong>of</strong> a weakened breath sound, is also very high at<br />
86-97% [35, 135]. Pneumothoraces not detected by auscultati<strong>on</strong> had a mean volume <strong>of</strong> 378 ml<br />
(max. 800 ml), n<strong>on</strong>-detected hemothoraces had a mean volume <strong>of</strong> 277 ml (max. 600 ml). No<br />
large, acutely threatening lesi<strong>on</strong>s were missed [36, 80]. In another prospective series,<br />
auscultati<strong>on</strong> was the most reliable method <strong>of</strong> detecting a pneumohemothorax compared to<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> pain or tachypnea [24]. C<strong>on</strong>versely, a hemo-/pneumothorax was virtually excluded<br />
in the presence <strong>of</strong> normopnea <strong>and</strong> normal auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> palpati<strong>on</strong> findings [24].<br />
The prerequisite is the correct placement <strong>of</strong> the endotracheal tube (as available), which must be<br />
ensured beforeh<strong>and</strong> if possible. A proviso must be given here that the cited studies were not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted at the emergency site but <strong>on</strong> emergency admissi<strong>on</strong> in the hospital. However, they<br />
appear to be easily transferable as numerous c<strong>on</strong>founders (e.g., high noise level, disturbance) can<br />
also predominate in a comparable manner in emergency admissi<strong>on</strong>. False positive findings can<br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>ally be present (4.5% <strong>of</strong> cases in [88]) in tube misplacements, diaphragmatic rupture [1,<br />
4] or ventilati<strong>on</strong> disorders (large atelectases, shifting <strong>of</strong> deeper respiratory tracts).<br />
If there are severe bilateral chest injuries, the presence <strong>of</strong> a bilateral pneumothorax should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered. Atypical examinati<strong>on</strong> findings may occur in this case.<br />
Data for differentiating between a pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> a hemothorax or mixed types are<br />
unavailable. Percussi<strong>on</strong> can be helpful here but in the prehospital setting seems to be <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>of</strong><br />
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subordinate relevance as the differentiati<strong>on</strong> between pneumo- <strong>and</strong> hemothorax has no provable<br />
effects <strong>on</strong> treatment requirements (see below).<br />
Table 4: Diagnostic valency <strong>of</strong> a pathologic auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding <strong>with</strong> regard to a<br />
hemo/pneumothorax<br />
Study LoE Patient collective Sensitivity Specificity<br />
Hirshberg et al. 1988 [80] 1 Sharp trauma (n = 51) 96% 93%<br />
Worml<strong>and</strong> et al. 1989<br />
[143]<br />
3 Sharp trauma (n = 200) 73.3% 98.6%<br />
Thoms<strong>on</strong> et al. 1990 [135] 1 Sharp trauma (n = 102) 96% 94%<br />
Chen et al. 1997 [36] 3 Sharp trauma (n = 118) 58% 98%<br />
Chen et al. 1998 [35] 1<br />
Mainly blunt trauma<br />
(n = 148)<br />
84% 97%<br />
Bokhari et al. 2002 [24] 2 Blunt trauma (n = 523) 100% 99.8%<br />
Bokhari et al. 2002 [24] 2 Sharp trauma (n = 153) 50% 100%<br />
Dyspnea<br />
Even if the symptoms <strong>of</strong> dyspnea <strong>and</strong> tachypnea are difficult to quantify in c<strong>on</strong>sciousnessclouded<br />
patients, evidence <strong>of</strong> normopnea (respiratory rate between 10-20/min) can be put to<br />
good use in clinical practice. Several studies revealed that normopnea is a very reliable sign that<br />
a larger hemo/pneumothorax can be excluded after blunt trauma (high specificity). In c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
the presence <strong>of</strong> dyspnea in no way indicates the reverse, that pneumothorax is present (low<br />
sensitivity).<br />
Table 5: Diagnostic valency <strong>of</strong> dyspnea <strong>and</strong> tachypnea <strong>with</strong> regard to hemo/pneumothorax<br />
Study LoE Patient collective Sensitivity Specificity<br />
Worml<strong>and</strong> et al. 1989 [143] 3 Sharp trauma (n = 200 patients) 75.6% 84.1%<br />
Hing et al. 2001 [79] 4 Sharp trauma (n = 153 patients) 72.7% 95.5%<br />
Bokhari et al. 2002 [24] 2 Blunt trauma (n = 523 patients) 42.8% 99.6%<br />
Bokhari et al. 2002 [24] 2 Sharp trauma (n = 153 patients) 31.8% 99.2%<br />
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Thoracic pain <strong>and</strong> pneumothorax<br />
Fully c<strong>on</strong>scious patients can be asked if they have chest pains. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> provides indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> tenderness in the thoracic regi<strong>on</strong>. There is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e clinical<br />
study that ranks absence <strong>of</strong> pain, <strong>and</strong> it reveals good specificity particularly for sharp trauma<br />
[24]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, this finding <strong>on</strong>ly has adequate diagnostic accuracy in the overall picture<br />
<strong>with</strong> other findings.<br />
Table 6: Diagnostic valency <strong>of</strong> thoracic pain <strong>with</strong> regard to hemo/pneumothorax<br />
Study LoE Patient collective Sensitivity Specificity<br />
Bokhari et al., 2002 [24] 2 Blunt trauma (n = 523 patients) 57.1% 78.6%<br />
Bokhari et al., 2002 [24] 2 Sharp trauma (n = 153 patients) 25.0% 91.5%<br />
Synopsis <strong>of</strong> thoracic pain, dyspnea, auscultati<strong>on</strong><br />
Table 7 presents the diagnostic accuracy for the presence <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax after blunt trauma in<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> to the presence <strong>of</strong> thoracic pain, dyspnea, <strong>and</strong> unilateral weakened breath sounds<br />
detected by auscultati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Table 7: Statistical probabilities for the presence <strong>of</strong> a clinically relevant hemopneumothorax in<br />
various combinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> findings after blunt chest injury (basic assumpti<strong>on</strong>: 10% prevalence as<br />
pretest probability <strong>and</strong> independence <strong>of</strong> test)<br />
Thoracic pain<br />
(sensitivity 57%,<br />
specificity 79%)<br />
Dyspnea<br />
(sensitivity 43%,<br />
specificity 98%)<br />
Auscultati<strong>on</strong><br />
(sensitivity 90%,<br />
specificity 98%)<br />
Probability for hemo/<br />
pneumothorax<br />
+ + + > 99%<br />
+ + - 40%<br />
+ - + 89%<br />
+ - - 2%<br />
- + + 98%<br />
- + - 12%<br />
- - + 61%<br />
- - - < 1%<br />
Chest injury <strong>and</strong> pneumothorax<br />
If a chest injury is present, it is not unusual to c<strong>on</strong>clude an increased risk <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax being<br />
present <strong>and</strong> from this the indicati<strong>on</strong> for pleural drainage. Two issues must be c<strong>on</strong>sidered here:<br />
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the success rate <strong>of</strong> emergency physicians for diagnosing chest injury <strong>and</strong> the correlati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
a chest injury <strong>and</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>comitant pneumothorax.<br />
However, the diagnostic accuracy <strong>of</strong> the emergency physician is greatly limited. An analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
data from the DGU Trauma Registry showed that the emergency physician had grossly<br />
overestimated the chest injury in 18% <strong>of</strong> cases, i.e. the emergency physician assumed a severe<br />
chest injury which was not actually there [7].<br />
In 9-50% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed chest injury, there was also a pneumothorax. It should be<br />
noted <strong>with</strong> these figures that the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> chest injury in all these studies had been made after<br />
a full set <strong>of</strong> diagnostic tests including imaging.<br />
In the majority <strong>of</strong> studies, between 37 <strong>and</strong> 59% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> a relevant chest injury diagnosed<br />
in hospital had a pneumothorax [23, 55, 66, 137]. If occult pneumothoraces - in other words,<br />
those which can <strong>on</strong>ly be detected in CT but not clinically <strong>and</strong> not in st<strong>and</strong>ard radiography - are<br />
not included, then the proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> chest injury who have a relevant pneumothorax<br />
is actually <strong>on</strong>ly 17-25% [23, 137]. However, the incidence <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax sec<strong>on</strong>dary to chest<br />
injury was markedly lower at 8.9% in individual studies [52].<br />
Table 8: Incidence <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax in the presence <strong>of</strong> chest injury<br />
Study Incidence <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax (radiologic diagnostic test <strong>with</strong>out CT)<br />
Blostein et al. 1997 [23] 25% <strong>of</strong> chest injuries<br />
Demartines et al. 1990 [52] 8.9% <strong>of</strong> chest injuries<br />
Di Bartolomeo et al. 2001 [55] 21% <strong>of</strong> all critically injured<br />
Gaillard et al. 1990 [66] 41% <strong>of</strong> chest injuries<br />
Trupka et al. 1997 [137] 17% <strong>of</strong> chest injuries<br />
Other examinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> pneumothorax<br />
Evidence <strong>of</strong> subcutaneous emphysema is viewed as an indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
pneumothorax. However, there are no good diagnostic studies to support this. The specificity <strong>and</strong><br />
positive predictive value are not known. However, the sensitivity is low <strong>and</strong> is between 12 <strong>and</strong><br />
25% [47, 126]. In a 30-year old study, it was reported that subcutaneous emphysema in intensive<br />
care patients had 100% sensitivity for the presence <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax. However, these<br />
data are possibly not transferable to acutely ill trauma patients in the prehospital phase [130].<br />
Taking into account the relatively high rate <strong>of</strong> false findings, the findings <strong>of</strong> an unstable thorax<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> crepitati<strong>on</strong>s are indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> a chest injury but not <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax.<br />
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Pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> progressi<strong>on</strong><br />
The potential progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an initially asymptomatic pneumothorax is important, particularly in<br />
air rescue as well. The progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothoraces can vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably am<strong>on</strong>g individuals,<br />
<strong>and</strong> basically the full range from in-hospital finding to rapid progressi<strong>on</strong> is possible. The<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> small pneumothoraces can provide certain clues. In a small retrospective series,<br />
13 patients <strong>with</strong> occult pneumothorax were c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated, 6 <strong>of</strong> whom were being<br />
mechanically ventilated. It was subsequently necessary in 2 cases to insert a chest drain due to a<br />
progressive pneumothorax <strong>on</strong> the sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> third day, respectively, after admissi<strong>on</strong> [38]. In a<br />
prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study, 8 out <strong>of</strong> 21 patients <strong>with</strong> an occult pneumothorax which was<br />
under observati<strong>on</strong> developed progressive pneumothorax <strong>and</strong>, in 3 cases, tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax.<br />
All these patients were ventilated [60]. The 3 tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothoraces occurred in the operating<br />
room, post-operative after admissi<strong>on</strong> to the intensive care unit, <strong>and</strong> during a prol<strong>on</strong>ged<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> phase; exact times in hours after trauma are not available. A period <strong>of</strong> at least 30-<br />
60 minutes after hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> can at least be assumed. In another prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized<br />
study <strong>of</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> occult pneumothoraces, the progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax in the group<br />
<strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated patients (12.5%) was not greater than those <strong>on</strong> a pleural drain (21%)<br />
[25]. Details c<strong>on</strong>cerning the durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax progressi<strong>on</strong> were not recorded. In a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> 44 newborn, mostly intubated children, the time between the probable start <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax<br />
<strong>and</strong> the clinical diagnosis being made was <strong>on</strong> average 127 minutes <strong>with</strong> a scatter between 45 <strong>and</strong><br />
660 minutes [99].<br />
In 3 studies, the maximum size <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax was indicated as 5 x 80 ml (400 ml), bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
which pleural drainage was indicated [25, 60, 70]. However, as pneumothoraces <strong>of</strong> this size can<br />
usually already be clinically diagnosed by auscultati<strong>on</strong> (see above), it can be assumed that the<br />
progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothoraces <strong>with</strong> normal auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding meets the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Most experts believe that the progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax to tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax is greater in<br />
patients who are <strong>on</strong> positive pressure ventilati<strong>on</strong> [13] but this cannot be quantified.<br />
To summarize, the data suggest that small, clinically n<strong>on</strong>-diagnosable pneumothoraces generally<br />
progress relatively slowly <strong>and</strong> thus do not require any emergency decompressi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
prehospital phase.<br />
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Diagnosing tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A suspected diagnosis <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax should be made if<br />
auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the lung reveals no breath sounds unilaterally (after checking<br />
correct placement <strong>of</strong> the tube) <strong>and</strong>, in additi<strong>on</strong>, typical symptoms are<br />
present, particularly severe respiratory disorder or upper inflow c<strong>on</strong>gesti<strong>on</strong><br />
combined <strong>with</strong> arterial hypotensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Good scientific data <strong>on</strong> diagnostic accuracy <strong>of</strong> examinati<strong>on</strong> findings for tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax<br />
are few <strong>and</strong> far between. Practically all c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s are based <strong>on</strong> case reports, animal<br />
experiments or expert opini<strong>on</strong>. There is no uniform definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> exactly what tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
pneumothorax means. The definiti<strong>on</strong>s range from pneumothorax <strong>with</strong> threatening disorders to<br />
vital functi<strong>on</strong>s, hiss <strong>of</strong> escaping air during needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>, mediastinal shift <strong>on</strong> the chest<br />
X-ray, raised ipsilateral intrapleural pressure, <strong>and</strong> hemodynamic compromise [91]. For obvious<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s, the ad-hoc diagnosis in the prehospital phase can <strong>on</strong>ly be made <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> findings.<br />
The vast majority <strong>of</strong> experts c<strong>on</strong>sider the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax as given if lifethreatening<br />
hemodynamic or respiratory disorders are present. Cyanosis, breathlessness,<br />
tachypnea, c<strong>on</strong>tralateral tracheal deviati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> a drop in oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong>, elevated respiratory<br />
excursi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> bulging hemithorax <strong>with</strong> hyper-res<strong>on</strong>ant percussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the diseased side are<br />
possible respiratory signs. Hemodynamic indicators can include distended neck veins,<br />
tachycardia, <strong>and</strong> ultimately a drop in blood pressure through to cardiac arrest (pulseless electrical<br />
activity). However, many <strong>of</strong> these signs can <strong>on</strong>ly be detected <strong>on</strong> closer examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> have not<br />
been systematically examined to date. There are few data <strong>on</strong> trauma patients; most informati<strong>on</strong><br />
has been gained from observing tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothoraces in intensive care medicine [90].<br />
Experimental examinati<strong>on</strong>s show that, in the alert patient, respiratory impairment <strong>and</strong> paralysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> the respiratory center sec<strong>on</strong>dary to hypoxia precede cardiac arrest, <strong>and</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
endpoint <strong>of</strong> which is cardiac arrest, is a late sign <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax [13, 124]. These<br />
experimental findings were recently c<strong>on</strong>firmed by a patient <strong>with</strong> accidental tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
pneumothorax, who became dyspneic, cyanotic <strong>and</strong> finally unc<strong>on</strong>scious before respiratory arrest<br />
occurred. However, the carotid pulse could be felt throughout [131]. The patient’s c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
normalized rapidly after decompressing the elevated intrapleural pressure. A tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
pneumothorax in the radiograph (mediastinal shift to the c<strong>on</strong>tralateral side) <strong>with</strong>out signs <strong>of</strong><br />
impaired circulati<strong>on</strong> has been described in another case report [101]. This patient’s circulati<strong>on</strong><br />
remained stable in the 30-minute period between making the diagnosis <strong>and</strong> inserting the chest<br />
drain. In another case report, the tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax manifested itself clinically by cyanosis,<br />
an increase in respiratory <strong>and</strong> heart rate <strong>and</strong> impaired c<strong>on</strong>sciousness (GCS 10) while other signs<br />
were absent. However, a careful inspecti<strong>on</strong> revealed ipsilateral overextensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> hypomobility<br />
in the chest wall. In a review article from 2005, the two symptoms, breathlessness <strong>and</strong><br />
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tachycardia, were presented as the typical <strong>and</strong> most frequent signs <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax in<br />
the alert patient [91].<br />
However, the same authors also showed that in ventilated patients the cardio-circulatory<br />
symptoms <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax occurred earlier <strong>and</strong> the respiratory symptoms <strong>and</strong> fall in<br />
blood pressure <strong>of</strong>ten manifested themselves simultaneously. In the ventilated patient, very<br />
elevated or rising airway pressures are an important additi<strong>on</strong>al symptom that can be found in<br />
approximately 20% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> hemo/pneumothorax [14, 40]. However, systematically<br />
collected data c<strong>on</strong>cerning diagnostic accuracy are not available. According to expert opini<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> (unilaterally) absent breath sound (<strong>with</strong> tube placement m<strong>on</strong>itored) <strong>and</strong> lifethreatening<br />
respiratory <strong>and</strong> circulatory functi<strong>on</strong> disorders makes the presence <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
pneumothorax so probable that the diagnosis should be made <strong>and</strong> the necessary therapeutic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences followed. The c<strong>on</strong>sequences <strong>of</strong> a false diagnosis <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax appear<br />
to be subordinate compared to failing to carry out necessary decompressi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong>s for pleural decompressi<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Clinically suspected tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax must be decompressed<br />
immediately.<br />
Pneumothorax diagnosed <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> an auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding in a patient<br />
<strong>on</strong> positive pressure ventilati<strong>on</strong> should be decompressed.<br />
Pneumothorax diagnosed <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> an auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding in patients<br />
not <strong>on</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> should usually be managed by close clinical observati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Comparative studies between c<strong>on</strong>servative <strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>al treatment are not available. The<br />
treatment recommendati<strong>on</strong>s are based <strong>on</strong> expert opini<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the probabilities.<br />
Tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax<br />
Tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax is an acute life-threatening situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>, if untreated, generally leads to<br />
death. Death can occur <strong>with</strong>in a few minutes <strong>of</strong> the <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> signs <strong>of</strong> restricted pulm<strong>on</strong>ary <strong>and</strong><br />
circulatory functi<strong>on</strong>. There is no alternative to decompressi<strong>on</strong>. The experts are <strong>of</strong> the opini<strong>on</strong> that<br />
immediate emergency decompressi<strong>on</strong> should be carried out particularly <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> circulatory<br />
or respiratory impairment <strong>and</strong> that the time lost through transferring the patient to a hospital,<br />
even <strong>on</strong>e situated in the immediate vicinity, represents an unjustifiable delay. In a study <strong>of</strong> 3,500<br />
autopsies, there were 39 cases <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax (incidence 1.1%), half <strong>of</strong> whom had not<br />
been diagnosed while still alive. Am<strong>on</strong>g soldiers from the Vietnam war, 3.9% <strong>of</strong> all patients <strong>with</strong><br />
chest injuries <strong>and</strong> 33% <strong>of</strong> all soldiers <strong>with</strong> fatal chest injury had tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax [100]. An<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> 20 patients who had been categorized as unexpected survivors based <strong>on</strong> the TRISS<br />
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prognosis showed that tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax had been treated by decompressi<strong>on</strong> in 7 <strong>of</strong> them in<br />
the prehospital phase [29].<br />
Diagnosed pneumothorax<br />
A large pneumothorax, which can be assumed if a typical auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding is collected,<br />
essentially presents an indicati<strong>on</strong> to evacuate the pleural cavity. Whether this has to take place in<br />
the prehospital phase or <strong>on</strong>ce admitted to hospital is difficult to decide in the individual case as<br />
the risk <strong>of</strong> progressi<strong>on</strong> from simple pneumothorax to tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> the amount <strong>of</strong><br />
time that such a development can take are variable <strong>and</strong> difficult to estimate. The literature<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tains neither general data nor risk factors <strong>on</strong> this topic. There are indicati<strong>on</strong>s that intubated<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> a chest injury when admitted to hospital are more likely to have tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
pneumothorax than n<strong>on</strong>-intubated patients. Overall, it still appears plausible to the experts that a<br />
pneumothorax diagnosed by auscultati<strong>on</strong> in a ventilated patient has a markedly higher risk <strong>of</strong><br />
developing into tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax; thus, prehospital decompressi<strong>on</strong> is indicated.<br />
If a patient <strong>with</strong> pneumothorax diagnosed by auscultati<strong>on</strong> is not ventilated, then the risk <strong>of</strong><br />
progressi<strong>on</strong> to tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax appears to be markedly lower. In a series <strong>of</strong> 54<br />
pneumothoraces after trauma, 29 were treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively, i.e. <strong>with</strong>out inserting a pleural<br />
drain. These were n<strong>on</strong>-ventilated patients, mostly <strong>with</strong>out c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries. A pleural drain<br />
was inserted in <strong>on</strong>ly 2 cases 6 hours after admissi<strong>on</strong> to hospital because <strong>of</strong> radiologic progressive<br />
pneumothorax [85]. Prehospital decompressi<strong>on</strong> does not appear to be necessary here <strong>and</strong> close<br />
clinical observati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out. If appropriate clinical m<strong>on</strong>itoring is an issue, e.g.,<br />
during helicopter transfer, then there is a certain, unquantifiable risk that tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax<br />
will develop which will not be recognized in time <strong>and</strong>/or which cannot be adequately treated due<br />
to space limitati<strong>on</strong>s. In such situati<strong>on</strong>s, if relevant clinical signs are present <strong>and</strong> after individual<br />
assessment, decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pneumothorax can be carried out before transfer even in n<strong>on</strong>intubated<br />
patients.<br />
Chest injury <strong>with</strong>out direct pneumothorax diagnosis<br />
If no pneumothorax is diagnosed (i.e. if the auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding shows no lateral difference),<br />
then there is also essentially no indicati<strong>on</strong> for prehospital decompressi<strong>on</strong> or pleural evacuati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> clear signs <strong>of</strong> severe chest injury means that between 10 <strong>and</strong> 50% <strong>of</strong> these<br />
patients may have a pneumothorax (see above) <strong>and</strong> thus pleural drainage could be indicated in<br />
every sec<strong>on</strong>d to tenth patient. C<strong>on</strong>versely, this means that at least every sec<strong>on</strong>d patient <strong>and</strong> up to<br />
9 out <strong>of</strong> every 10 patients would, under these c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, receive unnecessary invasive treatment.<br />
This also coincides <strong>with</strong> the findings that air released from the pleural space was observed in<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 32-50% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> prehospital decompressi<strong>on</strong> [14, 125], <strong>and</strong> decompressi<strong>on</strong> was not<br />
indicated in 9-25% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> pleural drains inserted in the prehospital phase as there was no<br />
pneumothorax or chest injury [7, 8, 125].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, it should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered that the radiologic findings have not been correlated to the<br />
clinical findings in the studies <strong>on</strong> pneumothorax incidence in chest injury. It can be assumed that<br />
numerous radiologically detectable pneumothoraces could also have been diagnosed by<br />
auscultati<strong>on</strong>. The rate <strong>of</strong> pneumothoraces which cannot be diagnosed clinically but are present in<br />
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chest injury can thus be assumed to be much lower [38]. As occult pneumothoraces were also<br />
included in a series <strong>of</strong> these studies, i.e. pneumothoraces which were first detectable at least 30<br />
minutes after hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly by computed tomography but not by st<strong>and</strong>ard radiography<br />
[23, 137], the proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> prehospital relevant pneumothoraces falls even further. The risk <strong>of</strong> a<br />
pneumothorax, which at the time <strong>of</strong> primary survey was small <strong>and</strong> yielded a normal auscultati<strong>on</strong><br />
finding, progressing to tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax has already been discussed above <strong>and</strong> should be<br />
viewed as minor in the prehospital timeframe.<br />
Thus, in a justified individual case, decompressi<strong>on</strong> can be carried out in ventilated patients <strong>with</strong><br />
clear signs <strong>of</strong> chest injury but normal auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding prior to l<strong>on</strong>g road or helicopter<br />
transfer <strong>with</strong> limited clinical m<strong>on</strong>itoring or treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s. The high rate <strong>of</strong> false positive<br />
diagnoses <strong>of</strong> chest injury by the emergency physician must be taken into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Under these c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, decompressi<strong>on</strong> is not indicated in n<strong>on</strong>-ventilated patients.<br />
Other indicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> hemothorax represent the <strong>on</strong>ly typical indicati<strong>on</strong>s for pleural decompressi<strong>on</strong><br />
or pleural drainage in prehospital acute medicine. The therapeutic management <strong>of</strong> pneumothorax<br />
has already been presented above. Although hemothorax is essentially an indicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
evacuating the blood located in the pleural space, there is generally no direct danger <strong>of</strong><br />
compressi<strong>on</strong> from the blood <strong>and</strong> there is no indicati<strong>on</strong> for evacuati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the blood to the outside<br />
in the prehospital phase. Emergency decompressi<strong>on</strong> can <strong>on</strong>ly be indicated in cases <strong>of</strong> massive<br />
bleeding, possibly <strong>with</strong> problems developing in terms <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> hemothorax. However, this<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> is generally associated <strong>with</strong> a pathologic auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding <strong>and</strong> will thus make it<br />
necessary to proceed as per the situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a pneumothorax, especially as it is generally<br />
always difficult to differentiate between a hemothorax <strong>and</strong> a hemopneumothorax in the<br />
prehospital phase.<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong><br />
Methods<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> the treatment is decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> positive pressure in tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax or<br />
tensi<strong>on</strong> hemothorax. The sec<strong>on</strong>d treatment goal to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered is the preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a simple<br />
pneumothorax developing into a tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax. The permanent <strong>and</strong>, if possible,<br />
complete evacuati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> air <strong>and</strong> blood is <strong>of</strong> no importance in the prehospital emergency.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax should be decompressed by needle<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong>, followed by surgery to open the pleural space <strong>with</strong> or <strong>with</strong>out<br />
a chest drain.<br />
GoR B<br />
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Pneumothorax should be treated <strong>with</strong> a chest drain provided the indicati<strong>on</strong><br />
exists.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
As there are no suitable comparative data <strong>on</strong> the 3 methods, no recommendati<strong>on</strong> for a method <strong>of</strong><br />
choice can be made based <strong>on</strong> the data. (Predominantly retrospective) data, case series <strong>and</strong> case<br />
histories are available for all 3 methods <strong>and</strong> they dem<strong>on</strong>strate that successful decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax is possible by each <strong>of</strong> these methods.<br />
In view <strong>of</strong> the low evidence level <strong>on</strong> choice <strong>of</strong> method <strong>and</strong> benefit-risk pr<strong>of</strong>ile in the direct<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> methods, the individual ability <strong>of</strong> the treating emergency physician should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered for reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> practicability <strong>and</strong> risk potential. In <strong>on</strong>e study, a significant difference<br />
in complicati<strong>on</strong> rate for inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain was observed between emergency admissi<strong>on</strong><br />
physicians <strong>and</strong> surge<strong>on</strong>s [62]. In a more recent study, a lower complicati<strong>on</strong> rate associated <strong>with</strong><br />
inserti<strong>on</strong> by surgical compared to n<strong>on</strong>-surgical residents was also observed in North America<br />
[11]. Due to a lack <strong>of</strong> reliable data, the extent to which these results are transferable to the<br />
German emergency physician system cannot be evaluated.<br />
Chest drain: Efficacy <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain is a highly effective, suitable but not complicati<strong>on</strong>-free procedure for<br />
decompressing a tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax, which must be used particularly when the alternative<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s have failed or are insufficiently effective. Generally, it also represents the<br />
definitive treatment <strong>and</strong> has the highest success rate. In 79-95% <strong>of</strong> cases, pleural drains inserted<br />
in the prehospital phase were the successful, definitive treatment interventi<strong>on</strong> [10, 52, 117, 125].<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, pleural drainage has a failure rate <strong>of</strong> 5.4-21% (mean <strong>of</strong> 11.2%) due to<br />
misplacements or insufficient efficacy. With this frequency, it was necessary to insert an<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al pleural drain [10, 34, 45, 52, 62, 75, 117, 125]. This involved retained<br />
pneumothoraces <strong>and</strong> hemothoraces to more or less the same extent. Individual cases <strong>of</strong> persistent<br />
tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothoraces were also observed <strong>with</strong> pleural drains inserted in the prehospital phase<br />
[10, 31, 98].<br />
The pooled complicati<strong>on</strong> rates for pleural drainage are shown in<br />
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Table 9 <strong>and</strong> in Table 10 (see appendix). There do not appear to be any relevant differences<br />
between pleural drains inserted in the prehospital <strong>and</strong> in-hospital phases. However, there are <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
2 studies in which the complicati<strong>on</strong> rates for prehospital <strong>and</strong> in-hospital treatment were directly<br />
compared <strong>with</strong>in the same establishment [128, 144]. They revealed comparable infecti<strong>on</strong> rates<br />
(9.4 versus 11.7%) <strong>and</strong> misplacements (0 versus 1.2%). The number <strong>of</strong> days in situ was<br />
comparable in both groups in each study.<br />
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Table 9: Complicati<strong>on</strong> rates for pleural drains inserted in the prehospital versus in-hospital phase<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong> Only prehospital pleural drains * Only in-hospital pleural drains *<br />
Subcutaneous<br />
misplacements<br />
Intra-pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
misplacements<br />
Intraabdominal<br />
misplacements<br />
Infecti<strong>on</strong>s (pleural<br />
empyema)<br />
2.53% (1.55–3.33%)<br />
n = 730, 9 studies<br />
[10, 14, 47, 52, 88, 117, 125, 126,<br />
144]<br />
1.37% (0.63–2.58%)<br />
n = 657, 7 studies<br />
[10, 14, 47, 52, 88, 125, 126]<br />
0.87% (0.32–1.88%)<br />
n = 690, 8 studies<br />
[10, 14, 47, 52, 88, 117, 125, 126]<br />
0.55% (0.11–1.59%)<br />
n = 550, 5 studies<br />
[10, 14, 52, 125, 144]<br />
0.39% (0.08–1.13%)<br />
n = 772, 6 studies<br />
[9, 19, 45, 46, 77, 144]<br />
0.63% (0.27-1.23%)<br />
n = 1,275, 7 studies<br />
[9, 19, 45, 46, 54, 77, 107]<br />
0.73% (0.29-1.50%)<br />
n = 956, 5 studies<br />
[9, 45, 46, 77, 107]<br />
1.74% (1.47-2.05%)<br />
n = 8,102, 13 studies<br />
* Mean values obtained from simply adding together the complicati<strong>on</strong>s given in studies<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval in brackets)<br />
[9, 19, 34, 46, 54, 62, 107, 144] [59,<br />
76, 77, 94, 129]<br />
The case histories for the puncture site <strong>of</strong> the anterior to midaxillary line also report <strong>on</strong> injury to<br />
the intercostal arteries [32], lung perforati<strong>on</strong>s [65], perforati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the right atrium [33, 104,<br />
127], the right ventricle [118] <strong>and</strong> the left ventricle [49], subclavian artery stenosis due to<br />
pressure from drain tip from inside [109], Horner syndrome due to pressure <strong>on</strong> the stellate<br />
gangli<strong>on</strong> from the drain lying in the apex [21, 31], an intraabdominal placement [64], a liver<br />
puncture [47], a perforati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the stomach [4] <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the col<strong>on</strong> [1] due to diaphragmatic hernia,<br />
a lesi<strong>on</strong> in the subclavian vein, perforati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the inferior vena cava [61], <strong>and</strong> triggering <strong>of</strong> atrial<br />
fibrillati<strong>on</strong> [12].<br />
An arteriovenous fistula [43] as well as perforati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the cardiac wall [56] <strong>and</strong> perforati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
right atrium [104] were reported when the puncture was performed in the mid-clavicular line.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, other known complicati<strong>on</strong>s are perforati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the esophagus, <strong>of</strong> the mediastinum<br />
triggering a c<strong>on</strong>tralateral pneumothorax, an injury to the phrenic nerve am<strong>on</strong>g others.<br />
Simple surgical opening: efficacy <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The simple surgical opening <strong>of</strong> the pleural space is a suitable, effective <strong>and</strong> relatively simple<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> to decompress a tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax. However, it is <strong>on</strong>ly suitable for patients <strong>on</strong><br />
positive pressure ventilati<strong>on</strong> as <strong>on</strong>ly they have c<strong>on</strong>stant positive intrapleural pressure. Negative<br />
intrapleural pressure develops in a sp<strong>on</strong>taneously breathing patient <strong>and</strong> can cause air to be<br />
sucked in through the thoracotomy into the thorax.<br />
Clinical experience shows that air is released out when the pleural space is opened in a minithoracotomy<br />
to insert a pleural drain for a pneumothorax or tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax. This release<br />
<strong>of</strong> air can be sufficient to critically improve the clinical symptoms in the case <strong>of</strong> a<br />
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hemodynamically active tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax. This technique was examined in a case series <strong>of</strong><br />
45 patients in prehospital use <strong>and</strong> proved itself to be effective <strong>with</strong>out any major complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
[50]. In a prospective observati<strong>on</strong>al study <strong>of</strong> a helicopter emergency rescue service over a 2-year<br />
period, 55 patients <strong>with</strong> 59 suspected pneumothoraces underwent a simple surgical opening. As a<br />
result <strong>of</strong> the procedure, arterial oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> increased <strong>on</strong> average from 86.4% to 98.5%. A<br />
pneumothorax or a hemopneumothorax was found in 91.5% <strong>of</strong> the cases. No cases <strong>of</strong> recurrent<br />
pneumothorax were observed by the authors, likewise no serious complicati<strong>on</strong>s (major bleeding,<br />
pulm<strong>on</strong>ary lacerati<strong>on</strong>, pleural empyema) [97].<br />
However, in another series, relevant complicati<strong>on</strong>s were observed in 9% <strong>of</strong> patients involving<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-decompressed tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothoraces in just under half the cases [8].<br />
The inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a pleural drain via the existing mini-thoracotomy is then indicated in hospital.<br />
Needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>: efficacy <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> is a drainage procedure which is frequently effective, suitable <strong>and</strong> simple<br />
but not complicati<strong>on</strong>-free. Surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a drain must be carried<br />
out immediately if efficacy is lacking or insufficient.<br />
In a prehospital study, 47% <strong>of</strong> needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>s discharged air. A clinical improvement<br />
was observed in 32% <strong>of</strong> patients who underwent needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>[14]. In a similar study<br />
[48] , a release <strong>of</strong> air was observed during needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> in 32% <strong>of</strong> 89 patients <strong>with</strong> no<br />
difference between pulseless patients <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> maintained circulati<strong>on</strong>. However, the<br />
release <strong>of</strong> air in ventilated patients was more frequently documented than in n<strong>on</strong>-ventilated<br />
patients (34.9 versus 25.0%). However, the total rate <strong>of</strong> 60% clinical improvements remains<br />
unexplained as it is unclear how needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> is supposed to lead to an improvement in<br />
vital functi<strong>on</strong>s if no tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax has been decompressed (i.e. no release <strong>of</strong> air). In<br />
another prospective series <strong>of</strong> 114 needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>s [58], there was an improvement in vital<br />
parameters or in dyspnea in 12% <strong>of</strong> patients.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, in a prospective series <strong>of</strong> 14 patients (a further 5 patients died in the emergency room<br />
<strong>and</strong> were not suitable for analysis) who underwent needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>, in 8 patients there was<br />
no indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> there having been a pneumothorax, in 2 patients there was an occult<br />
pneumothorax, in 2 patients a persistent pneumothorax, <strong>on</strong>ly in <strong>on</strong>e case a successfully<br />
decompressed tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax, <strong>and</strong> in <strong>on</strong>e patient a persistent tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax [44]<br />
<strong>with</strong> the result that <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e out <strong>of</strong> 14 patients had unequivocally gained from needle<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the study by Bart<strong>on</strong> [14], needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> had to be supplemented by a drain in 40% <strong>of</strong><br />
the cases (32 out <strong>of</strong> 123) due to insufficient efficacy. In other prehospital studies [37, 48], a chest<br />
drain was additi<strong>on</strong>ally inserted in the prehospital phase in 53–67% <strong>of</strong> all patients undergoing<br />
needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In 4.1% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> detected pneumothorax, needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> did not work at all as the<br />
needle could not be placed far enough in. In 2.4% <strong>of</strong> cases there was a sec<strong>on</strong>dary dislocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the needle <strong>and</strong> in 4.1% <strong>of</strong> punctures the needle was difficult to positi<strong>on</strong>. No injuries to organs<br />
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were observed [14]. In another study, needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> was unsuccessful in 2% <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
as the puncture was not deep enough. It was not indicated in a further 2% <strong>and</strong> an iatrogenic<br />
pneumothorax was the result. Infecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> vessel injuries were not observed [58]. However,<br />
other researchers report <strong>on</strong> individual cases <strong>of</strong> lung injury [48] or cardiac tamp<strong>on</strong>ade [30]. In the<br />
latter case, breath sounds were absent in an unrecognized intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the right main br<strong>on</strong>chus.<br />
Another group reported <strong>on</strong> 3 patients <strong>with</strong> severe bleeding which necessitated a thoracotomy<br />
[119]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, several case histories <strong>and</strong> case series reported a failure <strong>of</strong> needle<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong> [28, 84, 110]. The most probable reas<strong>on</strong> is that the needle was too short. In<br />
individual cases, a unilateral or bilateral tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax was not identified in patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> chr<strong>on</strong>ic obstructive pulm<strong>on</strong>ary disease (COPD) or asthma where the entire lung was not<br />
deflated [81, 108].<br />
A known problem is the length <strong>of</strong> the needle used in relati<strong>on</strong> to the chest wall thickness (for<br />
details, see II.2.2.1). A comm<strong>on</strong>ly used 4.5 cm l<strong>on</strong>g cannula is not sufficient in at least a quarter<br />
<strong>of</strong> patients for reaching the pleural fissure <strong>and</strong> is therefore unsuitable for decompressing a<br />
tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax. It is not known by how much success rates could be increased if l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
cannulas were used <strong>and</strong> to what extent the complicati<strong>on</strong> rate might increase through the l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
cannula length. Thus, the use <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger needles cannot be recommended.<br />
Needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> versus pleural drain<br />
In 2 studies, needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> required a significantly shorter treatment time (about 5<br />
minutes less) at the scene compared to a pleural drain (20.3 versus 25.7 min) [14, 48].<br />
Air evacuati<strong>on</strong> was achieved <strong>with</strong> needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> in 47% <strong>of</strong> cases, but after inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
pleural drain it was achieved in 53.7% <strong>of</strong> patients [14].<br />
However, in a r<strong>and</strong>omized study <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous pneumothorax (traumatic<br />
pneumothoraces were excluded here), drainage by means <strong>of</strong> a pleural drain showed a<br />
significantly higher success rate <strong>with</strong> 93% compared to simple needle aspirati<strong>on</strong> (68.5%) [5]. In<br />
another prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study [112] <strong>on</strong> the same research questi<strong>on</strong>, 59.3% <strong>of</strong> needle<br />
aspirati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> 84.9% <strong>of</strong> pleural drains were immediately successful. In 33% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
needle aspirati<strong>on</strong>, another puncture or inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a pleural drain was necessary. The<br />
transferability <strong>of</strong> these data to the traumatic pneumothorax is open.<br />
Some experts do not c<strong>on</strong>sider needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> an indicati<strong>on</strong> unless as a last resort [63].<br />
If puncture by means <strong>of</strong> a needle is ineffective, surgical opening <strong>of</strong> the pleural space, if<br />
necessary <strong>with</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a drain, should be undertaken <strong>with</strong>out delay or, in the case <strong>of</strong> obese<br />
patients, should be the first-line choice.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>duct<br />
Puncture site<br />
Some authors recommend needle decompressi<strong>on</strong> in the 2nd-3rd intercostal space in the<br />
midclavicular line [14, 40, 44, 58], whereas others recommend the anterior to midaxillary line at<br />
the level <strong>of</strong> the 5th intercostal space [22, 39, 119]. It is postulated that the thickness <strong>of</strong> the ventral<br />
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chest wall is greater than at the axillary line but this could not be c<strong>on</strong>firmed in a study <strong>of</strong><br />
cadavers (chest wall thickness in the midclavicular line [MCL]: 3.0 cm, in the midaxillary line<br />
[MAL]: 3.2 cm) [26].<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the danger <strong>of</strong> a lung injury due to adhesi<strong>on</strong>s is c<strong>on</strong>sidered greater in lateral<br />
access, <strong>and</strong> air in the pleural space would more likely be found in the apex. However, there are<br />
no study results <strong>on</strong> the practical importance <strong>of</strong> the cited arguments. One study showed that there<br />
is a str<strong>on</strong>g trend to puncture medial to the midclavicular line <strong>with</strong> the associated risk <strong>of</strong> injuring<br />
the heart or great vessels [110].<br />
Both the 4th-6th intercostal space in the anterior to midaxillary line [40, 132, 136] <strong>and</strong> the 2nd-<br />
3rd intercostal space in the midclavicular line are recommended as puncture sites for inserting a<br />
pleural drain. The nipple can be used as a guide in male patients. Generally, punctures must not<br />
be made below this point because the risk <strong>of</strong> an abdominal misplacement <strong>and</strong> injury to<br />
abdominal organs increases when the puncture is made too low. It should be noted that the<br />
puncture site indicated refers to the opening between the ribs. The skin incisi<strong>on</strong> can also lie <strong>on</strong>e<br />
intercostal space lower (see c<strong>on</strong>duct <strong>of</strong> puncture).<br />
Deleterious complicati<strong>on</strong>s for both puncture sites have been published as case histories. One<br />
prospective study found that the puncture level (2nd-8th intercostal space) or the lateral positi<strong>on</strong><br />
(MCL or MAL) had no effect <strong>on</strong> the success rate <strong>of</strong> draining pneumothoraces or<br />
hemopneumothoraces following sharp trauma [57]. The complicati<strong>on</strong>s from drain inserti<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
2nd-3rd intercostal space in the midclavicular line (n = 21) <strong>and</strong> in the 4th-6th intercostal space in<br />
the anterior axillary line (n = 80) were analyzed in a cohort study [82]. Although the rate <strong>of</strong><br />
interlobal misplacements when using lateral access was significantly higher, functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
misplacement was comparably frequent at both puncture sites (6.3% versus 4.5%).<br />
Instruments (needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
In a study <strong>of</strong> cadavers, the average chest wall thickness was approximately 3.2 cm <strong>with</strong> a wide<br />
scatter (st<strong>and</strong>ard deviati<strong>on</strong> 1.5 cm) [26]. Britten c<strong>on</strong>firmed these results using ultrasound<br />
measurements <strong>and</strong> observed that in 57% <strong>of</strong> cases the pleural depth exceeded 3 cm <strong>and</strong> in 4% <strong>of</strong><br />
subjects exceeded 4.5 cm. He c<strong>on</strong>cluded that, for the pleural space to be reached at all, the<br />
minimum length <strong>of</strong> needle required in the vast majority <strong>of</strong> cases is 4.5 cm [27]. Even a 4.5 cm<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g needle can be too short to reach the pleural space [28]. In a more recent study [72], an<br />
average chest wall thickness at the midclavicular line <strong>of</strong> 4.16 cm in men <strong>and</strong> 4.9 cm in women<br />
was determined in trauma patients using computed tomography. A quarter <strong>of</strong> the patients had a<br />
chest wall thickness exceeding 5 cm. Marinaro et al. [95] found a chest wall thickness exceeding<br />
5 cm in 33% <strong>of</strong> their patients <strong>and</strong> even exceeding 6 cm in 10% <strong>of</strong> the injured. In a Netherl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
study, the mean chest wall thickness at the midaxillary line was 3.9 cm in women <strong>and</strong> 3.4 cm in<br />
men. A needle <strong>with</strong> a length <strong>of</strong> 4.5 cm would not have reached the pleural space in 10-19% <strong>of</strong><br />
men (under versus over 40 years) <strong>and</strong> 24-35% <strong>of</strong> women (under versus over 40 years) [145]. In a<br />
comparable study design, the average chest wall thickness in military pers<strong>on</strong>nel was 5.4 cm [74].<br />
Some experts recommend the use <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger needles (exceeding 4.5 cm) to increase the chance <strong>of</strong><br />
the pleural space being reached. Others fear that using l<strong>on</strong>ger cannulas carries a greater risk <strong>of</strong><br />
injuring great vessels or the heart (see also [110]). There are no studies available <strong>on</strong> the actual<br />
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benefit-risk evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> using l<strong>on</strong>ger versus normal length cannulas. Many experts therefore<br />
advise using the st<strong>and</strong>ard cannula (4.5 cm) <strong>and</strong>, if unsuccessful, surgically opening the pleural<br />
space (mini-thoracotomy).<br />
There are no data available <strong>on</strong> the cannula diameter or type <strong>of</strong> cannulas to be used. In general,<br />
the largest possible cannula diameter is recommended to allow the maximum amount <strong>of</strong> air to be<br />
released.<br />
Instruments (surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
A thin drain should also suffice for decompressing a pneumothorax. In the case <strong>of</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-traumatic<br />
pneumothoraces, 75-87% <strong>of</strong> patients were successfully treated <strong>with</strong> size 8-14 French (Fr) pleural<br />
catheters [41, 96] A study <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> pneumothorax sec<strong>on</strong>dary to isolated thoracic trauma<br />
showed a success rate <strong>of</strong> 75% <strong>with</strong> thin catheters (8 Fr). The remaining 25% required a chest<br />
drain [51]. One case history reports <strong>on</strong> the progressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a pneumothorax into a tensi<strong>on</strong> situati<strong>on</strong><br />
despite an indwelling 8-Fr drain. This was a ventilated patient <strong>with</strong> a ruptured air cyst [17].<br />
However, as at least 30% <strong>of</strong> cases after trauma are combined pneumo-/hemothoraces, it is feared<br />
that the drain may block quickly if too narrow. For these reas<strong>on</strong>s, the use <strong>of</strong> 24-32-Fr drains are<br />
recommended in adults [16, 83, 132, 136].<br />
Discharge systems<br />
There are no reliable data <strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> whether <strong>and</strong> when a chest drain can be left open to<br />
the outside <strong>and</strong>, if so, which discharge system is to be used. A c<strong>on</strong>sensus expert recommendati<strong>on</strong><br />
also cannot be given.<br />
No closure<br />
Theoretically, the chest drain to the outside can be left open in a patient who is <strong>on</strong> positive<br />
pressure ventilati<strong>on</strong>. There is a potentially increased risk <strong>of</strong> transferring infectious diseases to<br />
staff <strong>and</strong> there is c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> from the unprotected discharge <strong>of</strong> blood via the drain. On the<br />
other h<strong>and</strong>, there is <strong>on</strong>ly a minor risk <strong>of</strong> the discharge becoming obstructed <strong>and</strong> a recurrence <strong>of</strong><br />
the (tensi<strong>on</strong>) pneumothorax.<br />
However, if the patient is sp<strong>on</strong>taneously breathing, there is a danger during inspirati<strong>on</strong> that air<br />
from outside can be sucked into the pleural space, leading to total collapse <strong>of</strong> the pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
lobe. In this situati<strong>on</strong> it is necessary to insert a valve device.<br />
Heimlich valve<br />
One such commercially available valve device is the Heimlich valve. It was originally used for<br />
decompressing sp<strong>on</strong>taneous pneumothoraces [20]. In <strong>on</strong>e out <strong>of</strong> 18 cases, the valve stuck <strong>and</strong><br />
there was a resulting loss <strong>of</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>. In a retrospective comparis<strong>on</strong>, 19 patients <strong>with</strong> a Heimlich<br />
valve had a shorter drainage time <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> stay in hospital compared to 57 patients <strong>with</strong> a<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard drainage system (1/3 <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic pneumothorax). However, patients <strong>with</strong><br />
hemothorax were excluded <strong>and</strong> 4 patients <strong>with</strong> a Heimlich valve had to change to the st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
drainage group [111]. Thus, it is unclear whether these experiences can be transferred to the<br />
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prehospital situati<strong>on</strong>. Further case reports show that the valve can get stuck causing the outflow<br />
to be diverted <strong>and</strong> a recurrent tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax occurred [78, 93]. Heimlich valves were<br />
routinely used during the Falkl<strong>and</strong>s war, where it was reported that they frequently got stuck due<br />
to blood coagulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> that the valve had to be repeatedly replaced; the problem was not<br />
quantified [142]. It was shown in experimental studies that 2 out <strong>of</strong> 8 valves had a loss <strong>of</strong><br />
functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> in 7 out <strong>of</strong> 8 cases where the Heimlich valve was past its expiry date it was<br />
defective [78]. In additi<strong>on</strong> to material fatigue, coagulated blood can also cause a loss <strong>of</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This uncertainty regarding the functi<strong>on</strong>ality <strong>of</strong> the Heimlich valve creates an incalculable risk<br />
potential <strong>and</strong> close m<strong>on</strong>itoring is necessary during use. These c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s essentially apply to<br />
all other valves <strong>with</strong> the excepti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> multi-bottle systems. The Heimlich valve also does not<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer protecti<strong>on</strong> against c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> dirt.<br />
Closed bag or chamber systems<br />
Although the attachment <strong>of</strong> a closed collecti<strong>on</strong> bag can reduce the danger <strong>of</strong> dirt <strong>and</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong>, it<br />
can rapidly fill up <strong>with</strong> air or blood if there is a relatively large air fistula <strong>and</strong> so may lead to<br />
positive pressure <strong>with</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> developing again in the pleural space.<br />
Under in-patient c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, a discharge via a 2- or 3-chamber system is generally used, these<br />
being predominantly closed commercial discharge systems. Advantages are their good<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ality <strong>and</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> against the surroundings being c<strong>on</strong>taminated <strong>with</strong> blood. They<br />
would also be the definitive discharge system for <strong>on</strong>going treatment in hospital. In prehospital<br />
use, problems arise because they are awkward to h<strong>and</strong>le when repositi<strong>on</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> during<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> there is a resulting risk <strong>of</strong> tilting. If the chambers are overturned <strong>and</strong> there is<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>trollable displacement <strong>of</strong> the fill fluids between the chambers, their functi<strong>on</strong>al reliability is<br />
at risk [73].<br />
In a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study <strong>of</strong> patients following thoracotomy, a commercially available<br />
discharge system, c<strong>on</strong>sisting <strong>of</strong> a safety valve, a bag <strong>and</strong> an air outlet, was as successful as a<br />
multi-chamber system <strong>with</strong> underwater seal. Blockages were not observed here although the<br />
drains also c<strong>on</strong>veyed blood <strong>and</strong> bloody secreti<strong>on</strong>. There are no field reports <strong>on</strong> its use in the<br />
prehospital phase for traumatic hemothoraces or for pneumothoraces.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> a simple bag <strong>with</strong>out valve (e.g., colostomy bag) [138] is not an opti<strong>on</strong> for trauma<br />
patients <strong>and</strong> pneumothoraces.<br />
The Xp<strong>and</strong> Drain is a new development which has a collecti<strong>on</strong> reservoir attached via a valve to<br />
the pleural drain. A sucti<strong>on</strong> unit can be attached to the collecti<strong>on</strong> reservoir <strong>and</strong> larger amounts <strong>of</strong><br />
fluid can be evacuated via a separate discharge. In a r<strong>and</strong>omized but not blinded study, this<br />
collecti<strong>on</strong> reservoir (n = 34) was compared in a hospital setting <strong>with</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al underwater<br />
seal (n = 33) in patients <strong>with</strong> pneumo- or hemopneumothorax after penetrating trauma [42]. The<br />
Xp<strong>and</strong> Drain was shown to be operati<strong>on</strong>ally comparable to the underwater seal. In principle, this<br />
system has potential advantages (small, easily transportable, transient overturning appears n<strong>on</strong>critical,<br />
clean) but to date there is no published experience <strong>on</strong> its use in the prehospital phase. A<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>, therefore, should not be made until this is available.<br />
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C<strong>on</strong>duct (needle decompressi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
The best technique has never been examined in c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials so these are expert opini<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Care must be taken to select the puncture site correctly as there is a tendency to puncture medial<br />
to the midclavicular line [110]. The puncture should follow a straight path using a permanent<br />
venous cannula attached to a syringe aspirating for air, c<strong>on</strong>tinuing until air is aspirated [40].<br />
After the pleural space has been punctured, the steel stylet should be left in situ to prevent the<br />
unprotected plastic cannula from kinking [44, 114]. Other authors hold the view that the steel<br />
stylet should be removed after puncture <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly the plastic cannula left in situ[58, 110].<br />
However, kinks have been documented (1 out <strong>of</strong> 18 punctures) [110].<br />
C<strong>on</strong>duct (surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The pleural space should be opened by mini-thoracotomy. The chest drain<br />
should be inserted <strong>with</strong>out using a trocar.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The best technique has never been examined in c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials. Most experts recommend a<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ardized technique: a pleural drain must be inserted using a sterile technique. After the skin<br />
has been disinfected, a local anesthetic is administered to the not fully unc<strong>on</strong>scious patient down<br />
to the pleural wall. A horiz<strong>on</strong>tal (transverse) skin incisi<strong>on</strong> approximately 4-5 cm in length is<br />
made <strong>with</strong> a scalpel al<strong>on</strong>g the upper border <strong>of</strong> the rib below the intercostal space to be punctured,<br />
or <strong>on</strong>e rib lower (for cosmetic reas<strong>on</strong>s this is d<strong>on</strong>e at the appropriate level in the sub-mammary<br />
fold in women). The subcutaneous layer <strong>and</strong> the intercostal musculature <strong>on</strong> the upper edge <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rib are opened up by blunt dissecti<strong>on</strong> or a clamp. The pleura can be separated by blunt dissecti<strong>on</strong><br />
or by a small cut <strong>with</strong> the scissors. Then a finger (sterile glove) is inserted into the pleural space<br />
in order to verify correct access to the pleural space <strong>and</strong> ensure that there are no adhesi<strong>on</strong>s or, if<br />
applicable, to release them [16, 50, 107, 123, 132, 133, 136, 139]. If the ribcage is <strong>on</strong>ly to have a<br />
simple opening, the wound is covered <strong>with</strong> a sterile dressing, which is not taped <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e side (for<br />
venting).<br />
If a chest drain is to be inserted, the interventi<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>tinued: a subcutaneous tunnel is not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered necessary by all experts [133]. A trocar should never be used for blind preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the passage. Serious complicati<strong>on</strong>s have occurred through its use such as the perforati<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
right atrium in a patient <strong>with</strong> kyphoscoliosis [104] or perforati<strong>on</strong>s to the lung [65]. The<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong> rates in studies <strong>on</strong> the trocar technique are much higher than in the studies <strong>on</strong> the<br />
surgical technique (11.0% versus 1.6%) (Appendix). In a prospective cohort study (<strong>on</strong> intensive<br />
care patients), it was shown that the use <strong>of</strong> a trocar was associated <strong>with</strong> a significantly higher rate<br />
<strong>of</strong> misplacements [120]. At the moment <strong>of</strong> transsecti<strong>on</strong>ing the pleura <strong>and</strong> inserting the drain,<br />
some experts recommend ventilated patients have a short ventilati<strong>on</strong> break to reduce the risk <strong>of</strong><br />
injury to the lung parenchyma when the lung is exp<strong>and</strong>ed [65, 115, 116].<br />
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The chest drain is then inserted through the prepared passage. The finger inserted in parallel can<br />
be used as a guide. The tip <strong>of</strong> the drain can also be held in a clamp <strong>and</strong> guided using this more<br />
rigid guiding opti<strong>on</strong>. Alternatively, a trocar can be used to guide the drain (not for preparing or<br />
perforating the chest wall!). It must be ensured that the tip <strong>of</strong> the trocar never protrudes bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
the tip <strong>of</strong> the drain <strong>and</strong> that no force is applied in advancing the drain [136].<br />
The drain must be prevented from dislocating by fixing steristrips or a suture. A self-locking<br />
plastic tie can also be used for fixati<strong>on</strong> [105].<br />
Alternative techniques for inserti<strong>on</strong><br />
A series <strong>of</strong> alternative techniques <strong>and</strong> modificati<strong>on</strong>s to the mini-thoracotomy for evacuating the<br />
pleural space have been published. They have usually been published simply as a descripti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the technique or examined in small case series or studies. There is usually no descripti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
prehospital use or use in trauma patients. For these reas<strong>on</strong>s, there are no perspectives that appear<br />
to justify use <strong>of</strong> these techniques as an equivalent alternative to the st<strong>and</strong>ard mini-thoracotomy<br />
described for trauma patients in the prehospital phase. Although there are no scientific pro<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
the superiority <strong>of</strong> the st<strong>and</strong>ard technique either, it is the unanimous opini<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the experts that<br />
empirical experiences justify the recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the st<strong>and</strong>ard technique as l<strong>on</strong>g as the<br />
alternative procedures have not supplied evidence <strong>of</strong> equivalence or superiority under the abovementi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Altman [3] modified the st<strong>and</strong>ard technique using mini-thoracotomy such that a Tiemann<br />
catheter c<strong>on</strong>sistent <strong>with</strong> the Seldinger technique is first inserted <strong>with</strong> a clamp into the pleural<br />
space <strong>and</strong> then serves as a guide bar for the actual drain. This enables a smaller skin incisi<strong>on</strong><br />
compared to the st<strong>and</strong>ard technique.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> a laparoscopic trocar catheter is a technique that has been well-studied compared to<br />
numerous other alternative guide techniques but not in direct comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
technique [18, 67, 86, 92, 140]. Technique <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s were described in a prospective<br />
cohort study in which 112 patients were included, 39 <strong>of</strong> them after trauma [140]. The <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong> (0.89%) described was an injury to the lung.<br />
In 1988 Thal <strong>and</strong> Quick described a technique involving the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a guidewire after direct<br />
puncture <strong>and</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the puncture passage using increasingly larger dilators <strong>and</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the drain (up to 32 Fr) over the guidewire [113, 134]. The technique led to an initial success in<br />
24 pediatric patients (14 pneumothoraces, 3 hemothoraces, 7 others). In 5 cases (approx. 20%)<br />
there were complicati<strong>on</strong>s due to kinking in the 10-20 Fr catheters [2]. In a systematic review, no<br />
advantages in the Seldinger technique could be c<strong>on</strong>firmed compared to other techniques [6].<br />
A frequent alternative, used particularly in pediatrics, is pigtail catheters <strong>with</strong> narrow lumen (7-8<br />
Fr) inserted by direct puncture (<strong>with</strong> or <strong>with</strong>out the Seldinger technique). Gammie et al. [68, 69]<br />
used an 8.3 Fr pigtail catheter in 109 partially-ventilated patients (10 trauma patients). The<br />
success rate was 86% for pleural effusi<strong>on</strong>s (no hemothorax) <strong>and</strong> 81% for pneumothoraces<br />
(predominantly not traumatic). Roberts reports a complicati<strong>on</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> 11% insufficient drainage,<br />
2% each hemo- <strong>and</strong> pneumothoraces, 1% liver perforati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> 2% kinking or compressi<strong>on</strong><br />
through the chest wall. The drainage success was insufficient particularly in pneumothoraces<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 71
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(25%) <strong>and</strong> hemothoraces (15%) [121]. There was a failure rate <strong>of</strong> 25% <strong>with</strong> 8-Fr catheters which<br />
were inserted using guidewire in 16 adult patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic pneumothorax [51].<br />
Transferability to acute trauma patients remains unclear.<br />
Other techniques have been suggested such as inserting a guidewire, subsequent dilati<strong>on</strong> using a<br />
Howard Kelly clamp <strong>and</strong> then inserting the drain via the dilated passage [106].<br />
In a small prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study, Röggla et al. [122] compared the st<strong>and</strong>ard pleural drain<br />
(14 Fr trocar, 13 patients) <strong>with</strong> the Tru-Close® Thoracic Vent catheter <strong>with</strong> valve <strong>and</strong> integrated<br />
collecti<strong>on</strong> chamber (17 patients) in sp<strong>on</strong>taneous or iatrogenic pneumothorax. With a comparable<br />
success rate for re-expansi<strong>on</strong>, the patients <strong>with</strong> the Thoracic Vent had less need <strong>of</strong> analgesics <strong>and</strong><br />
could be treated more frequently as outpatients. As hemothoraces <strong>and</strong> ventilated patients were<br />
excluded, it is not possible to transfer these results to prehospital trauma patients.<br />
At the end <strong>of</strong> the 1970s, McSwain developed a system for a prehospital chest drain (15 Fr),<br />
called the McSwain Dart ® [102, 103], which most closely resembles a basket catheter, which is<br />
inserted via a puncture using a cannula. In a case series <strong>of</strong> 40 patients [141], the McSwain Dart<br />
revealed good effectiveness <strong>with</strong> 2 (5%) complicati<strong>on</strong>s (diaphragm injury <strong>and</strong> intercostal artery<br />
lesi<strong>on</strong>). The authors explained that some <strong>of</strong> the catheters were later blocked by blood <strong>and</strong> had to<br />
be replaced. The device was not c<strong>on</strong>sidered suitable for draining a hemothorax. In a study <strong>of</strong><br />
dogs, the McSwain Dart frequently caused injuries to the lung parenchyma if no pneumothorax<br />
was present [15].<br />
Gill et al. [71] developed a 5 cm l<strong>on</strong>g, c<strong>on</strong>ical, exp<strong>and</strong>able, puncture cannula <strong>with</strong> a 10 mm<br />
diameter, which was pushed through the pleural drain <strong>and</strong> studied in 22 patients.<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 72
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Prehospital – Volume replacement 77
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Appendix<br />
Table 10: Complicati<strong>on</strong>s when inserting a pleural drain<br />
Author N SC IP IA PE MF PS Technique Site QF Comments<br />
Baldt et al. [10] 77 2.6% 6.4% 0 3.9 21% * no data<br />
trocar <strong>and</strong><br />
blunt<br />
Bart<strong>on</strong> et al. [14] 207 1.2% 0 1.2% § 0 14.2% MAL no data PRE<br />
Bailey et al. [9] 57 0 0 0 1.8% no data MAL blunt<br />
Bergaminelli et<br />
al. [19]<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 83<br />
PRE EP<br />
Flight<br />
nurse<br />
191 1.0% 0.6% no data 2.6% no data no data no data no data no data<br />
Chan et al. [34] 373 no data no data no data 1.1% 15% * no data no data<br />
Curtin [45] 66 0 1.5% 4.5%<br />
no<br />
data<br />
ED<br />
ICU<br />
ED,<br />
OR,<br />
ward<br />
EDP<br />
SURG<br />
EDP<br />
18% * no data no data ED SURG<br />
Daly et al. [46] 164 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 1.2% no data MAL blunt<br />
David et al. [47] 52 4% 2% 2%<br />
no<br />
data<br />
ED,<br />
ICU,<br />
OR<br />
SURG<br />
no data MAL trocar PRE EP<br />
Misplacements:<br />
trocar technique 29%;<br />
blunt technique: 19%<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s: ED: 14%<br />
OP: 9%<br />
Ward: 25%<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>tinued)
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 10: Complicati<strong>on</strong>s when inserting a pleural drain - c<strong>on</strong>td.<br />
Author N SC IP IA PE MF PS Technique Site QF Comments<br />
Demartines et al.<br />
[53]<br />
90 5.4% 0 0 0 18.9% * no data no data PRE EP<br />
Eddy et al. [59] 117 no data no data no data 5% no data no data no data ED SURG<br />
Etoch et al. [62] 599 no data no data no data 1.8% 9.8% * no data no data<br />
Heim et al. [75] 40 0 5% 0<br />
Helling et al. [76]<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 84<br />
no<br />
data<br />
45% * no data no data<br />
216 no data no data no data 3% no data MAL blunt<br />
Lechleutner et al.<br />
[88] 44 4.5% 4.5% 2.3% §<br />
no<br />
data<br />
ED,<br />
ICU<br />
etc.<br />
PRE,<br />
ED<br />
ER,<br />
OP,<br />
ICU<br />
SURG<br />
EDP<br />
NA, SURG<br />
no data<br />
no data MAL trocar PRE EP<br />
M<strong>and</strong>al et al.<br />
[94] 5.474 no data no data no data 1.6% no data no data no data hospital no data<br />
Millikan et al.<br />
[107] 447 no data 0.25% 0.75% 2.4% no data MAL blunt ED<br />
Peters et al. [117]<br />
33 9% 21% # 3%<br />
no<br />
data<br />
SURG,<br />
EDP<br />
12% * no data no data PRE EP<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Surge<strong>on</strong>s: 6%<br />
ED physicians 13%<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s: ED: 37%<br />
OP/ICU: 34%<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>tinued)
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 10: Complicati<strong>on</strong>s when inserting a pleural drain - c<strong>on</strong>td.<br />
Author N SC IP IA PE MF PS Technique Site QF Comments<br />
Schmidt et al.<br />
[125]<br />
Schöchl et al.<br />
[126]<br />
Sriussadaporn et<br />
al. [129]<br />
76 1.3% 0 0 0 5.2% * MAL blunt PRE<br />
111 2.7% 1% 1%<br />
Prehospital – Volume replacement 85<br />
no<br />
data<br />
NA<br />
(SURG)<br />
no data MAL trocar PRE EP<br />
42 no data no data no data 3% no data no data no data hospital no data<br />
* Additi<strong>on</strong>al pleural drain necessary; # possibly false CT interpretati<strong>on</strong>; § in diaphragmatic rupture<br />
SC, subcutaneous misplacement; IP, intrapulm<strong>on</strong>ary misplacement; IA, intraabdominal misplacement; PE, pleural empyema; MF, malfuncti<strong>on</strong>; PS, puncture site; QF,<br />
qualificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> medical staff; PTX, pneumothorax; HTX, hemothorax; PRE, prehospital; ED, emergency department; ICU, intensive care unit; OP, operating room; EP,<br />
emergency physician; SURG, surge<strong>on</strong>; EDP, emergency department physicians; MAL, mid to anterior axillary line; MCL, midclavicular line
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
1.5 Traumatic brain injury<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>s at the accident scene<br />
Vital functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The goal in adults should be arterial normotensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a systolic blood<br />
pressure not below 90 mmHg.<br />
GoR B<br />
A fall in arterial oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> below 90% should be avoided. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials, which examine the effect <strong>of</strong> hypertensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
hypoxia <strong>on</strong> the treatment outcome, are certainly indefensible <strong>on</strong> ethical grounds. However, there<br />
are many retrospective studies [8, 25] which provide evidence <strong>of</strong> a markedly worse treatment<br />
outcome if hypotensi<strong>on</strong> or hypoxia is present. The absolute priority <strong>of</strong> diagnostic <strong>and</strong> treatment<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s at the accident scene is therefore to recognize <strong>and</strong> if possible immediately eliminate<br />
all c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s associated <strong>with</strong> a fall in blood pressure or reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
blood. Due to side effects, however, aggressive treatment to raise blood pressure <strong>and</strong> oxygen<br />
saturati<strong>on</strong> has not always proved successful. The goals are normoxia, normocapnia, <strong>and</strong><br />
normotensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Intubati<strong>on</strong> is always c<strong>on</strong>sidered for insufficient sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing. However, it can also be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered in cases <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness <strong>with</strong> adequate sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing. Unfortunately, the<br />
literature does not c<strong>on</strong>tain any high quality evidence <strong>on</strong> this to prove a clear benefit for the<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>. The main argument in favor <strong>of</strong> intubati<strong>on</strong> is the efficient preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hypoxia.<br />
This is a threat in unc<strong>on</strong>scious pers<strong>on</strong>s even <strong>with</strong> sufficient sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing as the<br />
impaired protective reflexes can cause aspirati<strong>on</strong>. The main argument against intubati<strong>on</strong> is the<br />
hypoxic damage that can occur through misplaced intubati<strong>on</strong>. During the development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
DGNC <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> “Traumatic brain injury in adulthood” [6], which served as a model, there was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus that there was overall benefit, <strong>and</strong> an A recommendati<strong>on</strong> was thus given in this<br />
guideline. It was not possible to reach this c<strong>on</strong>sensus for the current polytrauma guideline.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>s to ensure cardiovascular functi<strong>on</strong>s in multiply injured patients are described<br />
elsewhere in this guideline (see Chapter 1.3). Specific recommendati<strong>on</strong>s cannot be made for the<br />
infusi<strong>on</strong> soluti<strong>on</strong> to be used in volume replacement in multiple injuries <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant<br />
traumatic brain injury [8].<br />
Prehospital – Traumatic brain injury 86
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Neurologic examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Full c<strong>on</strong>sciousness, clouded c<strong>on</strong>sciousness or unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness <strong>with</strong> pupil<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Glasgow Coma Scale must be recorded <strong>and</strong> documented at<br />
repeated intervals.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
In the literature, the <strong>on</strong>ly clinical findings <strong>with</strong> a prognostic informative value are the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
wide, fixed pupils [8, 23, 26] <strong>and</strong> a deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in the GCS score [8, 17, 23], both <strong>of</strong> which<br />
correlate <strong>with</strong> a poor treatment outcome. There are no prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials<br />
<strong>on</strong> using the clinical findings to guide the treatment. As such studies are definitely not ethically<br />
justifiable, the importance <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> was upgraded to a Grade <strong>of</strong><br />
Recommendati<strong>on</strong> A during the development <strong>of</strong> the guideline <strong>on</strong> the assumpti<strong>on</strong>, which cannot be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firmed at present, that the outcome can be improved by the earliest possible detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> lifethreatening<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding therapeutic c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
Despite various difficulties [2], the Glasgow coma scale (GCS) has established itself<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ally as the assessment <strong>of</strong> the recorded severity at a given point in time <strong>of</strong> a brain<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> impairment. It enables the st<strong>and</strong>ardized assessment <strong>of</strong> the following aspects: eye<br />
opening, verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se <strong>and</strong> motor resp<strong>on</strong>se. The neurologic findings documented <strong>with</strong> time <strong>of</strong><br />
day in the file are vital for the sequence <strong>of</strong> future treatment. Frequent checks <strong>of</strong> the neurologic<br />
finding must be carried out to detect any deteriorati<strong>on</strong> [8, 10].<br />
However, the use <strong>of</strong> the GCS <strong>on</strong> its own carries the risk <strong>of</strong> a diagnostic gap, particularly if <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
cumulative values are c<strong>on</strong>sidered. This applies to the initial <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> apallic syndrome, which can<br />
become noticeable through sp<strong>on</strong>taneous decerebrate rigidity which is not recorded <strong>on</strong> the GCS,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries to the spinal cord. Motor functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the extremities must therefore<br />
be recorded <strong>with</strong> separate lateral differentiati<strong>on</strong> in arm <strong>and</strong> leg as to whether there is incomplete,<br />
complete or no paralysis. Attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid here to the presence <strong>of</strong> decorticate or<br />
decerebrate rigidity. Providing no voluntary movements are possible, reacti<strong>on</strong> to painful stimulus<br />
must be recorded <strong>on</strong> all extremities.<br />
If the patient is not unc<strong>on</strong>scious, then orientati<strong>on</strong>, cranial nerve functi<strong>on</strong>, coordinati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
speech functi<strong>on</strong> must also be recorded.<br />
Prehospital – Traumatic brain injury 87
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Cerebral protecti<strong>on</strong> treatment<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Glucocorticoids must not be administered. GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
According to the latest scientific knowledge, the goal <strong>of</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>s to be taken at the accident<br />
scene is to achieve homeostasis (normoxia, normotensi<strong>on</strong>, preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hyperthermia) <strong>and</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> threatening complicati<strong>on</strong>s. The intenti<strong>on</strong> is to limit the extent <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary brain<br />
damage <strong>and</strong> to provide those brain cells <strong>with</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al impairment but which have not been<br />
destroyed <strong>with</strong> the best c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for functi<strong>on</strong>al regenerati<strong>on</strong>. This applies equally if multiple<br />
injuries are present.<br />
Up till now, there is no evidence from the data in the scientific literature <strong>of</strong> benefit being derived<br />
from more extensive treatment regimens viewed as specifically cerebral-protective. At present,<br />
no recommendati<strong>on</strong> can be given <strong>on</strong> the prehospital administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 21-aminosteroids, calcium<br />
antag<strong>on</strong>ists, glutamate receptor antag<strong>on</strong>ists or tris-(tris[hydroxy methyl]aminomethane) buffer<br />
[8, 11, 18, 29].<br />
Antiepileptic treatment prevents the incidence <strong>of</strong> epileptic seizures in the first week after trauma.<br />
However, the incidence <strong>of</strong> a seizure in the early phase does not lead to a worse clinical outcome<br />
[20, 25].<br />
The administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> glucocorticoids is no l<strong>on</strong>ger indicated due to a significantly increased 14day<br />
case fatality rate [1, 4] <strong>with</strong> no improvement in clinical outcome [5].<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong> for suspected severely elevated intracranial pressure<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If severely elevated intracranial pressure is suspected, particularly <strong>with</strong> signs<br />
<strong>of</strong> transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong> (pupil widening, decerebrate rigidity, extensor<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong> to painful stimulus, progressive clouded c<strong>on</strong>sciousness), the following<br />
treatments can be given:<br />
� Hyperventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
� Mannitol<br />
� Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong><br />
GoR 0<br />
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Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In cases <strong>of</strong> suspected transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> signs <strong>of</strong> apallic syndrome syndrome (pupil<br />
widening, decerebrate rigidity, extensor reacti<strong>on</strong> to painful stimulus, progressive clouded<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sciousness), hyperventilati<strong>on</strong> can be introduced as a treatment opti<strong>on</strong> in the early phase after<br />
trauma [8, 25]. The guide values are 20 breaths/min in adults. However, hyperventilati<strong>on</strong>, which<br />
used to be used because <strong>of</strong> its <strong>of</strong>ten impressive effect in reducing intracranial pressure, also<br />
causes reduced cerebral perfusi<strong>on</strong> because <strong>of</strong> the induced vasoc<strong>on</strong>stricti<strong>on</strong>. With aggressive<br />
hyperventilati<strong>on</strong>, this involves the risk <strong>of</strong> cerebral ischemia <strong>and</strong> thus deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in clinical<br />
outcome [25].<br />
The administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> mannitol can lower intracranial pressure [ICP] for a short time (up to 1<br />
hour) [25]. It can also be given <strong>with</strong>out measuring ICP if transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong> is suspected.<br />
Up till now, there has been <strong>on</strong>ly scant evidence <strong>of</strong> the cerebral-protective effect <strong>of</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
saline soluti<strong>on</strong>s. Mortality appears to be somewhat less compared to mannitol. However, this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> a small number <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>and</strong> is statistically not significant [28].<br />
There is insufficient evidence [19] for the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> barbiturates, which was<br />
recommended in previous guidelines for intracranial pressure crises not c<strong>on</strong>trollable by other<br />
means [23]. When administering barbiturates, attenti<strong>on</strong> must be paid to the negative inotropic<br />
effect, possible fall in blood pressure, <strong>and</strong> impaired neurologic assessment.<br />
Transport<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> penetrating injuries, the penetrating object should be left in situ;<br />
in certain circumstances it must be detached.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
It is essential that multiply injured pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> symptoms <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant traumatic brain injury<br />
are admitted to a hospital <strong>with</strong> adequate treatment facilities. In the case <strong>of</strong> a traumatic brain<br />
injury <strong>with</strong> sustained unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness (GCS ≤ 8), increasing cloudiness (deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
individual GCS scores), pupillary disorder, paralysis or seizures, the hospital should definitely<br />
have provisi<strong>on</strong> for neurosurgical management <strong>of</strong> intracranial injuries [8].<br />
No clear recommendati<strong>on</strong> can be given <strong>on</strong> analgesic sedati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> relaxants for transportati<strong>on</strong> as<br />
there is a lack <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>with</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> a positive effect <strong>on</strong> traumatic brain injury. With these<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s, cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary management is definitely easier to guarantee so that the decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> this must be left to the judgment <strong>of</strong> the treating emergency physician. The disadvantage <strong>of</strong><br />
these interventi<strong>on</strong>s is a more or less severe limitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the ability to make a neurologic<br />
assessment [23].<br />
Prehospital – Traumatic brain injury 89
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> penetrating injuries, the penetrating object should be left in situ; in certain<br />
circumstances it must be detached. Injured intracranial vessels are <strong>of</strong>ten compressed by the<br />
foreign body so that removing it encourages the development <strong>of</strong> intracranial bleeding. Removal<br />
must therefore be carried out under surgical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> the possibility <strong>of</strong> hemostasis in the<br />
injured brain tissue. Even if there are no prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials <strong>on</strong> the<br />
optimum procedure for penetrating injuries, this procedure makes sense from a pathophysiologic<br />
viewpoint.<br />
The possibility <strong>of</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>comitant unstable spine fracture should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered during<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the patient should be appropriately positi<strong>on</strong>ed (see Chapter 1.6).<br />
Prehospital – Traumatic brain injury 90
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27. Tönnis W, Loew F. Einteilung der gedeckten<br />
Hirnschädigungen. Ärztliche Praxis 5: 13-14, 1953<br />
28. Wakai A, Roberts IG, Schierhout G. Mannitol for<br />
acute traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database <strong>of</strong><br />
Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 1 [LoE 3b].<br />
29. Willis C, Lybr<strong>and</strong> S, Bellamy N. Excitatory amino<br />
acid inhibitors for traumatic brain injury (Cochrane<br />
Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004.<br />
Chichester, UK: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s, Ltd.<br />
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1.6 Spine<br />
When should a spinal injury be assumed?<br />
What diagnostic procedures are required?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A thorough physical examinati<strong>on</strong> including the spine <strong>and</strong> the functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
associated <strong>with</strong> it must be carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
A physical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient is the basic requirement for making a diagnosis which, in<br />
turn, is the prerequisite for subsequent treatment interventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
After the vital functi<strong>on</strong>s have been m<strong>on</strong>itored <strong>and</strong> secured, the initial examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sive patient’s spine in the emergency situati<strong>on</strong> at the accident scene involves the<br />
exploratory neurologic assessment <strong>of</strong> sensitivity <strong>and</strong> motor functi<strong>on</strong>s. A segmental neurologic<br />
deficit indicates the presence <strong>of</strong> a spinal cord injury. The level <strong>and</strong> complete/incomplete lesi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
can be measured to a limited extent. An absence <strong>of</strong> back pain is not a definite sign that there can<br />
be no relevant injury to the thoracic or lumbar spine [28].<br />
To complete the initial examinati<strong>on</strong>, the cervical spine <strong>and</strong> the entire back are inspected (for<br />
signs <strong>of</strong> injury, deformities) <strong>and</strong> felt (tenderness, percussi<strong>on</strong> tenderness, steps, displacements,<br />
palpable gaps between spinous processes).<br />
Assessing the mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury can provide clues <strong>on</strong> the probability <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury [20].<br />
Even if there are no scientific studies <strong>on</strong> the importance <strong>and</strong> the necessary scope <strong>of</strong> the physical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> in the prehospital emergency examinati<strong>on</strong>, it is still an indispensable requirement<br />
for detecting symptoms <strong>and</strong> making (suspected) diagnoses. All the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>s are used to detect relevant, threatening or potentially threatening disorders <strong>and</strong><br />
injuries, which altogether can make it necessary to administer immediate <strong>and</strong> specific treatment<br />
or make a logistic decisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the spot [2, 17].<br />
The circulati<strong>on</strong> parameters, blood pressure <strong>and</strong> pulse, should be measured more than <strong>on</strong>ce at<br />
least during the course (depending <strong>on</strong> finding, overall situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> timeframe). These are<br />
dynamic values, which are indicators for the occurrence <strong>of</strong> neurogenic shock.<br />
Various scoring systems do not permit a clear statement but combining several scores increases<br />
the probability <strong>of</strong> success [63].<br />
Which c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries make the presence <strong>of</strong> spinal injury likely?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
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The presence <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury must be assumed in unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients until<br />
evidence to the c<strong>on</strong>trary is found.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
The coincidence <strong>of</strong> spinal injuries <strong>and</strong> certain other injury patterns is increased. These are purely<br />
statistical probabilities.<br />
How is the diagnosis for unstable spinal injury made <strong>and</strong> how definite is it?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If the following 5 criteria are absent, it can be assumed that no unstable spinal<br />
injury is present:<br />
� impaired c<strong>on</strong>sciousness<br />
� neurologic deficit<br />
� spinal pain or myogelosis<br />
� intoxicati<strong>on</strong><br />
� trauma in the extremities<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
Several groups have developed clinical decisi<strong>on</strong> rules to simplify prehospital patient<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> to set sensible limits to the radiologic primary diagnostic study after blunt<br />
trauma to the spine. Some <strong>of</strong> these decisi<strong>on</strong> rules relate to the prehospital situati<strong>on</strong> [23, 24, 45]<br />
whereas others relate to the emergency department [9, 33, 35, 36, 56]. Whereas some studies<br />
examine the whole spine, others limit themselves to the cervical (C) or thoracic/lumbar spine<br />
(T/L).<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> these studies corresp<strong>on</strong>d [9] to the maximum extent so that we can primarily rely<br />
hereinafter <strong>on</strong> the prospectively validated criteria <strong>of</strong> Domeier et al. <strong>and</strong> Muhr et al. [24, 25].<br />
Smaller studies have c<strong>on</strong>centrated solely <strong>on</strong> multiply injured patients [53] but find similar<br />
predictors so that it appears justified to generalize the results. On other h<strong>and</strong>, Muhr et al. <strong>and</strong><br />
Holmes et al. regarded the presence <strong>of</strong> other relevant injuries as a criteri<strong>on</strong> that made the definite<br />
exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury more difficult or impossible. A retrospective study <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
thoracolumbar spinal injuries found that the presence <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries lowered the<br />
frequency <strong>of</strong> (pressure) pain in the back from over 90% to 64% [43]. However, <strong>on</strong>e can assume<br />
from this that multiply injured patients have either an extremity fracture or impaired<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sciousness so that, depending <strong>on</strong> the decisi<strong>on</strong> rules, a suspected spinal injury cannot be ruled<br />
out.<br />
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Taking into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> the 5 criteria <strong>of</strong> impaired c<strong>on</strong>sciousness, neurologic deficit, spinal pain<br />
or myogelosis, intoxicati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> trauma in the extremities, Domeier et al. missed <strong>on</strong>ly 2 relevant<br />
spinal injuries [24]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there were 13 stable spinal injuries that did not require<br />
osteosynthesis thus yielding a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 95% <strong>with</strong> a negative predictor value <strong>of</strong> 99.5%. The<br />
study related to the whole spine <strong>and</strong> found approximately 100 fractures each in the cervical,<br />
thoracic, <strong>and</strong> lumbar spine.<br />
Rotati<strong>on</strong> injuries (type C according to AO) are relatively unstable <strong>and</strong> have an increased risk <strong>of</strong><br />
further neurologic deteriorati<strong>on</strong> [32]. If a rotati<strong>on</strong> injury is suspected <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury, immobilizati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out carefully <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out delay <strong>on</strong><br />
account <strong>of</strong> the instability.<br />
How is the diagnosis for spinal injury <strong>with</strong>out spinal cord involvement made <strong>and</strong> how<br />
definite is it?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Acute pain in the spinal regi<strong>on</strong> after trauma should be assessed as an<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The cited injury signs may be present both in a b<strong>on</strong>y spinal injury <strong>and</strong> in a solely s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
injury surrounding the b<strong>on</strong>e. There are no prehospital findings that can be collected which can<br />
prove or exclude a spinal injury <strong>with</strong> certainty. External injury signs - deformati<strong>on</strong>s, tenderness,<br />
percussi<strong>on</strong> tenderness, steps, lateral displacements, palpable gaps between spinous processes -<br />
are indirect clues to the presence <strong>of</strong> an injury to the spine. An evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the (positi<strong>on</strong>ing)<br />
stability <strong>of</strong> the injury cannot be made in the prehospital phase.<br />
How is the diagnosis for spinal injury <strong>with</strong> spinal cord involvement made <strong>and</strong> how definite<br />
is it?<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The neurologic deficit in sensitivity <strong>and</strong>/or motor functi<strong>on</strong>s is definitive in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong><br />
damage to the spinal cord. It is highly probable that a b<strong>on</strong>y injury to the spine is also present in<br />
adults. Neurologic deficits <strong>with</strong>out b<strong>on</strong>y involvement can occur more frequently in children<br />
(SCIWORA [Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality] syndrome) [7].<br />
The level <strong>and</strong> complete/incomplete lesi<strong>on</strong>s can <strong>on</strong>ly be measured to a limited extent. It is<br />
therefore not possible to make a c<strong>on</strong>clusive statement <strong>on</strong> the prognosis <strong>of</strong> the injury at the<br />
accident scene.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, a normal neurology finding does not exclude a spinal injury <strong>with</strong> spinal cord<br />
involvement.<br />
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How is a spinal injury treated in the prehospital phase?<br />
What is the technical rescue procedure for a pers<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a spinal injury?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
In the event <strong>of</strong> acute threat to life (e.g., fire/danger <strong>of</strong> explosi<strong>on</strong>), which can<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be eliminated by immediate rescue from the danger z<strong>on</strong>e, immediate,<br />
direct rescue from the danger z<strong>on</strong>e must be effected even if a spinal injury is<br />
suspected, if necessary even disregarding precauti<strong>on</strong>ary measures for the<br />
injured pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
GoR A<br />
The cervical spine must be immobilized before technical rescue. GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The first prehospital procedure for a casualty is to immobilize the cervical spine using a cervical<br />
collar. To date, however, we are not aware <strong>of</strong> any literature that c<strong>on</strong>firms this procedure in<br />
preventing sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage during the technical rescue. No differences in the use <strong>of</strong> different<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong> collars have been found [18, 51].<br />
During the rescue <strong>of</strong> an injured pers<strong>on</strong>, all n<strong>on</strong>-physiologic spine movements, particularly<br />
flexi<strong>on</strong>, segmental rotati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> lateral inclinati<strong>on</strong>, must be avoided. The spine must be moved<br />
into its neutral positi<strong>on</strong>, i.e. flat supine positi<strong>on</strong>, in a coordinated way <strong>with</strong> enough assistants [6].<br />
With due c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the time required, a more extended technical rescue - e.g., involving<br />
removal <strong>of</strong> a car ro<strong>of</strong> - should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered. Aids such as the scoop stretcher or spine boards<br />
make it easier to rescue a pers<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a spinal injury in the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed neutral positi<strong>on</strong><br />
from a difficult accident scene.<br />
How is a pers<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a spinal injury positi<strong>on</strong>ed/immobilized?<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Up till now, the first prehospital procedure for a casualty is the immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the cervical<br />
spine using a cervical collar, even if the evidence level for this is not high. The cervical spine is<br />
thereby put into the neutral positi<strong>on</strong>. If this causes pain or an increase in neurologic deficit, do<br />
not repositi<strong>on</strong> in the neutral positi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In a prospective study, B<strong>and</strong>iera <strong>and</strong> Stiell found evidence that clinically significant injuries<br />
could be detected <strong>with</strong> a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100% using the Canadian C-spine rule [56]. However, a<br />
proviso should be added here that this study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted in hospital <strong>on</strong> fully c<strong>on</strong>scious<br />
patients [5]. Thus, a relatively l<strong>on</strong>g period <strong>of</strong> time has already elapsed since the accident <strong>and</strong>, at<br />
this later point in time, the symptoms <strong>of</strong> milder accelerati<strong>on</strong> injuries to the cervical spine also<br />
manifest themselves for the first time; these may not occur at the accident scene due to the<br />
psychologic impairment.<br />
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When there is a traumatic brain injury <strong>and</strong> a suspected cervical spine injury, it should be weighed<br />
up whether to fit a rigid cervical collar or whether another type <strong>of</strong> immobilizati<strong>on</strong> (e.g., <strong>on</strong>ly a<br />
vacuum mattress) is possible in order to prevent a potential increase in ICP [21, 22, 37, 38, 39,<br />
50]. In another clinical study, there was no evidence <strong>of</strong> an increase in ICP if the rigid cervical<br />
collar was fitted correctly [39]. So, when a rigid cervical collar is being fitted <strong>on</strong> a patient <strong>with</strong> a<br />
TBI, care should be taken that it is the correct size <strong>and</strong> not too tightly fastened so that the<br />
possibility <strong>of</strong> any venous outflow obstructi<strong>on</strong> is excluded. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the upper part <strong>of</strong> the body<br />
should be elevated if possible in this situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed positi<strong>on</strong> can also be immobilized <strong>on</strong> the vacuum mattress. This achieves<br />
the currently most effective immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the whole spine as well. If the head is also<br />
enclosed <strong>with</strong> high cushi<strong>on</strong>s or belts, this further restricts possible residual movement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cervical spine. To date, there is no r<strong>and</strong>omized study that provides evidence <strong>of</strong> a positive effect<br />
from immobilizing the spine [40].<br />
A patient carry sheet <strong>on</strong> the vacuum mattress makes subsequent re-positi<strong>on</strong>ing in hospital easier<br />
[8]. Other aids such as the scoop stretcher or spine boards can <strong>on</strong>ly immobilize the spine to a<br />
limited extent.<br />
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How is a pers<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a spinal injury transported?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Transport should be as gentle as possible <strong>and</strong> free <strong>of</strong> pain. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A patient <strong>with</strong> a spinal injury should be transported as gently as possible, i.e. <strong>with</strong>out further<br />
external force to avoid pain <strong>and</strong> possible sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage. After positi<strong>on</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> strapping in,<br />
analgesics are administered during transportati<strong>on</strong>. A helicopter <strong>of</strong>fers the smoothest form <strong>of</strong><br />
transport. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it might <strong>of</strong>fer a time advantage when a patient <strong>with</strong> a spinal injury <strong>and</strong><br />
neurologic deficits has to be transported to a center.<br />
Is there a specific treatment for spinal injury in the prehospital phase?<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The benefit <strong>of</strong> a high dose <strong>of</strong> cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment being administered prehospital (or<br />
subsequently) for spinal injuries <strong>with</strong> neurologic deficit is c<strong>on</strong>troversial [65]. Following the<br />
successful administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> corticosteroids for spinal trauma in many animal experiments [1, 25,<br />
26, 58, 59, 66], it has not been possible to c<strong>on</strong>firm the results in all clinical studies. Criticism has<br />
been leveled at the NASCIS (Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acute Spinal Cord Injury Studies) several times [19], for<br />
instance, the lack <strong>of</strong> effect in the NASCIS I study (there was no c<strong>on</strong>trol group here but low-dose<br />
cortis<strong>on</strong>e was compared <strong>with</strong> too little high-dose cortis<strong>on</strong>e) <strong>and</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> placebo group in the<br />
NASCIS III study as well [19]. The positive effects in the NASCIS II study were <strong>on</strong>ly minor, <strong>of</strong><br />
limited clinical relevance, <strong>and</strong> less marked after 1 year than after 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
Here is a summary <strong>of</strong> the advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages <strong>of</strong> giving methylprednisol<strong>on</strong>e according<br />
to current literature:<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s for cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment:<br />
1. The NASCIS II study showed an improvement in motor outcome providing methyl<br />
prednisol<strong>on</strong>e treatment was started <strong>with</strong>in 8 hours [11, 12]. However, this outcome was<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly unilaterally verified <strong>and</strong> dependent <strong>on</strong> the researcher.<br />
2. Other studies <strong>of</strong> worse methodological quality have also found a benefit from cortis<strong>on</strong>e<br />
treatment but in this case the start <strong>of</strong> treatment was predominantly evaluated after<br />
admissi<strong>on</strong> to hospital.<br />
3. The NASCIS III study showed a greater effect in treatment durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 48 hours<br />
providing treatment commenced between 3 <strong>and</strong> 8 hours after trauma [14, 15].<br />
4. Relevant side effects such as abdominal bleeding are not increased [27] <strong>and</strong> there has<br />
been no evidence <strong>of</strong> accumulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> femoral head necroses following high-dose<br />
cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment [64].<br />
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5. There is no other definitive pharmacologic treatment for spinal cord injury.<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s against cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment:<br />
1. No relevant benefit could be found in the NASCIS I study [13].<br />
2. The proven benefit was <strong>on</strong>ly found in patients who had received treatment <strong>with</strong>in 8<br />
hours.<br />
3. The proven benefit was small, <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>firmed clinical significance, <strong>and</strong> even smaller<br />
after 1 year than after 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths [10, 12].<br />
4. There was no placebo c<strong>on</strong>trol group in the NASCIS III study [14, 15].<br />
5. Further studies showed a higher complicati<strong>on</strong> rate in the patients treated <strong>with</strong> cortis<strong>on</strong>e<br />
(increase in lung complicati<strong>on</strong>s [29, 31], particularly in elderly patients [42], <strong>and</strong><br />
gastrointestinal bleeding [48]).<br />
6. Lack <strong>of</strong> neurologic benefit in other studies <strong>with</strong> frequently unclear injury pattern [30, 42,<br />
48, 49].<br />
Infusi<strong>on</strong> treatment to stabilize the circulati<strong>on</strong> is necessary in neurogenic shock <strong>with</strong> due<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> being paid to other possible sources <strong>of</strong> bleeding caused by injury. The infusi<strong>on</strong><br />
volume to be administered <strong>and</strong> the target mean arterial pressure is also disputed by expert<br />
opini<strong>on</strong>. Adequate analgesic treatment is necessary to prevent shock.<br />
Extreme pulling forces <strong>on</strong> the cervical spine, e.g., when removing a motorbike helmet, <strong>and</strong><br />
segmental torsi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> unstable C injuries (cervical vertebrae) <strong>of</strong> the spine can lead to<br />
deterioriati<strong>on</strong> in the neurologic deficit by directly affecting the spinal cord. It should be noted<br />
here that there are no references to sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage in the literature <strong>on</strong> this either.<br />
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Are there advantages for the patient <strong>with</strong> spinal injury in being transported primarily to a<br />
trauma center <strong>with</strong> a spine surgery facility?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
<strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> neurologic deficits <strong>and</strong> suspected spinal injury should be<br />
transported primarily <strong>and</strong> as a minimum to a regi<strong>on</strong>al trauma center <strong>with</strong> a<br />
spine surgery facility.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Early surgery <strong>on</strong> spinal injuries <strong>with</strong> spinal cord involvement can improve the neurologic<br />
outcome [44, 52].<br />
Early surgery (<strong>with</strong>in 72 hours) <strong>on</strong> cervical spine injuries <strong>with</strong> neurologic deficits does not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ceal an increased risk <strong>of</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al complicati<strong>on</strong>s [44].<br />
For this reas<strong>on</strong>, particularly in the case <strong>of</strong> isolated spinal trauma <strong>and</strong> a n<strong>on</strong>-acute threat to life,<br />
management should, if possible, be in a spinal center [60]. <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> a spinal canal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stricti<strong>on</strong>, particularly in the cervical regi<strong>on</strong>, appear to gain from early surgery [4]. Even if<br />
there is <strong>on</strong>ly little evidence, it should still be assumed that patients <strong>with</strong> incomplete neurology<br />
<strong>and</strong> partial displacement <strong>of</strong> the spinal canal could gain from early reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>, if necessary,<br />
surgical debridement.<br />
Summary:<br />
The vast majority <strong>of</strong> the screened literature relates mainly to the hospital situati<strong>on</strong>, in other<br />
words, to studies which were c<strong>on</strong>ducted after admissi<strong>on</strong> to hospital. Provided they are relevant,<br />
these data must be extrapolated to the prehospital situati<strong>on</strong>. There is a relatively large number <strong>of</strong><br />
studies which were c<strong>on</strong>ducted in the USA <strong>and</strong> thus in the paramedic system. This initial<br />
management at the accident scene is <strong>on</strong>ly partially comparable <strong>with</strong> the German rescue <strong>and</strong><br />
emergency physician system.<br />
These two points must be taken into account as this means that c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s (in terms <strong>of</strong> a<br />
guideline) have <strong>on</strong>ly restricted validity <strong>on</strong> applicability to the prehospital emergency physician<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> in Germany.<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
References<br />
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1.7 Extremities<br />
Priority<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Heavily bleeding extremity injuries, which can impair the vital functi<strong>on</strong>, must<br />
be given first priority.<br />
The management <strong>of</strong> extremity injuries must avoid further damage <strong>and</strong> not<br />
delay the total rescue time if there are additi<strong>on</strong>al threatening injuries present.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
Securing the vital functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> examining the head <strong>and</strong> trunk should precede the examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the extremities. Specifics can occur in extremity injuries <strong>with</strong> severe blood loss [21, 27].<br />
<strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> immediate life-threatening bleeding must be treated immediately even ignoring the<br />
ABCDE protocol (see page 133).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> more major, external bleeding which is not directly life-threatening is important<br />
<strong>and</strong> is usually carried out under “C” (circulati<strong>on</strong>) whereas more minor bleeding comes under the<br />
“sec<strong>on</strong>dary survey” [21].<br />
The first rule is to avoid further damage, restore <strong>and</strong> maintain vital functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> transport to a<br />
suitable hospital [11, 25].<br />
The management <strong>of</strong> extremity injuries (irrigati<strong>on</strong>/wound management/splinting) should not delay<br />
the rescue time if there are additi<strong>on</strong>al threatening injuries present [23].<br />
Diagnostic study<br />
Medical history<br />
A very detailed medical history (firsth<strong>and</strong>/third party) <strong>of</strong> the circumstances <strong>of</strong> the accident can<br />
be gathered to obtain sufficient informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the impacting force <strong>and</strong>, if applicable, the degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> open wounds [2, 27].<br />
If possible, informati<strong>on</strong> (allergies, medicati<strong>on</strong>, previous diseases <strong>and</strong> fasting state) should be<br />
collected in additi<strong>on</strong> to the accident history <strong>and</strong> the time <strong>of</strong> the accident. In additi<strong>on</strong>, details <strong>of</strong><br />
tetanus immunizati<strong>on</strong> status should be obtained [21, 34].<br />
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Examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
All extremities <strong>of</strong> a casualty should undergo an exploratory assessment in the<br />
prehospital phase.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Alert patients should be asked first whether they have any pain <strong>and</strong> where it is. If there is pain,<br />
adequate analgesics can be administered early <strong>on</strong> [21]. A prehospital examinati<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
carried out [11]. The examinati<strong>on</strong> at the accident scene should assess to an appropriate extent the<br />
severity <strong>of</strong> the injury <strong>with</strong>out delaying the total rescue time too much [2]. The examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
should be an exploratory survey from head to toe <strong>and</strong> not last l<strong>on</strong>ger than 5 minutes [34].<br />
The examinati<strong>on</strong> should be carried in the following order: inspecti<strong>on</strong><br />
(malpositi<strong>on</strong>/wounds/swelling/circulati<strong>on</strong>), stability test (crepitati<strong>on</strong>, abnormal mobility, stable<br />
<strong>and</strong> unstable fracture signs), assessment <strong>of</strong> circulati<strong>on</strong>, motor functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> sensitivity. S<strong>of</strong>t<br />
tissue findings should also be assessed (closed versus open fracture, compartment syndrome)<br />
[11, 21, 27].<br />
Leather clothing such as motorbike apparel, for example, should be left <strong>on</strong> if possible as this<br />
serves as a splint <strong>with</strong> compressi<strong>on</strong> effect particularly for the pelvis <strong>and</strong> the lower extremity [14,<br />
21].<br />
Capillary reperfusi<strong>on</strong> can be tested by comparing <strong>with</strong> the uninjured limb [21].<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong><br />
General<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Even if an extremity injury is <strong>on</strong>ly suspected, it should be immobilized against<br />
rough movement <strong>and</strong> before transporting the patient.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Immobilizing an injured extremity is an important procedure in prehospital management. An<br />
extremity injury should be immobilized against rough movement <strong>and</strong> before transporting the<br />
patient. Reas<strong>on</strong>s for this are to alleviate pain, prevent further s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage/bleeding <strong>and</strong><br />
reduce the risk <strong>of</strong> a fat embolism <strong>and</strong> neurologic damage [21, 34].<br />
Even a suspected injury should be immobilized [10, 34].<br />
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The joints proximal <strong>and</strong> distal to the injury should be included in the immobilizati<strong>on</strong> [10, 11, 24,<br />
34]. The injured extremity should be supported flat [4]. Particularly in shortened femoral<br />
fractures, tracti<strong>on</strong>/immobilizati<strong>on</strong> under tracti<strong>on</strong> should be carried out to minimize bleeding [2,<br />
21]. Vacuum splints are suitable for immobilizing an abnormal positi<strong>on</strong>. Vacuum splints are<br />
rigid <strong>and</strong> can adapt to the shape <strong>of</strong> the extremity [21]. Air chamber splints are suitable for<br />
splinting upper extremity injuries <strong>with</strong> the exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> injuries in the proximity <strong>of</strong> the shoulder<br />
joint. In the lower extremity, they are suitable for immobilizing knee, lower leg, <strong>and</strong> foot<br />
injuries. On their attachment, the pressure in the air chamber splints <strong>and</strong> the peripheral blood<br />
supply must be regularly checked [4]. The advantage <strong>of</strong> the air chamber splint is its low weight;<br />
the disadvantage is the compressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue which can cause sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage. Vacuum<br />
splints are therefore preferred. Air chamber <strong>and</strong> vacuum splints are unsuitable for immobilizing<br />
femoral fractures <strong>and</strong> those in the proximity <strong>of</strong> the shoulder joint [5]. Cooling can reduce<br />
swellings <strong>and</strong> help to alleviate pain [10]. Femur injuries can be adequately immobilized <strong>with</strong>out<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> a spine board or rigid splinting. It is not absolutely necessary for tracti<strong>on</strong><br />
splints to be carried in the emergency medical service.<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>with</strong> 4,513 callouts made by emergency paramedics in an American<br />
emergency medical system (EMS), 16 patients (0.35%) <strong>with</strong> injuries to the mid-femur were<br />
singled out. While 11 <strong>of</strong> these patients had <strong>on</strong>ly minor injuries, 5 <strong>of</strong> these patients (0.11% <strong>of</strong> all<br />
patients) were treated under a femoral fracture diagnosis. Three <strong>of</strong> these 5 patients received a<br />
tracti<strong>on</strong> splint. In <strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the cases, the tracti<strong>on</strong> splint had to be removed again due to severe pain<br />
<strong>and</strong> a rigid immobilizati<strong>on</strong> device was attached. One patient could not have a tracti<strong>on</strong> splint<br />
because <strong>of</strong> simultaneous hip trauma. Another patient who was free <strong>of</strong> pain was transported in a<br />
comfortable positi<strong>on</strong>. The authors c<strong>on</strong>clude that femur injuries <strong>and</strong>/or a suspected fracture are<br />
rare <strong>and</strong> can be well managed <strong>with</strong> a backboard or rigid immobilizati<strong>on</strong>. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, it is not<br />
absolutely necessary for tracti<strong>on</strong> splints to be carried in the emergency medical service [1].<br />
Tracti<strong>on</strong> splints should not be used particularly <strong>on</strong> multiply injured patients as there are many<br />
c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s for their use in these patients (pelvic fracture/knee/lower leg/ankle joint injury)<br />
[33]. They are <strong>on</strong>ly rarely used due to the existing c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> a tracti<strong>on</strong><br />
splint, particularly in critically injured patients. Dislocated proximal femoral fractures are also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s for the use <strong>of</strong> a tracti<strong>on</strong> splint [7].<br />
Tracti<strong>on</strong> splints are useful <strong>and</strong>, depending <strong>on</strong> the model, easy to use for immobilizing femoral<br />
fractures, even dislocated proximal femoral fractures. Further studies are necessary [8]. Tracti<strong>on</strong><br />
splints reduce muscle spasms <strong>and</strong> thus alleviate pain. Tracti<strong>on</strong> helps to restore the femur shape<br />
<strong>and</strong> by reducing volume leads to a decrease in bleeding [8, 30, 31]. Oxygen can be given via a<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-rebreather mask (15 l/min) [2, 21]. Jewelry (rings/chains) must be removed from the injured<br />
extremity [2, 10].<br />
Photos <strong>of</strong> wounds/open fractures can be taken for documentati<strong>on</strong> (polaroid/digital). Photographic<br />
documentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> wounds, open fractures or discovered malpositi<strong>on</strong>s appears expedient as it can,<br />
under circumstances, avoid immobilized extremities or wounds already dressed in the<br />
prehospital phase from being exposed again in the hospital until they are definitively treated.<br />
Photographic documentati<strong>on</strong> can assist the subsequent treating physician in assessing the injury.<br />
Photographic documentati<strong>on</strong> must not extend the management/rescue time [2, 21].<br />
Prehospital – Extremities 106
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
The severity <strong>and</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> the injuries must be documented in the emergency physician logbook<br />
<strong>and</strong> the local finding must be described to the subsequent treating surge<strong>on</strong>, if possible in pers<strong>on</strong><br />
[3].<br />
Fractures<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If possible, <strong>and</strong> particularly <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant ischemia in the extremity<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned/<strong>with</strong> a l<strong>on</strong>g rescue time, grossly dislocated fractures <strong>and</strong><br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong>s should be approximately reduced in the prehospital phase.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The primary goal is to secure the local <strong>and</strong> peripheral blood supply. The primary goal is not an<br />
exact anatomic reducti<strong>on</strong>. What is more important is correct axial positi<strong>on</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> the restorati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> an adequate local <strong>and</strong> peripheral blood supply [3, 5]. If the neurovascular supply to the<br />
extremity distal to the injury is not compromised, reducti<strong>on</strong> can be ignored in principle [2]. If<br />
possible, <strong>and</strong> particularly <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant ischemia in the extremity c<strong>on</strong>cerned/<strong>with</strong> a l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
rescue time, grossly dislocated fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s should be reduced in the prehospital<br />
phase by axial tracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> manual correcti<strong>on</strong> into the neutral positi<strong>on</strong> or into a positi<strong>on</strong> that is<br />
nearest to the neutral positi<strong>on</strong>. It is important to check the peripheral blood supply <strong>and</strong> motor<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> sensitivity (where possible) before <strong>and</strong> after reducti<strong>on</strong> [3, 4, 5, 11, 21, 25]. Too<br />
much l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal tracti<strong>on</strong> must be avoided as this increases compartmental pressure <strong>and</strong><br />
worsens the blood supply in the s<strong>of</strong>t tissue [3, 5].<br />
A neurologic or vascular deficit distal to the fracture requires an immediate reducti<strong>on</strong> attempt.<br />
The same applies if the s<strong>of</strong>t tissue sheath/skin is compromised [21]. After successful<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong>, circulati<strong>on</strong>, sensitivity, <strong>and</strong> peripheral motor functi<strong>on</strong>s should be checked again<br />
[2, 21]. If neurovascular circulati<strong>on</strong> deteriorates after a reducti<strong>on</strong> attempt, the extremity must be<br />
immediately placed back in the initial positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> stabilized as well as possible [21].<br />
Reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> ankle fractures/ankle dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures should <strong>on</strong>ly be carried out by those<br />
experienced in this procedure. Otherwise, the goal is immobilizati<strong>on</strong> in the positi<strong>on</strong> found [21].<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>ly dislocated ankle joint fractures <strong>with</strong> obvious malpositi<strong>on</strong>, reducti<strong>on</strong> can<br />
be carried out at the accident scene. With adequate analgesia, an approximately correct axial<br />
positi<strong>on</strong> can be achieved by c<strong>on</strong>trolled, c<strong>on</strong>tinuous l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal tracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> both h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the<br />
calcaneus <strong>and</strong> heel <strong>of</strong> the foot; this positi<strong>on</strong> can then be immobilized. After this, the blood supply<br />
<strong>and</strong> neurologic situati<strong>on</strong> should be recorded again.<br />
Obvious l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>e fractures in the shaft area should also be treated in this way. Fractures in<br />
proximity to joints are difficult to assess in their extent <strong>and</strong>, after being immobilized in the painfree<br />
positi<strong>on</strong> found, can be transferred as rapidly as possible for further hospital diagnosis [2,<br />
34].<br />
Prehospital – Extremities 107
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Str<strong>on</strong>ger l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal tracti<strong>on</strong> should be avoided in distal femoral fractures as this can<br />
compromise the popliteal vessels. The knee joint can be supported in a slightly bent positi<strong>on</strong> (30-<br />
50 degrees) [4].<br />
Open fractures<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Each open fracture should be cleaned <strong>of</strong> coarse c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> covered<br />
<strong>with</strong> a sterile dressing.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Each open fracture should be identified <strong>and</strong> coarse c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> immediately removed [21].<br />
Open fractures should be irrigated <strong>with</strong> physiologic saline soluti<strong>on</strong> [2, 21, 23, 26]. All open<br />
wounds should be covered <strong>with</strong> a sterile dressing [3, 4, 11, 21, 26, 34]. Without further cleansing<br />
or disinfecti<strong>on</strong> measures, open wounds must be covered <strong>with</strong> a large sterile dressing. Coarse<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> is removed [3, 4, 5]. Thereafter, they should be immobilized as for closed injuries<br />
[26, 34]. It is best if the dressings are not removed until in the operating room [21, 26].<br />
Antibiosis should be carried out at the earliest possible time. The risk <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong> increases<br />
dramatically after 5 hours [26]. If available, intravenous antibiosis can be administered in the<br />
prehospital phase, usually <strong>with</strong> a 2nd generati<strong>on</strong> cephalosporin which is easily distributed in the<br />
b<strong>on</strong>e [4]. Prehospital antibiosis should be carried out if the rescue time is extended [23].<br />
Prehospital – Extremities 108
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Active bleeding should be treated according to the following stepwise<br />
approach:<br />
� manual pressure/pressure dressing<br />
� (elevati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
� tourniquet<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong>s for immediate use <strong>of</strong> a tourniquet/arrest <strong>of</strong> blood supply can be:<br />
� life-threatening bleeding/multiple sources <strong>of</strong> bleeding in an extremity<br />
� inability to reach the actual injury<br />
� several injured pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> bleeding<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
The measures for arresting bleeding should follow a stepwise approach. A primary attempt<br />
should be made to arrest active bleeding by manual pressure <strong>and</strong> elevati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extremity. Then<br />
a pressure dressing should be applied. If this is not adequate, a sec<strong>on</strong>d pressure dressing should<br />
be applied over the first <strong>on</strong>e. A sterile pad can be used to help to focus pressure. If bleeding<br />
persists, pressure should be applied to an artery proximal to the injury. In additi<strong>on</strong>, if possible, a<br />
tourniquet should be applied. As an excepti<strong>on</strong>, the vessel can be clamped (amputati<strong>on</strong>, l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> time, neck vessel, anatomic positi<strong>on</strong> makes the use <strong>of</strong> a tourniquet impossible) [3,<br />
4, 11, 21, 32].<br />
In regi<strong>on</strong>s where tourniquets cannot be applied (proximal extremities), hemostatic dressings can<br />
be used [13]. Applying a tourniquet requires appropriate analgesia [21]. A blood pressure cuff<br />
<strong>with</strong> 250 mmHg can be applied to the upper arm <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e <strong>with</strong> 400 mmHg to the femur [3, 5].<br />
The time at which the tourniquet was applied should be noted [21, 22, 28]. The tourniquet must<br />
interrupt the arterial blood flow completely. An incorrectly applied tourniquet can intensify<br />
bleeding (<strong>on</strong>ly compromises low pressure system) [22]. Effectiveness is m<strong>on</strong>itored by an arrest<br />
in bleeding rather than the disappearance <strong>of</strong> the distal pulse. In the case <strong>of</strong> a fracture, bleeding<br />
can also come from the b<strong>on</strong>e marrow [22].<br />
Prehospital – Extremities 109
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong>s for immediate use <strong>of</strong> a tourniquet can be [22]:<br />
� Extreme bleeding/multiple sources <strong>of</strong> bleeding in an extremity necessitating parallel<br />
securing <strong>of</strong> vital functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
� Inability to reach the actual injury (e.g., trapped pers<strong>on</strong>)<br />
� Mass casualty incident<br />
The following points should be borne in mind when applying a tourniquet:<br />
� Apply as far distally as possible, approx. 5 cm proximal to the injury<br />
� Apply directly <strong>on</strong> the skin to prevent it slipping [22, 28].<br />
If ineffective, re-apply <strong>with</strong> more pressure <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly after that c<strong>on</strong>sider applying a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
tourniquet directly proximal to the first [22]. Cooling an extremity that has a tourniquet applied<br />
can increase ischemic tolerance during l<strong>on</strong>g rescue times [15].<br />
There is <strong>on</strong>ly insufficient data <strong>on</strong> the safe applicati<strong>on</strong> time for a tourniquet. The general<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> is 2 hours but this has emerged from data obtained from normovolemic patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> a pneumatic tourniquet [22]. If the transportati<strong>on</strong> time until surgery is less than 1 hour, the<br />
tourniquet can remain in situ. For l<strong>on</strong>ger rescue times (> 1 hour), attempts should be made to<br />
release the tourniquet in a stabilized patient. If bleeding should start again, the newly applied<br />
tourniquet should then remain in situ until it is managed in the operating room [22]. After 30<br />
minutes, the tourniquet should be checked to see if it is still necessary. This is not indicated if the<br />
patient is in shock or the attendant circumstances (pers<strong>on</strong>nel) are adverse [12].<br />
In a retrospective case series <strong>on</strong> war injured from the database <strong>of</strong> the British military, tourniquets<br />
were applied to 70 patients out <strong>of</strong> 1,375 patients who had been treated during the period in<br />
English field hospitals (5.1%). A total <strong>of</strong> 107 tourniquets were applied (17 <strong>of</strong> the treated [24%]<br />
had 2 or more tourniquets applied). Of this number, 5 had a double tourniquet applied for the<br />
same injury <strong>and</strong> 12 <strong>of</strong> the injured had bilateral tourniquets (maximum number per injured 4 - 2<br />
each <strong>on</strong> both lower extremities). A hundred <strong>and</strong> six tourniquets were applied prior to arrival at<br />
the field hospital. Sixty-<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> these 70 patients (87.1%) survived. Mean value <strong>of</strong> the survivors:<br />
ISS = 16, mean value <strong>of</strong> fatalities (<strong>on</strong>ly 6 could be autopsied): ISS = 50.<br />
Whereas prior to the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> tourniquets as st<strong>and</strong>ard (February 2003 to April 2006) <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
9% (6 injured pers<strong>on</strong>s) were treated <strong>with</strong> a tourniquet, following introducti<strong>on</strong> (April 2006<br />
through February 2007) it was 64 (91%). Without details <strong>of</strong> the total number <strong>of</strong> injured pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
during this period, the authors indicate a 20-fold increase in the use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets. Three<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s directly caused by the tourniquets were observed. There were 2 cases <strong>of</strong><br />
compartment syndromes (<strong>on</strong>e each in the femur <strong>and</strong> lower leg, <strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> which was due to incorrect<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the tourniquet) <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e case <strong>of</strong> damage to the ulnar nerve (<strong>with</strong> no further details<br />
<strong>on</strong> the course). The use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets was assessed as life-saving in 4 cases <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
isolated extremity injuries, hypovolemic shock <strong>and</strong> massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> (<strong>and</strong> factor VIIa<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong>) [9].<br />
Prehospital – Extremities 110
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 165 patients (inclusi<strong>on</strong> criteria: traumatic amputati<strong>on</strong> or severe vessel<br />
injury in extremities), Beekley et al. showed that the prehospital use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets led to<br />
improved c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding; this relates particularly to multiply injured patients (ISS > 15).<br />
Forty percent <strong>of</strong> soldiers (n = 67) had a tourniquet. Reduced mortality could not be observed.<br />
The average tourniquet time was 70 minutes (min.: 5 minutes; max.: 210 minutes); damage due<br />
to use was not observed [6].<br />
In a prospective cohort study <strong>of</strong> 232 patients who had 428 tourniquets applied, Kragh et al.<br />
showed that there was no link between tourniquet time (average 1.3 hours) <strong>and</strong> morbidity<br />
(thromboses, number <strong>of</strong> fasciotomies, pareses, amputati<strong>on</strong>s). With tourniquet times over 2 hours,<br />
there is a trend towards increased morbidity <strong>with</strong> respect to amputati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> fasciotomies.<br />
The tourniquet should be applied as early as possible. If a tourniquet does not lead to the<br />
disappearance <strong>of</strong> the distal pulse, a sec<strong>on</strong>d should be applied directly proximal to the first <strong>on</strong>e to<br />
increase effectiveness. There should be no materials underneath the tourniquet as they can lead<br />
to the tourniquet loosening. Tourniquets should be applied directly proximal to the wound. The<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> tourniquets should be re-evaluated during the course [17]. The use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets<br />
is linked to a higher survival probability. The use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets before the occurrence <strong>of</strong> shock<br />
is linked to a higher survival probability, likewise when it is applied in the prehospital phase. No<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong> has been require as a result <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> a tourniquet.<br />
In a study <strong>of</strong> the US army in Baghdad <strong>with</strong> 2,838 injured pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> severe extremity injury,<br />
232 (8.2%) <strong>of</strong> those treated had 428 tourniquets applied (to 309 injured extremities). Of these,<br />
13% died. In a matched pair analysis (Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS], Injury Severity Score<br />
[ISS], all male, age) <strong>of</strong> 13 injured pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> tourniquet applied (survival rate 77% [10 out <strong>of</strong><br />
13]) <strong>and</strong> 5 (more were not identified in the time span) <strong>with</strong>out tourniquet (but where there was an<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> for tourniquet use <strong>and</strong> who all died in the prehospital phase [usually <strong>on</strong>ly 10-15<br />
minutes!]), it was shown that early use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets significantly increased the survival<br />
probability in severe extremity injuries (p < 0007). Ten <strong>of</strong> the injured <strong>on</strong>ly received the<br />
tourniquet in a manifest state <strong>of</strong> shock, <strong>and</strong> 9 (90%) died. Two hundred <strong>and</strong> twenty-two received<br />
the tourniquet before the <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> shock <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 22 died (10%, p < 0001). Twenty-two <strong>of</strong> the<br />
194 patients who already received the tourniquet in the prehospital phase (11%) <strong>and</strong> 9 <strong>of</strong> the 38<br />
(24%) who <strong>on</strong>ly received the tourniquet in the hospital’s emergency department died (p = 0.05).<br />
Ten cases <strong>of</strong> transient nerve paralysis occurred <strong>with</strong>out any correlati<strong>on</strong> to the length <strong>of</strong> time the<br />
tourniquet was applied [18].<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets is an effective, simple (for medical <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-medical pers<strong>on</strong>nel) method to<br />
prevent exsanguinati<strong>on</strong> in the military prehospital setting [20]. The use <strong>of</strong> tourniquets is a safe,<br />
rapid <strong>and</strong> effective method to c<strong>on</strong>trol bleeding from an open extremity injury <strong>and</strong> should be used<br />
routinely <strong>and</strong> not <strong>on</strong>ly as a last resort (civil study) [16]. Tourniquets can c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards a<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in mortality <strong>of</strong> those injured in battle <strong>and</strong> show <strong>on</strong>ly low complicati<strong>on</strong> rates (nerve<br />
paralysis, compartment syndrome). The loss <strong>of</strong> an extremity due to the use <strong>of</strong> a tourniquet is a<br />
rarity [13].<br />
Amputati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
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The amputated part should be cleaned <strong>of</strong> coarse c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> wrapped<br />
in sterile, damp compresses. It should be indirectly chilled while being<br />
transported.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to arresting bleeding, the amputati<strong>on</strong> stump should be splinted <strong>and</strong> a sterile dressing<br />
applied. Only coarse c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> should be removed [3, 4]. The amputated part must be<br />
preserved. B<strong>on</strong>y parts or amputated digits should be taken from the accident scene or, if<br />
necessary, brought <strong>on</strong> afterwards.<br />
Wrap the amputated part in sterile, damp compresses <strong>and</strong> transport chilled, if possible packed<br />
using the “double bag method”. Here, the amputated part is packed in an inner plastic bag <strong>with</strong><br />
sterile, damp compresses. This bag is placed in a bag <strong>with</strong> iced water (1/3 ice cubes, 2/3 water)<br />
<strong>and</strong> sealed. This avoids sec<strong>on</strong>dary cold damage (no direct c<strong>on</strong>tact between ice or cool pack <strong>and</strong><br />
the tissue) [2–4, 19].<br />
Amputati<strong>on</strong>s influence the choice <strong>of</strong> designated hospital <strong>and</strong> advance warning should be given<br />
[2, 3].<br />
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References<br />
1. Abarbanell Nr (2001) Prehospital midthigh trauma<br />
<strong>and</strong> tracti<strong>on</strong> splint use: recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for treatment<br />
protocols. Am J Emerg Med 19:137-140<br />
2. An<strong>on</strong>ymous (2006) Limb trauma. In: School WM (ed)<br />
Clinical Practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. For use in U.K.<br />
Ambulance Services. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>of</strong> the Joint Royal<br />
Colleges Ambulance Liais<strong>on</strong> Committee <strong>and</strong> The<br />
Ambulance Service Associati<strong>on</strong>. Warwick Medical<br />
School, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, p<br />
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/med/research/hsri/em<br />
ergencycare/guidelines/limb_trauma_2006.pdf<br />
[Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
3. Beck A (2002) Notärztliche Versorgung des<br />
Traumapatienten. Notfall- und Rettungsmedizin 1:57-<br />
61<br />
4. Beck A (2002) Wunde- Fraktur- Luxati<strong>on</strong>. Notfall-<br />
und Rettungsmedizin 8:613-624<br />
5. Beck A, Gebhard F, Kinzl L et al. (2001) [Principles<br />
<strong>and</strong> techniques <strong>of</strong> primary trauma surgery<br />
management at the site]]. Unfallchirurg 104:1082-<br />
1096; quiz 1097, 1099<br />
6. Beekley Ac, Sebesta Ja, Blackbourne Lh et al. (2008)<br />
Prehospital tourniquet use in Operati<strong>on</strong> Iraqi<br />
Freedom: effect <strong>on</strong> hemorrhage c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>and</strong> outcomes.<br />
J Trauma 64:S28-37; discussi<strong>on</strong> S37<br />
7. Bledsoe B, Barnes D (2004) Tracti<strong>on</strong> splint. An EMS<br />
relic? Jems 29:64-69<br />
8. Borschneck Ag (2004) Tracti<strong>on</strong> splint: proper splint<br />
design & applicati<strong>on</strong> are the keys. Jems 29:70, 72-75<br />
9. Brodie S, Hodgetts Tj, Ollert<strong>on</strong> J et al. (2007)<br />
Tourniquet use in combat trauma: UK military<br />
experience. J R Army Med Corps 153:310-313<br />
10. Cuske J (2008) The lost art <strong>of</strong> splinting. How to<br />
properly immobilize extremities & manage pain.<br />
JEMS 33:50-64; quiz 66<br />
11. Dgu (2007) Leitlinie Polytrauma. In: Unfallchirurgie<br />
DGf (ed), p http://www.dgu<strong>on</strong>line.de/de/leitlinien/polytrauma.jsp<br />
12. Doyle Gs, Taillac Pp (2008) Tourniquets: a review <strong>of</strong><br />
current use <strong>with</strong> proposals for exp<strong>and</strong>ed prehospital<br />
use. Prehosp Emerg Care 12:241-256<br />
13. Ficke Jr, Pollak An (2007) Extremity War Injuries:<br />
Development <strong>of</strong> Clinical <strong>Treatment</strong> Principles. J Am<br />
Acad Orthop Surg 15:590-595<br />
14. Hinds Jd, Allen G, Morris Cg (2007) Trauma <strong>and</strong><br />
motorcyclists: born to be wild, bound to be injured?<br />
Injury 38:1131-1138<br />
15. Irving Ga, Noakes Td (1985) The protective role <strong>of</strong><br />
local hypothermia in tourniquet-induced ischaemia <strong>of</strong><br />
muscle. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Br 67:297-301<br />
16. Kalish J, Burke P, Feldman J et al. (2008) The return<br />
<strong>of</strong> tourniquets. Original research evaluates the<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> prehospital tourniquets for civilian<br />
penetrating extremity injuries. JEMS 33:44-46, 49-50,<br />
52, 54<br />
17. Kragh Jf, Jr., Walters Tj, Baer Dg et al. (2008)<br />
Practical use <strong>of</strong> emergency tourniquets to stop<br />
bleeding in major limb trauma. J Trauma 64:S38-49;<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> S49-50<br />
18. Kragh Jf, Jr., Walters Tj, Baer Dg et al. (2009)<br />
Survival <strong>with</strong> emergency tourniquet use to stop<br />
bleeding in major limb trauma. Ann Surg 249:1-7<br />
19. Lackner Ck, Lewan U, Deiler S et al. (1999)<br />
Präklinische Akutversorgung v<strong>on</strong><br />
Amputati<strong>on</strong>sverletzungen. Notfall- und<br />
Rettungsmedizin 2:188-192<br />
20. Lakstein D, Blumenfeld A, Sokolov T et al. (2003)<br />
Tourniquets for hemorrhage c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>on</strong> the battlefield:<br />
a 4-year accumulated experience. J Trauma 54:S221-<br />
225<br />
21. Lee C, Porter Km (2005) Prehospital management <strong>of</strong><br />
lower limb fractures. Emerg Med J 22:660-663 [LoE<br />
4]<br />
22. Lee C, Porter Km, Hodgetts Tj (2007) Tourniquet use<br />
in the civilian prehospital setting. Emerg Med J<br />
24:584-587<br />
23. Melamed E, Blumenfeld A, Kalmovich B et al. (2007)<br />
Prehospital care <strong>of</strong> orthopedic injuries. Prehosp<br />
Disaster Med 22:22-25<br />
24. Perkins Tj (2007) Fracture management. Effective<br />
prehospital splinting techniques. Emerg Med Serv<br />
36:35-37, 39<br />
25. Probst C, Hildebr<strong>and</strong> F, Frink M et al. (2007)<br />
[Prehospital treatment <strong>of</strong> severely injured patients in<br />
the field: an update]. Chirurg 78:875-884 [LoE 5]<br />
26. Quinn Rh, Macias Dj (2006) The management <strong>of</strong><br />
open fractures. Wilderness Envir<strong>on</strong> Med 17:41-48<br />
27. Regel G, Bayeff-Fill<strong>of</strong>f M (2004) [Diagnosis <strong>and</strong><br />
immediate therapeutic management <strong>of</strong> limb injuries.<br />
A systematic review <strong>of</strong> the literature]. Unfallchirurg<br />
107:919-926 [LoE 3a]<br />
28. Richey Sl (2007) Tourniquets for the c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong><br />
traumatic hemorrhage: a review <strong>of</strong> the literature.<br />
World J Emerg Surg 2:28<br />
29. Sackett Dl, Richards<strong>on</strong> Ws, Rosenberg W et al.<br />
(1997) Evidence-based medicine: How to practice <strong>and</strong><br />
teach EBM. Churchill Livingst<strong>on</strong>e, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
30. Scheinberg S (2004) Tracti<strong>on</strong> splint: questi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
commended. Jems 29:78<br />
31. Slishman S (2004) Tracti<strong>on</strong> splint: sins <strong>of</strong> commissi<strong>on</strong><br />
vs. sins <strong>of</strong> omissi<strong>on</strong>. Jems 29:77-78<br />
32. Strohm Pc, Bannasch H, Goos M et al. (2006)<br />
[Prehospital care <strong>of</strong> surgical emergencies]. MMW<br />
Fortschr Med 148:34, 36-38<br />
33. Wood Sp, Vrahas M, Wedel Sk (2003) Femur fracture<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> tracti<strong>on</strong> splints in multisystem<br />
trauma patients. Prehosp Emerg Care 7:241-243<br />
34. Worsing Ra, Jr. (1984) Principles <strong>of</strong> prehospital care<br />
<strong>of</strong> musculoskeletal injuries. Emerg Med Clin North<br />
Am 2:205-217<br />
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1.8 Genitourinary tract<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> a suspected urethral injury, prehospital bladder catheterizati<strong>on</strong><br />
should not be carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Genitourinary tract injuries can occur in approximately 5-10% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> multiply injured<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> are thus relatively frequent. In numbers, kidney injuries are at the forefr<strong>on</strong>t,<br />
followed by bladder <strong>and</strong> urethra. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, about half <strong>of</strong> all urologic trauma are associated <strong>with</strong><br />
further injuries c<strong>on</strong>sistent <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries [1, 7]. Relatively severe <strong>and</strong> combined<br />
genitourinary injuries typically occur <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries [4, 7]. Due to their relative<br />
frequency <strong>and</strong> clinical importance, recommendati<strong>on</strong>s shall be given below for injuries to the<br />
kidney, ureters, bladder, <strong>and</strong> urethra. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, injuries to the external genital organs are not<br />
discussed as they are relatively rare <strong>and</strong> are usually treated in a similar way in polytrauma as in<br />
m<strong>on</strong>otrauma.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to other injuries, injuries to the ureter, bladder, <strong>and</strong> urethra do not represent a direct<br />
threat to life (evidence level [EL] 4 [2]). Although kidney ruptures are potentially lifethreatening,<br />
they cannot be treated in the prehospital phase. Accordingly, there are scarcely any<br />
specific prehospital procedures for diagnosis <strong>and</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> urological injuries. A diagnosis<br />
time advantage is assumed <strong>on</strong>ly for the transurethral catheterizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the bladder because the<br />
presence <strong>and</strong> severity grade <strong>of</strong> hematuria can be important both in the choice <strong>of</strong> designated<br />
hospital <strong>and</strong> for its management up<strong>on</strong> arrival in hospital. As time losses represent a relevant risk<br />
quoad vitam to multiply injured patients particularly in prehospital care, prehospital<br />
catheterizati<strong>on</strong> may be advantageous if l<strong>on</strong>ger rescue/transport times are predicted providing it in<br />
turn does not lead to delays. Internati<strong>on</strong>ally, the transurethral bladder catheter is a quite comm<strong>on</strong><br />
procedure in the prehospital treatment <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients.<br />
There is a slight risk that an additi<strong>on</strong>al injury is caused through bladder catheterizati<strong>on</strong> (EL 4 [3])<br />
by turning an incomplete urethral rupture into a complete rupture. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the transurethral<br />
catheter can cause a via falsa in a complete urethral rupture (EL 5 [5, 6]). Based <strong>on</strong> these<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s, it seems advisable to dispense <strong>with</strong> transurethral catheterizati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong><br />
clinical signs <strong>of</strong> a urethral injury until the diagnostic study has been completed. Hematuria<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or blood leakage from the meatus urethra are the main clinical criteria for a urethral injury.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, dysuria, suspected pelvic fracture, local hematoma development, <strong>and</strong> the general<br />
mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury can provide diagnostic clues.<br />
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References<br />
1 Cass AS, Cass BP. Immediate surgical management<br />
<strong>of</strong> severe renal injuries in multiple-injured patients.<br />
Urology 1983: 21(2):140-145.<br />
2 Corriere JN, Jr., S<strong>and</strong>ler CM. Management <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ruptured bladder: seven years <strong>of</strong> experience <strong>with</strong> 111<br />
cases. J Trauma 1986: 26(9):830-833 [LoE 4]<br />
3 Glass RE, Flynn JT, King JB, Bl<strong>and</strong>y JP. Urethral<br />
injury <strong>and</strong> fractured pelvis. Br J Urol 1978:<br />
50(7):578-582 [LoE 4]<br />
4 M<strong>on</strong>strey SJ, v<strong>and</strong>er WC, Debruyne FM, Goris RJ.<br />
Urological trauma <strong>and</strong> severe associated injuries. Br J<br />
Urol 1987: 60(5):393-398.<br />
5 Morehouse DD, Mackinn<strong>on</strong> KJ. Posterior urethral<br />
injury: etiology, diagnosis, initial management.<br />
UrolClin North Am 1977: 4(1):69-73 [LoE 5]<br />
6 Nagel R, Leistenschneider W. [Urologic injuries in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries]. Chirurg 1978:<br />
49(12):731-736 [LoE 5]<br />
7 Zink RA, Muller-Mattheis V, Oberneder R. [Results<br />
<strong>of</strong> the West German multicenter study "Urological<br />
traumatology"]. Urologe A 1990: 29(5):243-250.<br />
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1.9 Transport <strong>and</strong> designated hospital<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Primary air rescue can be used for the prehospital management <strong>of</strong> severely<br />
injured pers<strong>on</strong>s as it can result in a survival advantage particularly for<br />
medium to high injury severity.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
For years, air rescue has been a permanent comp<strong>on</strong>ent in the care provided by the emergency<br />
services not <strong>on</strong>ly in Germany but also internati<strong>on</strong>ally. In most European countries, a<br />
comprehensive network <strong>of</strong> air rescue bases has been built up over recent decades covering the<br />
primary <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary management sectors. Numerous studies to date have tried to prove the<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> air rescue. Thus, a possibly shorter prehospital period (time <strong>of</strong> accident until<br />
hospital admissi<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> more aggressive prehospital treatment have been referred to as potential<br />
grounds for an improved outcome in multiply injured patients. For a l<strong>on</strong>g time, however, it<br />
remained c<strong>on</strong>troversial whether the use <strong>of</strong> air rescue actually led to a reducti<strong>on</strong> in mortality. A<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> medical effectiveness together <strong>with</strong> high c<strong>on</strong>tingency costs has thus put a questi<strong>on</strong> mark<br />
over air rescue for primary use.<br />
The necessity <strong>of</strong> the partly enormous logistic c<strong>on</strong>tingency costs in trauma centers has also come<br />
under questi<strong>on</strong>. In additi<strong>on</strong> to expensive technology, staff resources in particular have been held<br />
in readiness, necessary for the optimum logistic management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients. Up till<br />
now, there has also been a lack <strong>of</strong> justifiable study c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the rati<strong>on</strong>ale <strong>of</strong> high<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tingency costs.<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> the prehospital management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients by air rescue were<br />
compared in 19 studies (evidence Level 2b [2–6, 8, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 28, 29, 32] <strong>with</strong><br />
those <strong>of</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-based rescue. The case fatality rate was the primary endpoint here in all cases. Nine<br />
studies were designed as prospective, 8 studies as retrospective, <strong>and</strong> 6 studies were multicenter.<br />
In 16 studies, the primary designated hospital was exclusively a Level 1 trauma center [1], <strong>and</strong> in<br />
<strong>on</strong>e study [20] Level 2/3 hospitals were also involved.<br />
Case fatality rate<br />
In 11 studies there was evidence <strong>of</strong> a statistically significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in case fatality rate<br />
(between -8.2 <strong>and</strong> -52%) through the use <strong>of</strong> air rescue. Six studies show no advantage in<br />
outcome for patients transported by air rescue but reveal the following abnormalities:<br />
Phillips et al. 1999 [21]: With identical case fatality rates in both patient groups, the injury<br />
severity <strong>of</strong> the rescue helicopter (RTH) group was increased highly significantly (p < 0001); an<br />
adjusted case fatality rate comparis<strong>on</strong> was not carried out. Schiller et al. 1988 [28]: The patients<br />
in the rescue helicopter group had both a significantly increased case fatality rate <strong>and</strong> a<br />
significantly higher injury severity; an adjusted case fatality rate comparis<strong>on</strong> was not carried out.<br />
Nicholl et al. 1995 [20]: The patients in both treatment groups were also treated in Level 2 <strong>and</strong> 3<br />
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hospitals as well as trauma centers. Cunningham et al. 1997 [11]: <strong>Patients</strong> in the rescue<br />
helicopter group <strong>with</strong> mean injury severity (ISS = 21–30) had a significantly reduced case<br />
fatality rate; but this result was not c<strong>on</strong>firmed in the logistic regressi<strong>on</strong>. Bartolomeo et al. 2001<br />
[12]: Only patients <strong>with</strong> severe head injuries (AIS ≥ 4) were studied. The l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency<br />
physician team also carried out invasive prehospital treatment interventi<strong>on</strong>s comparatively<br />
frequently so that the “gap” between their treatment level <strong>and</strong> that <strong>of</strong> the rescue helicopter group<br />
was <strong>on</strong>ly very slight. In Biewener et al. (2004) [5]: In their own paper it is also noticeable that a<br />
comparatively high level <strong>of</strong> invasive prehospital treatment is carried out by the l<strong>and</strong>-based<br />
emergency physician team.<br />
Comparability <strong>and</strong> transferability <strong>of</strong> study results<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> very different country-specific emergency service structures, the comparability <strong>of</strong><br />
the studies must be questi<strong>on</strong>ed. For instance, a rescue system based <strong>on</strong> paramedics is found<br />
particularly in the North American regi<strong>on</strong>, whose structure cannot be compared <strong>with</strong> the German<br />
rescue service. The studies also differ noticeably in the injury pattern. For instance, blunt injuries<br />
in particular are predominant in European countries whereas penetrating trauma are predominant<br />
in North America. The studies also differ enormously in the transport distances to be covered<br />
<strong>and</strong> the aggressiveness <strong>of</strong> the prehospital management. The majority <strong>of</strong> the studies (11/17) show<br />
a statistically significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients - particularly<br />
<strong>with</strong> average injury severity - through the use <strong>of</strong> air rescue. The 6 studies <strong>with</strong>out evidence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
direct treatment advantage nevertheless reveal a trend towards better results <strong>with</strong> helicopter<br />
patients through increased injury severity <strong>with</strong> identical case fatality rate.<br />
Furthermore, all studies show a marked extensi<strong>on</strong> to the prehospital period. This is firstly<br />
because <strong>of</strong> a partly markedly l<strong>on</strong>ger transport distance, <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dly because <strong>of</strong> a markedly more<br />
aggressive prehospital management strategy. However, further evidence <strong>on</strong> the effectiveness <strong>of</strong><br />
aggressive prehospital treatment is incomplete.<br />
In summary, these papers show a trend towards a fall in the case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> multiply injured<br />
patients through the use <strong>of</strong> air rescue compared <strong>with</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency service. This is<br />
particularly relevant to patients <strong>with</strong> average injury severity whose survival is particularly<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gly dependent <strong>on</strong> treatment effects. The reas<strong>on</strong>s are c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be a better clinical<br />
diagnostic study <strong>and</strong> treatment due to the rescue helicopter team’s training <strong>and</strong> experience<br />
advantages. This c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> is limited in its general validity <strong>and</strong> transferability by the listed<br />
systematic error sources <strong>of</strong> the cited papers <strong>and</strong> by the heterogeneity <strong>of</strong> the regi<strong>on</strong>al emergency<br />
service <strong>and</strong> hospital structures <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the types <strong>of</strong> injury.<br />
Comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> trauma center versus hospital level II <strong>and</strong> III<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> the durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> prehospital management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients has been<br />
proven in numerous studies <strong>and</strong> the term “golden hour” has been coined. The goal must be to<br />
transport the patient to a hospital which has at its disposal a 24-hour acute diagnostic <strong>and</strong> acute<br />
treatment unit in terms <strong>of</strong> prompt availability <strong>of</strong> all medical <strong>and</strong> surgical disciplines <strong>and</strong> the<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding capacities for acute treatment. Furthermore, it was shown that<br />
hospitals <strong>with</strong> a high footfall <strong>of</strong> critically injured patients had a clearly better outcome than<br />
facilities <strong>with</strong> markedly less annual revenue.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
<strong>Severe</strong>ly injured patients should be primarily transferred to a trauma center. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Hospital level:<br />
In the analysis <strong>of</strong> the studies, the term hospital levels 1-3 <strong>and</strong> partly also 1-4 are used. In this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text, a Level 1 hospital equates to a maximum care hospital, which normally represents a<br />
trauma center, a term which does not have an internati<strong>on</strong>ally c<strong>on</strong>sistent definiti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A care Level 2 hospital equates to a specialist hospital, <strong>and</strong> a care level 3 hospital equates to a<br />
basic, general hospital.<br />
Through the development <strong>of</strong> DGU trauma networks, 3 new categories <strong>of</strong> trauma care have been<br />
defined [24, 31]: “transboundary trauma center”, “regi<strong>on</strong>al trauma center”, <strong>and</strong> “basic care<br />
facilities”.<br />
Each care level is clearly defined using a certificati<strong>on</strong> procedure <strong>and</strong> is obliged to maintain the<br />
required performance. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the previous structures, these facilities are linked to each<br />
other via “network development”. This enables shared resources <strong>and</strong> integrated patient care.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> those trauma networks which are being developed <strong>and</strong> the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding lack <strong>of</strong><br />
studies, the existing hospital grades (Level 1-3) have to be used to define the designated hospital<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s. However, it might be possible to assume from an interlinking <strong>of</strong> various care<br />
centers that even the care quality <strong>of</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al trauma centers legitimizes polytrauma care.<br />
The German Trauma Society (DGU) has developed the White Paper in associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the trauma network [31]. It summarizes inter alia data <strong>of</strong> relevant internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<strong>and</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al care studies, prospective data in the trauma registry <strong>of</strong> the German Trauma Society,<br />
<strong>and</strong> data <strong>and</strong> literature analyses <strong>of</strong> the interdisciplinary working group “S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
DGU <strong>on</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> seriously <strong>and</strong> multiply injured patients” in order to give<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the structure, organizati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> equipment for the care <strong>of</strong> the severely<br />
injured.<br />
The authors <strong>of</strong> the White Paper recommend that a severely injured patient is transferred to the<br />
nearest regi<strong>on</strong>al or transboundary trauma center if there is an indicati<strong>on</strong> for emergency room<br />
management based <strong>on</strong> mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury, injury pattern, <strong>and</strong> vital parameters <strong>and</strong> if the<br />
trauma center can be reached <strong>with</strong>in 30 minutes’ drive time. If it cannot be reached in that time,<br />
the patient must be transported to an adequately equipped smaller hospital (currently called a<br />
basic care facility). If a criteri<strong>on</strong> exists for <strong>on</strong>ward transfer, sec<strong>on</strong>dary transfer to a regi<strong>on</strong>al or<br />
transboundary trauma center is carried out from there after the vital parameters have been<br />
stabilized.<br />
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Comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Level 1-trauma center versus Level 2/3 hospitals<br />
The research yielded 7 studies from the USA (n = 3), Canada (n = 2), Australia (n = 1), <strong>and</strong><br />
Germany (n = 1), which directly compare the results <strong>of</strong> trauma centers (maximum care hospital)<br />
<strong>with</strong> Level 2/3 hospitals (specialist/basic <strong>and</strong> general care) [5, 9, 10, 15, 23, 26, 27].<br />
All papers come to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that the case fatality rate is lowered if the primary treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
patients <strong>with</strong> serious blunt <strong>and</strong> penetrating injuries is carried out in the trauma center. This result<br />
is statistically significant in 5 studies. The significance level falls just short (p = 0.055) in <strong>on</strong>e<br />
study [27]. Differences in prehospital management (prehospital interval, amount <strong>of</strong> treatment)<br />
which could have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the difference in the case fatality rate were documented <strong>on</strong>ly in<br />
their own paper. The interpretati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the study results is simplified in that all papers come to a<br />
comparable, statistically c<strong>on</strong>firmed result: the case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients is<br />
lowered through direct admissi<strong>on</strong> to a trauma center or a hospital <strong>with</strong> a comparable quality <strong>of</strong><br />
care.<br />
However, due to the c<strong>on</strong>siderable, not fully c<strong>on</strong>trolled sources <strong>of</strong> bias <strong>and</strong> the heterogeneity <strong>of</strong><br />
the care systems studied, this c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> cannot equate to definitive scientific evidence. Some<br />
authors pointed out that stabilizati<strong>on</strong> in a regi<strong>on</strong>al hospital followed by transfer to a trauma<br />
center, did not negatively influence the case fatality rate compared to patients directly admitted<br />
to the trauma center [7, 13, 19, 22, 30, 31, 33]. <strong>Patients</strong> who died before a possible transfer are<br />
not included in these papers. The “transfer” patient cohort is thus positively selected. This should<br />
be taken into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> in the final analysis. It is thus not possible to c<strong>on</strong>clude whether this<br />
care pathway actually does represent an equivalent alternative to direct admissi<strong>on</strong> to a trauma<br />
center or a hospital <strong>of</strong> comparable quality <strong>of</strong> care.<br />
Furthermore, a fresh analysis <strong>of</strong> the treatment results at all care levels must be c<strong>on</strong>ducted after<br />
the trauma networks are implemented to provide scientific pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> potential positive effects <strong>on</strong><br />
the outcome from networking.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
The analyzed papers <strong>on</strong> comparing air rescue <strong>with</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>-based emergency service reveal a<br />
trend towards a fall in the case fatality rate through the use <strong>of</strong> air rescue. If available, primary air<br />
rescue can be used for the prehospital care <strong>of</strong> severely injured pers<strong>on</strong>s as it can result in a<br />
survival advantage particularly for medium to high injury severity. <strong>Severe</strong>ly injured patients<br />
should undergo primary transfer to a trauma center as this procedure leads to a lowering <strong>of</strong> the<br />
case fatality rate. If a regi<strong>on</strong>al or transboundary trauma center cannot be reached <strong>with</strong>in a<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>able time (White Paper recommendati<strong>on</strong>: 30 minutes), then the patient should be taken to<br />
a closer hospital which is able to carry out primary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> life-saving first aid<br />
measures. During the further course, if circulati<strong>on</strong> is stable <strong>and</strong> specific criteria are present,<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary transfer to a regi<strong>on</strong>al or transboundary trauma center can be carried out if necessary.<br />
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28. Schiller Wr, Knox R, Zinnecker H et al. (1988) Effect<br />
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30. Sharar Sr, Luna Gk, Rice Cl et al. (1988) Air transport<br />
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31. Siebert Hr, Ruchholtz S (2007) Projekt<br />
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33. Veenema Kr, Rodewald Le (1995) Stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
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1.10 Mass casualty incident (MCI)<br />
The mass casualty incident represents a big challenge for the medical team management.<br />
Screening <strong>and</strong> triage <strong>of</strong> emergency patients must utilize the available pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> material<br />
resources as efficiently as possible in the prehospital individual management <strong>of</strong> the injured.<br />
Following the attacks inter alia in Madrid <strong>and</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Football World Cup in Germany<br />
in 2006, for example, the extreme topicality <strong>of</strong> this problem should not be in dispute.<br />
The major catastrophic event must be differentiated from a disaster. A strategy for c<strong>on</strong>trolling a<br />
major catastrophic event <strong>with</strong> a mass casualty incident was drawn up here according to<br />
methodological criteria; its transferability <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> in a disaster scenario is <strong>on</strong>ly possible<br />
to a limited extent at this juncture.<br />
Results<br />
The literature screening revealed that there is no literature <strong>of</strong> Evidence Level 1 according to the<br />
current state <strong>of</strong> knowledge. The major literature citati<strong>on</strong>s for Level 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 are: [4, 6, 10, 11, 12,<br />
15, 16, 20, 22, 23, 27, 37, 41, 43, 44, 50, 56, 57, 63, 64, 74]. Case histories are difficult to extract<br />
from literature citati<strong>on</strong>s for Evidence Level 3 as they are generally the <strong>on</strong>ly authentic <strong>and</strong><br />
practically utilizable experience reports <strong>of</strong> major catastrophic events. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, these<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong>s are also classified in our guideline under Evidence Levels 4 <strong>and</strong> 5: [1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13,<br />
14, 17, 18, 21, 23, 30–33, 36, 38–40, 42, 45, 47, 49, 51–53, 55, 58–62, 67, 69–71, 73, 75, 76].<br />
Computer simulati<strong>on</strong>s were also applied; their quality is also up for discussi<strong>on</strong> [29, 65].<br />
Status <strong>of</strong> discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Due to the present data status, the evidence-based development <strong>of</strong> a strategy for the mass<br />
casualty incident is currently not possible. As no evidence could be found for individual steps<br />
<strong>and</strong> individual research questi<strong>on</strong>s, the authors initially developed a proposal from the synopsis <strong>of</strong><br />
literature <strong>and</strong> their own experiences to illustrate the process management in a mass casualty<br />
incident. While assessing available study results, the appointed experts group therefore carried<br />
out a formal c<strong>on</strong>sensus process to draw up the treatment strategy. Within the framework <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nominal group process, the individual opini<strong>on</strong>s could be modified, thus enabling the<br />
requirements for a democratic c<strong>on</strong>sensus to be fulfilled <strong>with</strong> appropriate legitimizati<strong>on</strong> [35, 54].<br />
The relevant decisi<strong>on</strong> criteria <strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s were defined accordingly <strong>and</strong> assessed in<br />
order <strong>of</strong> priority <strong>with</strong> regard to presenting them using an algorithm. To present the results, a<br />
modified flow diagram was selected which gives sufficient clarity despite the complexity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
task [34]. The final approval was obtained in a Delphi c<strong>on</strong>ference [24]: the an<strong>on</strong>ymized opini<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>of</strong> the experts were gathered by interview <strong>and</strong> listed. Several survey rounds followed <strong>and</strong> after<br />
each round the resp<strong>on</strong>ses received were summarized <strong>and</strong> submitted again for appraisal by those<br />
surveyed. This led to systematic modificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> criticism <strong>of</strong> the summarized resp<strong>on</strong>ses. A<br />
group resp<strong>on</strong>se was achieved by summarizing the individual opini<strong>on</strong>s in a final round, after<br />
which it was possible to produce a c<strong>on</strong>vergence <strong>of</strong> opini<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The algorithm developed for the prehospital processing <strong>of</strong> a major catastrophic event <strong>with</strong> a<br />
mass casualty incident defines as a treatment strategy both the entire process <strong>and</strong> the major<br />
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decisi<strong>on</strong> points <strong>and</strong> management steps. It c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> 2 parts: acti<strong>on</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong>s for the<br />
ambulance team management (SanEL, c<strong>on</strong>sisting <strong>of</strong> the lead emergency physician, LEP, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al leader <strong>of</strong> the emergency service (OrgL) <strong>and</strong> part 2, the triage <strong>of</strong> the injured. The<br />
essential prerequisite for processing it is to ensure the accident scene is safe so that the pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
involved are not exposed to any unnecessary hazard.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
At a mass casualty incident, it is generally not possible for time reas<strong>on</strong>s for the lead emergency<br />
physician to carry out prehospital individual triage <strong>of</strong> all patients. Although there is a good half<br />
dozen published triage instructi<strong>on</strong>s in the literature, these are neither applicable to the individual<br />
medical care systems in equal measure nor do they reveal any type <strong>of</strong> relatively high evidence<br />
[19]. Thus, our own triage algorithm, which can be well <strong>and</strong> easily applied to the German<br />
emergency services c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, had to be developed from the data in the literature <strong>and</strong> from the<br />
experiences <strong>of</strong> the members <strong>of</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ference. The START (Simple Triage <strong>and</strong> Rapid<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong>) algorithm comm<strong>on</strong>ly used in North America, which enables a targeted sorting <strong>of</strong> the<br />
injured by the emergency services pers<strong>on</strong>nel first <strong>on</strong> the scene, serves as an important basis for<br />
the algorithm developed for prehospital triage. The START strategy was initially developed for<br />
the Californian fire department [10] <strong>and</strong> is superior to other triage algorithms in the recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> critical injuries [28]. Besides the priorities according to the ATLS ® specificati<strong>on</strong>s [2], the<br />
algorithm developed for prehospital triage also takes account <strong>of</strong> the specific requirements <strong>of</strong> the<br />
German emergency system [68], both <strong>with</strong> regard to the tasks <strong>and</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> the lead emergency<br />
physician or <strong>of</strong> the ambulance team management <strong>and</strong> to the appropriate screening categories.<br />
Triage is generally made more difficult in that the severely injured must be rapidly <strong>and</strong> definitely<br />
identified from am<strong>on</strong>g a large number <strong>of</strong> casualties <strong>with</strong> minor injuries. Usually, the problem is<br />
less <strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> undertriage, in other words, <strong>of</strong> not recognizing critically at-risk patients, <strong>and</strong> far more<br />
<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> overtriage, <strong>of</strong> the incorrect assessment <strong>of</strong> the n<strong>on</strong>-critically injured. The rate <strong>of</strong> overtriage<br />
correlates linearly <strong>with</strong> the mortality <strong>of</strong> the critically injured [25] as prehospital <strong>and</strong> hospital<br />
resources are used up in the initially n<strong>on</strong>-urgent treatment <strong>of</strong> those <strong>with</strong> minor injuries when<br />
these resources are urgently required for the treatment <strong>of</strong> the critically injured.<br />
After triage has commenced, all the walking wounded are first <strong>of</strong> all sent to a collecti<strong>on</strong> point for<br />
those <strong>with</strong> minor injuries. <strong>Patients</strong> whose vital functi<strong>on</strong>s are acutely threatened are identified<br />
according to the ABCD priorities (Airway, Breathing, Circulati<strong>on</strong>, Disability) <strong>and</strong> dispatched for<br />
treatment as rapidly as possible. If there is an acute surgical indicati<strong>on</strong> such as<br />
thoracotomy/laparotomy to arrest bleeding or decompressi<strong>on</strong> in the case <strong>of</strong> traumatic brain<br />
injury, the patient is transported <strong>with</strong>out delay to the nearest suitable hospital after a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
screening <strong>and</strong> approval given by the lead emergency physician (or the SanEL).<br />
The algorithm particularly takes account <strong>of</strong> the problem that am<strong>on</strong>g the large number <strong>of</strong> injured<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly a small proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patients have acutely threatened vital functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> require<br />
immediate treatment. Besides the life-saving interventi<strong>on</strong>s that can be carried out at the scene, it<br />
also includes the rapid, resource-dependent transportati<strong>on</strong> to acute surgical care.<br />
An additi<strong>on</strong>al fifth screening category for dead pers<strong>on</strong>s accommodates the requirement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
European C<strong>on</strong>sensus C<strong>on</strong>ference [68] to assign dead pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> still alive patients who<br />
Prehospital – Mass casualty incident (MCI) 123
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
nevertheless have no hope <strong>of</strong> survival due to their injuries to their own group instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hitherto usual 4 groups.<br />
The strategy introduced for the mass casualty incident is essentially based <strong>on</strong> the results <strong>of</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ference where there is insufficient data available. Studies <strong>of</strong> Evidence Level 2 use<br />
simulati<strong>on</strong> models for the major catastrophic situati<strong>on</strong> using analysis <strong>of</strong> carefully documented<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> trauma patients [28] or <strong>of</strong> events such as the Munich Oktoberfest <strong>with</strong> a pile-up <strong>of</strong><br />
many casualties [63]. Although the partial issue <strong>of</strong> screening <strong>and</strong> triage can be researched in this<br />
way, the operati<strong>on</strong>al logistics cannot be recorded <strong>with</strong> such studies.<br />
The following problems relating to process quality are identified both in the literature [6, 32, 46]<br />
<strong>and</strong> by the members <strong>of</strong> the working group:<br />
� Lack <strong>of</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong> at the scene <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> the competent superordinate locati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(hospitals, emergency c<strong>on</strong>trol center, etc.)<br />
� Pers<strong>on</strong>s in charge at the scene are not clearly identified<br />
� Lack <strong>of</strong> documentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the incident<br />
� Lack <strong>of</strong> identificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the injured<br />
Summary:<br />
Finally, the following c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> should be drawn: c<strong>on</strong>tingencies cannot be predicted or<br />
practiced in advance in the c<strong>on</strong>text <strong>of</strong> a major catastrophic event <strong>and</strong> definitely not in a disaster.<br />
In such situati<strong>on</strong>s, it has been proven <strong>of</strong> more advantage to build up available structures as<br />
required (regular emergency services, fire department, ambulance service, disaster protecti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
etc.) rather than create new structures for major catastrophic events. But <strong>on</strong>e thing still st<strong>and</strong>s:<br />
good preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> good training [26] are the best basic prerequisites for dealing <strong>with</strong> such a<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> despite all c<strong>on</strong>tingencies [33, 48]. This means the sensible overhaul <strong>and</strong> improvement<br />
in process quality by all local committees involved. Simulati<strong>on</strong> games are a suitable means for<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>. The algorithm specified by us for processing a major catastrophic event must be<br />
included in the local c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s which relate (according to Stratmann) to the medical care<br />
principles <strong>and</strong> to coordinating the cooperati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency services <strong>with</strong> other<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s (e.g., fire department, police, ambulance service, disaster protecti<strong>on</strong>, German<br />
army) [72]. The algorithm should be adapted as required to local circumstances, <strong>and</strong> existing<br />
disaster protecti<strong>on</strong> plans or similar should also be adapted to it.<br />
Prehospital – Mass casualty incident (MCI) 124
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Figure 1: Operati<strong>on</strong>al algorithm for mass casualty incident (MCI) [7]<br />
Alert according to<br />
RTLS Notificati<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Mobilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Logistic operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
checklist<br />
• casualty collecti<strong>on</strong> point for<br />
severely injured<br />
• access/departure/helicopter<br />
l<strong>and</strong>ing pad<br />
• ambulance rendezvous point<br />
• z<strong>on</strong>e coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
• bed list<br />
• casualty collecti<strong>on</strong> point for<br />
those <strong>with</strong> minor injuries<br />
• patient registrati<strong>on</strong><br />
Checklist <strong>of</strong><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
• emergency<br />
physicians/physicians<br />
• emergency medical<br />
technicians/EMT<br />
• means <strong>of</strong> transport<br />
• incident comm<strong>and</strong> post <strong>on</strong> site<br />
• technical rescue services (fire<br />
dept.)<br />
• water rescue<br />
• technical relief<br />
• church info service/pastoral<br />
care<br />
Resources checklist<br />
• casualty kits<br />
• medicati<strong>on</strong>s (BTM)<br />
• protecti<strong>on</strong> against the weather<br />
• drinks & food for<br />
uninjured/helpers<br />
• roll-<strong>of</strong>f c<strong>on</strong>tainers (fire dept.)<br />
• Federal army/federal border<br />
guard c<strong>on</strong>tainers<br />
Prehospital – Mass casualty incident (MCI)<br />
yes<br />
Approach in c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>with</strong> RTLS<br />
Arrange traffic barriers<br />
Are there sufficient<br />
emergency services<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel?<br />
X<br />
no<br />
Call via RTLS<br />
for back-up<br />
while en route<br />
Pass <strong>on</strong> 1st back-up call<br />
Set up Incident Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Set up local Incident<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
(<strong>with</strong> fire dept.& police)<br />
Classify size <strong>of</strong> accident<br />
incident<br />
Has accident scene been<br />
made safe?<br />
Do z<strong>on</strong>es have to be<br />
demarcated?<br />
X<br />
no<br />
Establish logistic operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Triage injured<br />
Establish treatment priority<br />
Registrati<strong>on</strong> by<br />
Incident Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Are operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel/resources<br />
adequate?<br />
no<br />
Request supplies<br />
Reorganizati<strong>on</strong><br />
yes<br />
yes<br />
Checklist orientati<strong>on</strong><br />
accident scene approach<br />
• expected no. <strong>of</strong> patients?<br />
• hazardous substances?<br />
• size <strong>of</strong> accident scene?<br />
• emergency services alerted?<br />
• locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> incident comm<strong>and</strong><br />
post, police, fire department?<br />
Assign<br />
z<strong>on</strong>e leader &<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> path<br />
Checklist for triaging injured:<br />
Triage Categories I-V<br />
I: Acute life-threatening injuries<br />
1st priority (red)<br />
II: <strong>Severe</strong>ly injured/hospitalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(yellow)<br />
III: Minor injured/later (outpatient)<br />
treatment<br />
(green)<br />
IV: No prospect <strong>of</strong> survival<br />
(blue)<br />
V: Dead pers<strong>on</strong>s (black)<br />
See Algorithm: triage <strong>of</strong> injured<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s in mass casualty<br />
incident<br />
125
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Missing pers<strong>on</strong>s?<br />
Inform police incident<br />
comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Prehospital – Mass casualty incident (MCI)<br />
Sort patients according to<br />
available beds/suitable<br />
hospital<br />
by Incident Comm<strong>and</strong>, if<br />
nec. discuss <strong>with</strong> z<strong>on</strong>e<br />
leader<br />
<strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> acute<br />
surgery indicati<strong>on</strong> from<br />
Triage Group I ?<br />
no<br />
Complete triage<br />
Allocate suitable<br />
means <strong>of</strong> transport<br />
Release transport: Incident<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Final registrati<strong>on</strong><br />
Pass <strong>on</strong> to local police<br />
incident comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Media, tel. no., for relatives<br />
Include feedback <strong>of</strong><br />
accompanying emergency<br />
physician/hospital<br />
in evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> available<br />
beds<br />
Final search <strong>of</strong><br />
accident site <strong>with</strong> technical<br />
incident comm<strong>and</strong><br />
(police, fire dept.)<br />
Operati<strong>on</strong>al documentati<strong>on</strong><br />
Quality c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Scoring<br />
End <strong>of</strong> operati<strong>on</strong><br />
Operati<strong>on</strong>al debriefing<br />
(at earliest opportunity)<br />
yes<br />
Immediate transport <strong>with</strong> emergency<br />
physician/rescue physician<br />
or form c<strong>on</strong>voy<br />
126
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Figure 2: Triage <strong>of</strong> injured pers<strong>on</strong>s at mass casualty incident [7]<br />
yes<br />
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
D<br />
Triage <strong>of</strong> injured pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at mass casualty incident<br />
Does the accident scene<br />
present a hazard?<br />
Commence triage<br />
Able to walk?<br />
no<br />
Fatal injury<br />
no<br />
Central pulse absent?<br />
no<br />
Sp<strong>on</strong>taneous respirati<strong>on</strong><br />
absent?<br />
no<br />
Respiratory rate above<br />
30/min?<br />
no<br />
Palpable radial pulse?<br />
yes<br />
Spurting haemorrhage?<br />
no<br />
no<br />
Unable to follow simple<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s?<br />
no<br />
Urgent treatment<br />
Casualty collecti<strong>on</strong> point<br />
for minor injured<br />
Prehospital – Mass casualty incident (MCI)<br />
II<br />
no<br />
yes<br />
yes<br />
yes<br />
yes<br />
yes<br />
yes<br />
Do NOT approach<br />
yes<br />
no<br />
Possible to release<br />
airways?<br />
Arrest bleeding (compressi<strong>on</strong><br />
b<strong>and</strong>age)<br />
Casualty collecti<strong>on</strong> point<br />
for severely injured<br />
Re-evaluati<strong>on</strong> –<br />
deteriorati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
yes<br />
no<br />
No treatment V<br />
Delayed treatment IV<br />
Treat as quickly as possible<br />
Emergency<br />
physician/emergency medical<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel to treat -<br />
NOT triage physician/local<br />
ES/Incident Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Acute surgical<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
yes<br />
Incident Comm<strong>and</strong> to approve<br />
transport<br />
Immediate transportati<strong>on</strong>, if<br />
necessary form c<strong>on</strong>voy<br />
Re-evaluati<strong>on</strong>/re-triage<br />
Transport acc. to urgency I/II<br />
Delayed treatment III<br />
I<br />
no<br />
127
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45. Mall<strong>on</strong>ee S, Shariat S, Stennies G, Waxweiler R, Hogan<br />
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46. Martin TE (1990) The Ramstein airshow disaster. J R<br />
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51. Nania J, Bruva TE (1982) In the wake <strong>of</strong> Mount St<br />
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2 Emergency room<br />
2.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
How would you treat?<br />
You are called to the emergency room <strong>on</strong>e winter’s night. As this is your first shift in trauma<br />
surgery, you’re feeling quite nervous when you enter the casualty department. You reach the<br />
preheated emergency room <strong>and</strong> shortly afterwards receive a h<strong>and</strong>over from the emergency<br />
physician. He reports that a 42-year-old patient has had a motorbike accident. The initial GCS at<br />
the accident scene was 13, the right chest wall has marked crepitati<strong>on</strong>s, peripheral saturati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
85% during sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing <strong>and</strong>, in additi<strong>on</strong>, the patient is complaining <strong>of</strong> an intense<br />
tenderness in the right upper abdomen. The pelvis is stable <strong>and</strong> he has not noticed any extremity<br />
injuries. After prehospital anesthesia inducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> oral intubati<strong>on</strong>, peripheral saturati<strong>on</strong> has<br />
risen to over 95%. Due to adequate oxygenati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> normal capnometry, the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest<br />
drain was dispensed <strong>with</strong> for the short transport journey. The patient is now intubated <strong>and</strong><br />
ventilated <strong>and</strong> has stable circulati<strong>on</strong> (110/80 mmHg, pulse 85). However, measurement <strong>of</strong><br />
peripheral saturati<strong>on</strong> yields a value <strong>of</strong> 90%. The patient is not fully undressed. A cervical collar<br />
has been applied. You look up at the wall in your emergency room <strong>and</strong> recognize an algorithm<br />
there which you are familiar <strong>with</strong>, which you recently learnt <strong>on</strong> a polytrauma course:<br />
A Airway <strong>with</strong> immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the cervical spine<br />
B Breathing/Ventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
C Circulati<strong>on</strong><br />
D Disability/Neurology<br />
E Expose – Envir<strong>on</strong>ment/Undress - Keep Warm<br />
Your c<strong>on</strong>fidence grows <strong>and</strong> you immediately start <strong>with</strong> the “primary survey <strong>and</strong> treatment” in<br />
the emergency room. You note that the cervical collar is sitting in the correct place. Under “B”,<br />
the <strong>on</strong>-duty anesthesiologist notices a weakened breath sound in the right chest, <strong>and</strong> peripheral<br />
saturati<strong>on</strong> is now 83%. You have a brief discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> him <strong>and</strong> decide to insert a chest drain<br />
via a mini-thoracotomy. Air is released <strong>and</strong> approximately 400 ml <strong>of</strong> blood. You check the<br />
success <strong>of</strong> your interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> notice an increase in saturati<strong>on</strong> to 99%. You are still nervous<br />
but know what you have to do next under “C”. Meanwhile, a central venous catheter <strong>and</strong> arterial<br />
access have been placed. Blood pressure is 110/80 mmHg, heart rate 85/min. Ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>of</strong><br />
the abdomen (FAST) detects free fluid in the Douglas cavity <strong>and</strong> around the liver, the <strong>on</strong>-duty<br />
radiologist estimates the volume to be approximately 500 ml. You do not detect any relevant<br />
bleeding to the outside. After alerting the visceral surge<strong>on</strong>, the neurosurge<strong>on</strong> has meanwhile<br />
checked the pupils under point “D”. After he has established that they are narrow but lightreactive,<br />
you start “E” <strong>and</strong> examine the now fully-undressed patient. A full-body CT scan is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted because <strong>of</strong> the mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury. The laboratory values show a hemoglobin value<br />
<strong>of</strong> 11.5 g/dl, INR <strong>of</strong> 90%, <strong>and</strong> a base excess <strong>of</strong> -1.5 mmol/l. The patient has received a total <strong>of</strong><br />
1,500 ml fluid.<br />
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The visceral surge<strong>on</strong> who has meanwhile arrived c<strong>on</strong>firms the ultras<strong>on</strong>ography finding. The fullbody<br />
CT scan shows a severe pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the right <strong>and</strong> a liver lacerati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out<br />
active bleeding. You come to a c<strong>on</strong>sensual decisi<strong>on</strong> to proceed as follows: c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> the abdominal injury <strong>and</strong> direct transfer <strong>of</strong> the patient to an intensive care unit.<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this “emergency room” guideline secti<strong>on</strong><br />
The case presented at the start shows the importance <strong>of</strong> a logical <strong>and</strong> clear algorithm in an<br />
extreme situati<strong>on</strong>. The sequence <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong>s in the emergency room must be checked against the<br />
evidence from as complete a literature base as possible. An expert committee examines the<br />
evidence levels, resulting in the grades <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>, which can str<strong>on</strong>gly influence the<br />
sequence <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong>s. Thus, the aim <strong>of</strong> this guideline secti<strong>on</strong> is, <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>, to create clear,<br />
sustainable process sequences which, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, must c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards further<br />
improving care <strong>of</strong> the critically injured. For it is precisely the scientific reproducibility <strong>of</strong> the<br />
clinician’s acti<strong>on</strong>s in the emergency room that form the basis <strong>of</strong> reproducible, valid treatment<br />
<strong>and</strong>, in collaborati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the various medical disciplines, effectuate the parallelizing <strong>of</strong><br />
processes <strong>and</strong> thus an improvement in the treatment.<br />
Special notes:<br />
A guideline does not claim to be able to treat every situati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusively; this also applies to the<br />
emergency room. Not infrequently, the generati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> clear recommendati<strong>on</strong>s is hampered by the<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>with</strong> a high evidence level. Clear views are expressed <strong>on</strong> this issue in the<br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>ding background texts to each chapter. In additi<strong>on</strong>, various statements are subject to a<br />
time dynamic. This is accommodated by c<strong>on</strong>ducting a re-evaluati<strong>on</strong> after 2 years. Nevertheless,<br />
there is a need to describe important correlati<strong>on</strong>s in detail.<br />
Managing a multiply injured patient in the emergency room places a great dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
treatment process because <strong>of</strong> the acuteness <strong>of</strong> the events <strong>and</strong> the large number <strong>of</strong> treating<br />
physicians from different specialties. As <strong>with</strong> all complex sequences <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong>s, errors do occur.<br />
But not every error need have a negative influence <strong>on</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> treatment [1]. However, an<br />
accumulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> errors can occasi<strong>on</strong>ally have fatal c<strong>on</strong>sequences for the patient. For this reas<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> rati<strong>on</strong>al quality management lies in calmly working through the complicati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong><br />
this approach should be firmly established <strong>with</strong>in a quality circle in hospitals which are involved<br />
in the care <strong>of</strong> the critically injured [5]. Care in the emergency room should be quite rigorously<br />
characterized here by prescribed sequences <strong>and</strong> a comm<strong>on</strong> language <strong>with</strong> prehospital <strong>and</strong><br />
emergency room care merging together seamlessly. Course strategies, such as depicted by<br />
Prehospital Trauma Life Support ® (PHTLS ® ) for prehospital care <strong>and</strong> Advanced Trauma Life<br />
Support® (ATLS®) or European Trauma Course® (ETC®) for clinical care, can automate <strong>and</strong><br />
thus improve this process through a clear hierarchy <strong>of</strong> treatment sequences <strong>and</strong> a comm<strong>on</strong><br />
language [3, 4]. It is important that every hospital has an emergency room algorithm <strong>and</strong> that all<br />
those potentially involved are familiar <strong>with</strong> it.<br />
Working groups <strong>and</strong> quality circles have been successfully introduced in many hospitals <strong>and</strong><br />
they regularly evaluate <strong>and</strong> improve their own emergency room strategy based <strong>on</strong> actual cases.<br />
Both the leadership <strong>of</strong> such quality circles <strong>and</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility in the emergency<br />
room are issues that are the subject <strong>of</strong> heated debate in pr<strong>of</strong>essi<strong>on</strong>al associati<strong>on</strong>s. Because severe<br />
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injury is part <strong>of</strong> the core competence in trauma surgery, it may be legitimate for physicians<br />
qualified in this discipline to be in charge <strong>of</strong> both the quality circles <strong>and</strong> treatment in the<br />
emergency room [5]. However, it must not be forgotten that there are also other operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategies in emergency room care [6, 7, 9]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, during the development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
guideline, this sensitive topic has been accommodated in various places in the background text as<br />
even strategies <strong>with</strong>out a team leader are feasible involving just a multidisciplinary team working<br />
together. However, it should be discussed upfr<strong>on</strong>t who takes over resp<strong>on</strong>sibility in which<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> in order to be prepared especially for medico-legal questi<strong>on</strong>s [8].<br />
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References<br />
1. Ruchholtz S, Nast-Kolb D, Waydhas C, Betz P,<br />
Schweiberer L (1994) Frühletalität beim Polytrauma –<br />
eine kritische Analyse vermeidbarer Fehler.<br />
Unfallchirurg 97: 285–291<br />
2. Ertel W, Trentz O (1997) Neue diagnostische Strategien<br />
beim Polytrauma. Chirurg 68: 1071–1075<br />
3. Sturm JA, Lackner CK, Bouill<strong>on</strong> B, Seekamp A,<br />
Mutschler WE (2002) Advanced Trauma Life Support<br />
(ATLS ® ) und Systematic Prehospital Life Support<br />
(SPLS). Unfallchirurg 105: 1027–1032<br />
4. Advanced Trauma Life Support, 8th Editi<strong>on</strong>, The<br />
Evidence for Change John B. Kortbeek, MD, FRCSC,<br />
FACS, Saud A. Al Turki, MD, FRCS, ODTS, FACA,<br />
FACS, Jameel Ali, MD, MMedEd, FRCS, FACS et.<br />
al. J Trauma. 2008;64:1638 –1650<br />
5. Frink M, Probst C, Krettek C, Pape HC (2007)<br />
Klinisches Polytrauma-Management im Schockraum<br />
– Was muss und kann der Unfallchirurg leisten?<br />
Zentralbl Chir 132:49–53<br />
6. Bergs EA, Rutten FL, Tadros T et al. (2005)<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> during trauma resuscitati<strong>on</strong>: do we<br />
know what is happening? Injury 36:905–911<br />
7. Cummings GE, Mayes DC (2007) A comparative study<br />
<strong>of</strong> designated Trauma Team Leaders <strong>on</strong> trauma<br />
patient survival <strong>and</strong> emergency department length-<strong>of</strong>stay.<br />
CJEM 9:105–110<br />
8. Bouill<strong>on</strong> B (2009) Brauchen wir wirklich keinen<br />
„trauma leader” im Schockraum? 112:400–401<br />
9. Wurmb T, Balling H, Frühwald P, et al.<br />
Polytraumamanagement im W<strong>and</strong>el. Zeitanalyse<br />
neuer Strategien für die Schockraumversorgung.<br />
Unfallchirurg 2009; 112: 390-399<br />
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2.2 The emergency room - pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources<br />
The annual number <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients in Germany is approximately 32,000-38,000 [13,<br />
30, 39, 53]. In the Federal Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany, there are currently approximately 700-800<br />
hospitals available for the initial treatment <strong>of</strong> these patients (emergency room treatment).<br />
Although this figure would seem to indicate dem<strong>and</strong> is adequately covered, it should be<br />
emphasized that a) not all hospitals have sufficient pers<strong>on</strong>nel or structural requirements or the<br />
specialist competence to care for these patients, b) there are still regi<strong>on</strong>s in Germany <strong>with</strong>out<br />
sufficient provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hospitals for polytrauma treatment, <strong>and</strong> c) fully equipped hospitals cannot<br />
always be reached <strong>with</strong>in acceptable time periods, particularly at night if rescue helicopters are<br />
not allowed to take <strong>of</strong>f due to the existing nighttime flying ban or because <strong>of</strong> capacity problems.<br />
The introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>alized trauma centers <strong>with</strong> defined st<strong>and</strong>ards in the management <strong>of</strong><br />
trauma patients resulted in a reducti<strong>on</strong> in the rate <strong>of</strong> avoidable deaths in the United States [8, 54].<br />
To further improve polytrauma management in Germany, <strong>and</strong> make it more c<strong>on</strong>sistent across the<br />
whole country, it seems logical to define the requirements for the care <strong>of</strong> severely injured<br />
patients in terms <strong>of</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>nel, <strong>and</strong> to st<strong>and</strong>ardize them to the maximum possible<br />
extent.<br />
The DGU Trauma Network Project D has been initiated to implement this requirement. In the<br />
participating hospitals, which already number approximately 800 (as at April 2010), the DGU<br />
Trauma Network D is coordinating the implementati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the written c<strong>on</strong>tents <strong>of</strong> the DGU’s<br />
White Paper <strong>on</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> the severely injured [8, 54].<br />
Emergency room team<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In polytrauma management, fixed teams (known as emergency room teams)<br />
must work according to pre-structured plans <strong>and</strong>/or have completed special<br />
training.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
To achieve coordinated, balanced cooperati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g various staff in polytrauma management, it<br />
is internati<strong>on</strong>ally comm<strong>on</strong>place to put together fixed teams for emergency room care, which<br />
work according to pre-structured plans <strong>and</strong>/or have completed special training (particularly<br />
ATLS ® , ETC, Definitive Surgical Trauma Care [DSTC]) [14a] [4, 47, 49, 51, 56]. Various<br />
studies have found that this emergency room strategy has clinical advantages [13, 30, 39, 53].<br />
Ruchholtz et al. showed, for example, that an interdisciplinary team, integrated into a quality<br />
management (QM) system <strong>and</strong> acting <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> internal hospital guidelines <strong>and</strong> discussi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
works very efficiently under joint surgical <strong>and</strong> anesthesiologic management [8, 54].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
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The basic emergency room team must c<strong>on</strong>sist <strong>of</strong> at least 3 physicians (2<br />
surge<strong>on</strong>s, 1 anesthesiologist), <strong>with</strong> at least 1 anesthesiologist <strong>and</strong> 1 surge<strong>on</strong><br />
having attained specialist grade.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
There are no validated studies <strong>on</strong> the compositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency room team so that<br />
statements <strong>on</strong> team compositi<strong>on</strong> can <strong>on</strong>ly relate to how these are predominantly formed<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ally. So, the questi<strong>on</strong> as to which specialties should be primarily represented in the<br />
emergency room team <strong>of</strong>ten depends <strong>on</strong> local c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s [6, 9, 11, 12, 14, 20–25, 27, 31–33, 38,<br />
41, 45, 50]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, individual studies from other countries show that a large<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients can be effectively managed even <strong>with</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 2 physicians<br />
[3, 7, 12]. Depending <strong>on</strong> the injury pattern/severity, however, the team initially comprising at<br />
least 2-3 pers<strong>on</strong>s will then have to be supplemented <strong>with</strong> more colleagues [29, 40, 46]. In<br />
screening the internati<strong>on</strong>al literature, it emerged that almost all teams worldwide had either<br />
special trauma surge<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> different training levels or general surge<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> (many years’)<br />
trauma experience, also <strong>with</strong> different training levels.<br />
Accordingly, the cited team compositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> at least 3 physicians can <strong>on</strong>ly serve as a minimum<br />
number <strong>and</strong> the team should be enlarged by <strong>on</strong>e or two other 1-2 physicians (e.g., radiologist,<br />
neurosurge<strong>on</strong>) depending <strong>on</strong> the size <strong>and</strong> care level <strong>of</strong> the hospital <strong>and</strong> the severely injured<br />
workload. In any event, the management <strong>of</strong> the severely injured must be undertaken by a<br />
qualified surge<strong>on</strong> whose minimum qualificati<strong>on</strong> must be at the level <strong>of</strong> a specialist in<br />
general/visceral surgery or a specialist in orthopedics <strong>and</strong> trauma surgery (regi<strong>on</strong>al medical<br />
associati<strong>on</strong> (L<strong>and</strong>esärztekammer) [LÄK], Rules for Specialist Training for Physicians, as at<br />
07/2009). The treating anesthesiologist must have the minimum qualificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> specialist.<br />
The functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>and</strong> necessity for a “trauma leader” in the emergency room is a matter <strong>of</strong> much<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troversy in the literature. Even in the c<strong>on</strong>sensus c<strong>on</strong>ferences during the development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
S3 guideline, there was intense, heated debate about the necessity for a “team leader” <strong>and</strong> about<br />
what his duties should be <strong>and</strong> to which specific specialist area he should be assigned. A<br />
structured literature search was c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>on</strong> these issues during the guideline development. In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> patient survival, no credible evidence was identified for the superiority <strong>of</strong> <strong>on</strong>e particular<br />
management structure in the emergency room (“trauma leader” versus “interdisciplinary<br />
management group”) or for the assignment <strong>of</strong> a “trauma leader” to <strong>on</strong>e particular specialist area<br />
(trauma surgery, surgery versus anesthesia).<br />
H<strong>of</strong>f et al. [21] showed that bringing in a team leader (known as a comm<strong>and</strong> physician)<br />
improved the care <strong>and</strong> treatment pathway [21]. Alberts et al. also found evidence <strong>of</strong> improved<br />
treatment pathways <strong>and</strong> treatment results after the strategy <strong>of</strong> “trauma leader” had been<br />
introduced [1]. Depending <strong>on</strong> the tasks - including patient h<strong>and</strong>over, examining the patient,<br />
carrying out <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring therapeutic <strong>and</strong> diagnostic measures, c<strong>on</strong>sulting <strong>with</strong> other specialist<br />
disciplines, coordinating all medical <strong>and</strong> technical team members, preparing examinati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
following <strong>on</strong> from emergency room care, c<strong>on</strong>tacting relatives after completi<strong>on</strong> - that the “trauma<br />
leader” needs to be able to take <strong>on</strong> in principle, this task must either be carried out <strong>on</strong> an<br />
Emergency room – Pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources 136
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
interdisciplinary basis or by a “team leader” experienced in the management <strong>of</strong> multiply injured<br />
patients. In an interdisciplinary process even closer attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid that the treatment<br />
pathways are agreed <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sensual to avoid any time delays [18, 21, 37, 50].<br />
According to the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Committee <strong>on</strong> Trauma<br />
(ACS COT), a qualified surge<strong>on</strong> must take over the team leadership [8, 54]. In a large<br />
comparative study <strong>of</strong> over 1,000 patients, there were almost identical case fatality rates <strong>and</strong><br />
length-<strong>of</strong>-hospital-stays irrespective <strong>of</strong> whether 1 out <strong>of</strong> 4 trauma surge<strong>on</strong>s or 1 out <strong>of</strong> 12 general<br />
surge<strong>on</strong>s, albeit <strong>with</strong> trauma surgery knowledge, were resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the emergency room [41].<br />
In a comparis<strong>on</strong> between “trauma surge<strong>on</strong>s” <strong>and</strong> “emergency physicians”, Khetarpal showed that<br />
under traumatologic leadership the management times <strong>and</strong> the start <strong>of</strong> surgery were shorter, but<br />
<strong>with</strong>out this apparently having had an effect <strong>on</strong> the treatment outcome [8, 54]. In a study by<br />
Sugrue et al. it is c<strong>on</strong>firmed that no serious implicati<strong>on</strong>s arise from who leads the ER team so<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g as he has adequate experience, expertise, <strong>and</strong> training [8, 54]. In many places, trauma teams<br />
have also been led very effectively, cooperatively, <strong>and</strong> successfully by anesthesiologists for<br />
many years.<br />
High specializati<strong>on</strong> in the individual specialist disciplines is particularly taken into account in<br />
interdisciplinary leadership models. Here, each specialist discipline has predefined tasks <strong>and</strong> is in<br />
charge <strong>of</strong> the devolved tasks at defined points in time <strong>with</strong>in emergency room management. The<br />
leadership group, comprising anesthesiology, radiology, surgery, <strong>and</strong> trauma surgery (in<br />
alphabetical order), c<strong>on</strong>fers at fixed times <strong>and</strong> in additi<strong>on</strong> to these if the situati<strong>on</strong>s in questi<strong>on</strong><br />
dem<strong>and</strong> it [57].<br />
Not<strong>with</strong>st<strong>and</strong>ing, the experts argue for clear rules <strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities aligned to local c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
agreements, <strong>and</strong> competences. Team leadership should be encouraged, irrespective <strong>of</strong> which<br />
specialist discipline it originates from or whether c<strong>on</strong>sisting <strong>of</strong> <strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> or a leadership group.<br />
The task <strong>of</strong> the team leadership is to collect <strong>and</strong> inquire about the findings <strong>of</strong> the individual<br />
specialized team members <strong>and</strong> to effectuate decisi<strong>on</strong>-making. The team leadership heads<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> establishes further diagnostic <strong>and</strong> treatment steps in agreement <strong>with</strong> the<br />
team. Within the quality circles <strong>of</strong> the establishment, the functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> qualificati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the<br />
“team leader” <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the “interdisciplinary leadership group” should be established in the<br />
emergency room. Ideally, after agreement, the “best” (<strong>on</strong>e or more pers<strong>on</strong>s) must take <strong>on</strong> the<br />
task <strong>of</strong> “trauma leader” <strong>and</strong> “interdisciplinary leadership group”. In particular, rules must be<br />
made for the following points, which must st<strong>and</strong> up to a “best practice jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>” inspecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
� Resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
� Leadership structure for coordinati<strong>on</strong>, communicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>-making <strong>with</strong>in<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>text <strong>of</strong> emergency room management<br />
Emergency room – Pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources 137
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
� M<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>and</strong> ensuring quality (implementing quality circles; identifying quality<br />
<strong>and</strong> patient safety indicators; c<strong>on</strong>tinuous m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> structures, processes, <strong>and</strong><br />
results)<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Trauma centers must have provisi<strong>on</strong> for enlarging emergency room teams GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The size <strong>and</strong> compositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the enlarged emergency room team is determined by the care level<br />
<strong>of</strong> the hospital c<strong>on</strong>cerned <strong>and</strong> the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding injury severity to be expected there as well as by<br />
the maximum number <strong>of</strong> surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>s that can be performed there if necessary (White<br />
Paper). Accordingly, transboundary trauma centers, being the highest care level, should c<strong>on</strong>tain<br />
all specialist disciplines which perform emergency care. Table 11 gives an overview. A qualified<br />
specialist (specialist physician) from the department c<strong>on</strong>cerned must be able to get there <strong>with</strong>in<br />
20-30 minutes (see below).<br />
Emergency room – Pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources 138
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Attending physicians necessary for subsequent care must be present <strong>with</strong>in<br />
20-30 minutes <strong>of</strong> being alerted.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
A comparative study <strong>of</strong> hospitals found that it was not absolutely necessary for the trauma<br />
surge<strong>on</strong> to be available in the hospital all hours provided the distance to the hospital was not<br />
greater than 15 minutes <strong>and</strong> a resident was already in the hospital [11]. Allen et al. <strong>and</strong> Helling et<br />
al. give 20 minutes as the limit here [3, 19]. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, Luchette et al. <strong>and</strong> also Cornwell et al.<br />
found “in-house” readiness to be an advantage [9, 33] although Luchette showed that <strong>on</strong>ly the<br />
diagnosis <strong>and</strong> start <strong>of</strong> surgery was speeded up if an attending physician was initially present,<br />
both the period <strong>of</strong> intensive care <strong>and</strong> mortality <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> severe thoraco-abdominal or head<br />
injuries remaining unaffected [13, 30, 39, 53].<br />
In a comparis<strong>on</strong> over several years, figures from the Trauma Audit <strong>and</strong> Research Network<br />
(TARN) (Engl<strong>and</strong> & Wales) c<strong>on</strong>firm that the increased presence <strong>of</strong> a qualified<br />
specialist/attending physician (60% versus 32%) c<strong>on</strong>tributes to significant reducti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
mortality [28]. Wyatt et al. also found evidence that severely injured patients in Scotl<strong>and</strong><br />
(n = 1,427; ISS > 15) were treated faster <strong>and</strong> were more likely to survive if they were treated by<br />
an experienced attending physician/c<strong>on</strong>sultant instead <strong>of</strong> a resident [58]. In the ACS COT<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, the presence <strong>of</strong> an attending surge<strong>on</strong> is not m<strong>and</strong>atory, provided a senior<br />
surgical resident is directly involved in the management <strong>of</strong> the severely injured [8, 54]. In a<br />
retrospective analysis over a period <strong>of</strong> 10 years, Helling et al. showed that no relevant<br />
improvement in treatment outcomes are achieved by the initial presence <strong>of</strong> an attending<br />
physician [35, 39, 52]. For patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating injuries, in shock, <strong>with</strong> a GCS < 9 or ISS<br />
≥ 26, there was no difference in the care quality <strong>with</strong> regard to mortality, start <strong>of</strong> surgery,<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s or length <strong>of</strong> treatment in the intensive care unit if the <strong>on</strong>-duty physician<br />
participated in the subsequent care <strong>with</strong>in 20 minutes (“<strong>on</strong> call”). Only the initial care period <strong>and</strong><br />
the total length <strong>of</strong> stay in hospital were less for blunt trauma if the attending physician could be<br />
in the emergency room (“in-house”) immediately. These results are c<strong>on</strong>firmed to a large extent<br />
by Porter et al., Demarest et al., <strong>and</strong> Fulda et al. [11, 16, 43].<br />
Overall, it can be c<strong>on</strong>cluded from these results that an attending physician does not have to be<br />
present immediately at the start <strong>of</strong> emergency room care if a surge<strong>on</strong> qualified in the care <strong>of</strong> the<br />
severely injured (specialist grade <strong>and</strong> if applicable ATLS ® <strong>and</strong> ETC certified) initially carries out<br />
the care <strong>of</strong> the injured. However, it should be ensured that an attending physician can be reached<br />
quickly.<br />
A thoracic surge<strong>on</strong>, ophthalmologist, maxill<strong>of</strong>acial surge<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> otolaryngologist (ENT) should<br />
be reachable <strong>with</strong>in 20 minutes [18, 27, 34, 42]. According to Albrink et al. [2], the thoracic<br />
surge<strong>on</strong> should be brought in as early as possible particularly in the case <strong>of</strong> aortic lesi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Emergency room – Pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources 139
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
It seems that a pediatric surge<strong>on</strong> is also not necessary in the basic ER team. The studies <strong>of</strong><br />
Knuds<strong>on</strong> et al. [26], Fortune et al. [15], Nakayama et al. [36], Rhodes et al. [44], Bensard et al.<br />
[5], D’Amelio et al. [10], Stauffer [48] <strong>and</strong> Hall et al. [17] were unable to find evidence <strong>of</strong> any<br />
improvement in treatment outcome through the involvement <strong>of</strong> special pediatric surge<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
An anesthesiologist necessary for the subsequent care <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patient must also<br />
be present <strong>with</strong>in 20–30 minutes <strong>of</strong> being alerted.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The size <strong>of</strong> the emergency room should be 25-50 m 2 (per patient to be treated). GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The informati<strong>on</strong> given is based <strong>on</strong> a) the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for initial management <strong>of</strong> the patient<br />
<strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury <strong>and</strong> multiple injuries <strong>of</strong> the individual working group <strong>and</strong> circles <strong>of</strong><br />
the German Society <strong>of</strong> Anesthesiology <strong>and</strong> Intensive Care Medicine (DGAI), the German<br />
Society for Neurosurgery (DGNC), <strong>and</strong> the German Interdisciplinary Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Intensive<br />
Care <strong>and</strong> Emergency Medicine (DIVI). They recommend a minimum size per treatment unit <strong>of</strong><br />
25 m 2 [55].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the room size can also be calculated b) using the specificati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the Technical<br />
Rules for Workplaces (Arbeitsstätten-Richtlinie) (ASR), the Workplaces Ordinance<br />
(Arbeitsstättenverordnung) (ArbStättV, 2nd secti<strong>on</strong>; room dimensi<strong>on</strong>s, air space), the German Xray<br />
Ordinance (Röntgenverordnung) (RöV), <strong>and</strong> the Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances<br />
(Technische Regeln für Gefahrenst<strong>of</strong>fe) (TRGS). It specifies that 18 m 3 <strong>of</strong> breathable air per<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> carrying out heavy physical activity <strong>and</strong> 15 m 3 for average physical activity must be<br />
ensured in rooms <strong>with</strong> natural ventilati<strong>on</strong> or air c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ing; 10 m 3 is estimated for every<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al pers<strong>on</strong> who is <strong>on</strong>ly temporarily there. Thus, a room volume <strong>of</strong> about 75-135 m 3 would<br />
be required if there were 5-9 pers<strong>on</strong>s present (3-5 physicians, 1 medical radiologic technologist,<br />
1-2 trauma surgery nurses, anesthesiology nurses) <strong>and</strong> the assumpti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> average physical work<br />
(lead apr<strong>on</strong>s worn during care). With a ceiling height <strong>of</strong> 3.2 m, this corresp<strong>on</strong>ds to a room size <strong>of</strong><br />
approximately 23-42 m 2 . Not included in the calculati<strong>on</strong> is the loss <strong>of</strong> space through anesthesia<br />
<strong>and</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography equipment, work surfaces, patient stretcher, cupboards <strong>and</strong> similar so that a<br />
total <strong>of</strong> 25-50 m 2 per unit should be the starting point. If it is possible to treat a maximum <strong>of</strong> 2<br />
severely injured patients simultaneously, the area is enlarged accordingly. Secti<strong>on</strong> 38 (2) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
German Workplaces Ordinance <strong>of</strong> 1986 specifies a clear door width <strong>of</strong> at least 1.2 m <strong>with</strong> a door<br />
height <strong>of</strong> 2 m for paramedic <strong>and</strong> first aid rooms.<br />
Emergency room – Pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources 140
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The emergency room, ambulance entrance, radiology department, <strong>and</strong><br />
surgery department should be in the same building. The helicopter l<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
pad should be located in the hospital grounds.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
All screening tests necessary for emergency surgery (laparotomy, thoracotomy, external<br />
fixator/pelvic C-clamp) must be kept in readiness.<br />
Table 11: Compositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> specialist grade physicians in the enlarged emergency<br />
room team in relati<strong>on</strong> to the care level<br />
Specialist Department<br />
Transboundary<br />
TC<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong>al TC Local TC<br />
Trauma surgery X X X<br />
General or visceral surgery X X X<br />
Anesthesia X X X<br />
Radiology X X X<br />
Vascular surgery X * –<br />
Neurosurgery X * –<br />
Cardiac or thoracic surgery * * –<br />
Plastic surgery * * –<br />
Ophthalmology * * –<br />
ENT * * –<br />
OMFS * * –<br />
Pediatrics or pediatric surgery * * –<br />
Gynecology * * –<br />
Urology * * –<br />
X: required –: not required *: opti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Emergency room – Pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> equipment resources 141
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
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24. Kazemi Ar, Nayeem N (1997) The existence <strong>and</strong><br />
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28. Lecky F, Woodford M, Yates Dw et al. (2000) Trends<br />
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34. Mathiasen Ra, Eby Jb, Jarrahy R et al. (2001) A<br />
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2.3 Criteria for emergency room activati<strong>on</strong><br />
Efficiently working trauma score systems or parameters should select <strong>and</strong> identify patients so<br />
precisely that the necessary treatment is allotted to each casualty according to his injury severity.<br />
The difficulty lies in being able to assess injury severity adequately. Ideally, trauma/emergency<br />
room activati<strong>on</strong> criteria should minimize as much as possible the rate <strong>of</strong> undertriage as well as<br />
that <strong>of</strong> overtriage <strong>of</strong> severely injured patients. Undertriage describes the proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
who, despite a relevant severe injury requiring emergency room treatment, for example, are not<br />
identified as such. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, overtriage describes the proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> a minor injury<br />
or n<strong>on</strong>e at all who nevertheless are classified as severely injured <strong>and</strong>, for example, are delivered<br />
to an emergency room. An advantage <strong>of</strong> overtriage - besides the optimum treatment <strong>of</strong> each<br />
patient - can be team training as the interplay <strong>and</strong> sequences can be practiced in “quasi-serious<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s” even <strong>with</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-severely injured pers<strong>on</strong>s. However, overtriage is associated <strong>with</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable costs <strong>and</strong> an <strong>of</strong>ten c<strong>on</strong>siderable disrupti<strong>on</strong> to routine sequences. The effectiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> individual, different trauma score systems/trauma criteria can be described by parameters such<br />
as sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, <strong>and</strong> the calculati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> overtriage <strong>and</strong><br />
undertriage. The American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Committee <strong>on</strong> Trauma [25] gives an undertriage<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> 5-10% <strong>with</strong> simultaneous 30-50% overtriage as necessary in order to carry out efficient<br />
emergency room care. In a paper by Kane et al., the authors describe how, in order to attain a<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> more than 80%, the rate <strong>of</strong> overtriage could not be brought below 70%.<br />
The primary goal <strong>of</strong> trauma/emergency room activati<strong>on</strong> criteria is therefore to keep undertriage<br />
low <strong>and</strong> at the same time not increase overtriage to an unacceptable level.<br />
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Activati<strong>on</strong> criteria<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The trauma/emergency room team should be activated for the following<br />
injuries:<br />
� Systolic blood pressure below 90 mmHg after trauma<br />
� Penetrating injuries to the neck <strong>and</strong> torso regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
� Gunshot wounds to the neck <strong>and</strong> torso regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
� GCS below 9 after trauma<br />
� Respiratory impairment/requirement for intubati<strong>on</strong> after trauma<br />
� Fracture <strong>of</strong> more than 2 proximal b<strong>on</strong>es<br />
� Unstable chest<br />
� Pelvic fractures<br />
� Amputati<strong>on</strong> injury proximal to h<strong>and</strong>s/feet<br />
� Spinal cord injury<br />
� Open head wounds<br />
� Burns > 20% <strong>and</strong> degree ≥2b<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Blood pressure/respiratory rate<br />
Emergency room – Criteria for emergency room activati<strong>on</strong><br />
GoR A<br />
Individual studies have shown that hypotensi<strong>on</strong> following trauma <strong>with</strong> a systolic blood pressure<br />
below 90 mmHg is a good predictor/good criteri<strong>on</strong> for activating the emergency room team.<br />
Thus, Franklin et al. [1] showed that 50% <strong>of</strong> trauma patients <strong>with</strong> prehospital hypotensi<strong>on</strong> or<br />
hypotensi<strong>on</strong> at admissi<strong>on</strong> were sent for immediate surgery or transferred to an intensive care<br />
unit. A total <strong>of</strong> 75% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong> were operated <strong>on</strong> during the course <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hospital stay.<br />
Tink<strong>of</strong>f et al. [2] found a 24-fold increased mortality, a 7-fold increased admissi<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
intensive care unit, <strong>and</strong> a 1.6-fold increased emergency surgery rate where hypotensi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
present after trauma as an expressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> existing shock. In the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the American<br />
College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Committee <strong>of</strong> Trauma [25], hypotensi<strong>on</strong> is found to be an important<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> for admissi<strong>on</strong> to a trauma center. Smith et al. [3] cite hypotensi<strong>on</strong> as a c<strong>on</strong>sistently used<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> for trauma team activati<strong>on</strong> in all hospitals in the state <strong>of</strong> New South Wales in Australia.<br />
In a review by Henry et al. [4] <strong>of</strong> the New York State Trauma Registry, there were mortality<br />
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rates <strong>of</strong> 32.9% in trauma patients <strong>with</strong> an SBP (systolic blood pressure) <strong>of</strong> < 90 mmHg <strong>and</strong><br />
28.8% for trauma patients <strong>with</strong> a respiratory rate <strong>of</strong> < 10 or > 29/min.<br />
Gunshot wounds<br />
In a study by Sava et al. [5], the authors ascertained that gunshot wounds to the torso as a single<br />
activati<strong>on</strong> criteri<strong>on</strong> had a high informative value similar to the TTAC (Trauma Team Activati<strong>on</strong><br />
Criteria) used up till then. In a subgroup <strong>with</strong> gunshot wounds to the abdominal/pelvic regi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the frequency <strong>of</strong> severe injuries was equal in the group <strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out TTAC (74.1% <strong>and</strong><br />
70.8%, p = 0.61). A proviso must be made here that the overwhelming proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
(94.4%) <strong>with</strong> gunshot wounds had already been identified using the TTAC. Tink<strong>of</strong>f et al. [2] also<br />
found a significant correlati<strong>on</strong> between gunshot wounds to the neck or torso <strong>and</strong> the need to<br />
admit to an intensive care unit (see below). Furthermore, this criteri<strong>on</strong> was predictive for the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> severe or fatal injuries <strong>and</strong> for emergency surgery. In a retrospective analysis,<br />
Velmahos et al. [6] report an overall survival rate following penetrating gunshot <strong>and</strong> stab wounds<br />
<strong>of</strong> over 5.1% in patients <strong>with</strong>out vital signs in the emergency room. In a literature review (25<br />
years, 24 studies), Rhee et al. [7] found a survival rate <strong>of</strong> 8.8% following emergency<br />
thoracotomy due to penetrating trauma.<br />
The American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Committee <strong>on</strong> Trauma [25] listed various, differentlyweighted<br />
triage criteria in its last editi<strong>on</strong> (2006). The Step One <strong>and</strong> Step Two criteria, which<br />
necessitate admissi<strong>on</strong> to a Level 1 or Level 2 trauma center include: a) GCS below 15 or b)<br />
systolic blood pressure (BP) below 90 mmHg or c) respiratory rate below 10/min or above<br />
29/min (Step One). Step Two criteria are a) penetrating injuries to the head, neck, torso, <strong>and</strong><br />
proximal l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es, b) unstable thorax, c) fracture <strong>of</strong> 2 or more proximal l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es, d)<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong>(s) proximal to the h<strong>and</strong>s/feet, e) unstable pelvic fractures, f) open head fractures, <strong>and</strong><br />
g) spinal cord injuries. Overall, there is currently rather a lack <strong>of</strong> evidence for the cited criteria.<br />
In a study by Knopp [8] <strong>on</strong> 1,473 trauma patients, the authors found a positive predictive value<br />
(PPV) <strong>of</strong> 100% for an ISS > 15 for spinal cord injuries <strong>and</strong> amputati<strong>on</strong> injuries; however,<br />
fractures <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>on</strong>ly had a PPV <strong>of</strong> 19.5%.<br />
In their study, Tink<strong>of</strong>f et al. [2] examined several <strong>of</strong> these criteria for their accuracy in<br />
identifying severely injured <strong>and</strong> high-risk patients. Trauma patients who fulfilled the criteria <strong>of</strong><br />
the ACS COT had more severe injuries, higher mortality, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger stay in intensive care than<br />
patients in the c<strong>on</strong>trol group. Systolic blood pressure below 90 mmHg, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a gunshot wound to the neck/torso were predictive in the study for the necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
emergency surgery or admissi<strong>on</strong> to intensive care. Mortality was markedly increased <strong>with</strong><br />
systolic blood pressure below 90 mmHg, endotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> or GCS <strong>of</strong> less than 9. In their<br />
study, Kohn et al. [9] analyzed various trauma team activati<strong>on</strong> criteria (see Table 1a), which are<br />
similar to those <strong>of</strong> the ACS COT. Kohn et al. found the parameter “respiratory rate below 10 or<br />
above 29/min” as the most predictive in terms <strong>of</strong> informative value for the presence <strong>of</strong> a severe<br />
injury. Additi<strong>on</strong>al parameters <strong>with</strong> high predicti<strong>on</strong> were: a) burns <strong>with</strong> more than 20% body<br />
surface (BS), b) spinal cord injury, c) systolic blood pressure below 90 mmHg, d) tachycardia,<br />
<strong>and</strong> e) gunshot wounds to the head, neck or torso.<br />
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Open head injuries<br />
With a lack <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>on</strong> the relevance <strong>of</strong> open head injuries, this criteri<strong>on</strong> is regarded by the<br />
ACS COT rather as a significant indicator <strong>of</strong> severe injuries which require a high level <strong>of</strong><br />
specialist medical competence <strong>and</strong> should thus be assigned to the Step One criteria.<br />
GCS<br />
Kohn et al. [9] regard a GCS <strong>of</strong> less than 10 as an important predictor <strong>of</strong> severe trauma. 44.2% <strong>of</strong><br />
patients, for whom the ER team was activated because they had a low GCS, had c<strong>on</strong>firmed<br />
severe injuries. The value <strong>of</strong> the GCS as a predictor <strong>of</strong> a severe injury <strong>and</strong> as an activati<strong>on</strong><br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> for the emergency room team was also c<strong>on</strong>firmed in studies by Tink<strong>of</strong>f et al., Norwood<br />
et al., <strong>and</strong> Kühne et al. [2, 10, 11]. In these patients, Norwood as well as Kühne found that even<br />
GCS scores <strong>of</strong> less than 14 indicated pathologic intracerebral findings <strong>and</strong> the necessity for<br />
inpatient admissi<strong>on</strong>. However, according to this, the activati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the trauma/emergency room<br />
team does not appear to be absolutely necessary <strong>with</strong> these patients (GCS ≤ 14 <strong>and</strong> ≥ 11). For a<br />
GCS <strong>of</strong> less than 10, Engum [12] found a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 70% for the endpoint OP, intensive care<br />
unit (ICU) or death. The odds ratio (OR) was 3.5 (95% CI: 1.6–7.5). The authors found a PPV <strong>of</strong><br />
78% for the presence <strong>of</strong> a severe injury in children <strong>with</strong> a GCS < 12.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The trauma/emergency room team should be activated for the following<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al criteria:<br />
� fall from more than 3 meters height<br />
� road traffic accident (RTA) <strong>with</strong><br />
- fr<strong>on</strong>tal collisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> intrusi<strong>on</strong> by more than 50-75 cm<br />
- a change in speed <strong>of</strong> delta >30 km/h<br />
- collisi<strong>on</strong> involving a pedestrian or two-wheeler<br />
- death <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger<br />
- ejecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Accident-related/-dependent criteria<br />
Emergency room – Criteria for emergency room activati<strong>on</strong><br />
GoR B<br />
Accident-related/-dependent criteria are evaluated very differently in the literature <strong>with</strong> regard to<br />
their informative value for the presence <strong>of</strong> severe trauma.<br />
Norcross et al., B<strong>on</strong>d et al., <strong>and</strong> Santaniello et al. [13, 14, 15] report <strong>on</strong> rates <strong>of</strong> overtriage <strong>of</strong> up<br />
to 92%, sensitivities <strong>of</strong> 70-50%, <strong>and</strong> PPV <strong>of</strong> 16.1% if accident-related mechanisms have been<br />
included as the sole criteri<strong>on</strong> for describing the injury severity. If physiologic criteria were also<br />
used, a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 80% was attained <strong>with</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 90% [14].<br />
Knopp et al. found <strong>on</strong>ly poor positive predictive values for the parameters road traffic accident<br />
(RTA) <strong>with</strong> ejecti<strong>on</strong> or death <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger <strong>and</strong> road traffic accident involving a<br />
pedestrian [8]. Engum et al. also found the lowest predictive power for the road traffic accident<br />
involving a pedestrian at 20 mph (miles per hour) <strong>and</strong> the road traffic accident <strong>with</strong> death <strong>of</strong> a<br />
driver or passenger <strong>and</strong> trauma from being run over [12]. In the ACS COT recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, the<br />
trauma from being run over was removed from the criteria in the current versi<strong>on</strong>. Fr<strong>on</strong>tal<br />
collisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> intrusi<strong>on</strong> by more than 20-30 inches, death <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger, road traffic<br />
accident involving pedestrian/two-wheeler collisi<strong>on</strong> at ≥ 20 mph, <strong>and</strong> ejecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a driver or<br />
passenger are cited as Step Three criteria, i.e. there is no necessity to transport these patients to<br />
centers <strong>of</strong> the maximum care level. Kohn et al. [9] also regard the rollover trauma as lacking in<br />
suitability. According to Kohn et al., the same also applies to the criteria/parameters road traffic<br />
accident (RTA) <strong>with</strong> ejecti<strong>on</strong> or death <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger <strong>and</strong> road traffic accident involving<br />
a pedestrian [9].<br />
Champi<strong>on</strong> et al. [16] regard a vehicle rollover as an important indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> severe injury. The<br />
average probability <strong>of</strong> suffering a fatal injury is markedly greater after a rollover than not after<br />
<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
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Nevertheless, the ACS COT removed the rollover mechanism from its triage criteria because<br />
relevant injuries after such an accident incident would already be included in Step One or Step<br />
Two.<br />
Deformati<strong>on</strong> to vehicle bodywork<br />
In a multivariate analysis <strong>of</strong> 621 patients, Palanca et al. [17] found no significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between vehicle deformati<strong>on</strong> (intrusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> > 30 cm or > 11.8 inches) <strong>and</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
relevant severe injury (OR: 1.5; 95% CI: 1.0–2.3; p = 0.05). Henry came to comparable results in<br />
the multivariate analysis in his study [4]. Using the data <strong>of</strong> the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Automotive Sampling<br />
System Crashworthiness Data System (NASS CDS), Wang found a PPV <strong>of</strong> 20% for an ISS > 15<br />
[18].<br />
Death <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger<br />
Knopp et al. found an increased risk <strong>of</strong> surgery or death if a driver or passenger was fatally<br />
injured (OR: 39.0; 95% CI: 2.7–569; PPV 21.4%) [8]. Palanca et al. [17] could not c<strong>on</strong>firm any<br />
statistically significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the death <strong>of</strong> a driver or passenger <strong>and</strong> the existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> a severe injury even if the simultaneous frequency <strong>of</strong> a severe injury was 7%.<br />
Fall from a great height<br />
In a prospective study by Kohn et al. [9], 9.4% <strong>of</strong> patients who had suffered a fall from more<br />
than 6 meters height had severe injuries - defined as intensive care admissi<strong>on</strong> or immediate<br />
surgery. Yagmur et al. [19] found 9 meters to be the average height for patients who died from<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>sequences <strong>of</strong> a fall.<br />
Burns<br />
It is essential to distinguish whether a thermal injury is present <strong>with</strong>out additi<strong>on</strong>al injuries. In the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> a combinati<strong>on</strong> injury where the n<strong>on</strong>-thermal comp<strong>on</strong>ent is predominant, the patient<br />
should be brought to a trauma center [25].<br />
Age<br />
Kohn et al. [9] analyzed various trauma team activati<strong>on</strong> criteria which are similar to those <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ACS COT. Of the criteria examined, “age over 65” had the least informative value. The authors<br />
therefore recommended that this criteri<strong>on</strong> be removed from the “first-tier activati<strong>on</strong>s”.<br />
Demetriades et al. [20] found a markedly higher mortality (16%), increased admissi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
intensive care, <strong>and</strong> an increased necessity for surgical interventi<strong>on</strong> (19%) in patients over 70<br />
years <strong>of</strong> age compared to younger patients. However, all patients who could remain outpatients<br />
were excluded from the study beforeh<strong>and</strong> so that the cited percentages are probably an<br />
overestimati<strong>on</strong>. Kühne et al. [21] found an increase in mortality - irrespective <strong>of</strong> ISS - <strong>with</strong><br />
increasing age in a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> over 5,000 trauma patients in the DGU Trauma<br />
Registry. The cut-<strong>of</strong>f value <strong>of</strong> mortality increase was 56 years. MacKenzie et al. [22] also found<br />
a marked increase in (fatal) injuries from > 55 years <strong>of</strong> age upwards. In a 13-year review,<br />
Grossmann et al. [23] found that mortality increased by 6.8% per additi<strong>on</strong>al year over 65 years<br />
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<strong>of</strong> age. In a study by Morris et al. [24], patients who died from the c<strong>on</strong>sequences <strong>of</strong> an accident<br />
had a lower ISS than younger patients in the c<strong>on</strong>trol group.<br />
Overall, there is variati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>troversy over the assessment <strong>of</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> age <strong>on</strong> the<br />
outcome <strong>of</strong> trauma. The American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s COT has classified age as a criteri<strong>on</strong> for<br />
triage in a Level 1 or Level 2 trauma center as rather low (Step Four criteri<strong>on</strong>).<br />
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References<br />
1 Franklin GA, Boaz PW, Spain DA, Lukan JK, Carrillo<br />
EH, Richards<strong>on</strong> JD. Prehospital hypotensi<strong>on</strong> as a<br />
valid indicator <strong>of</strong> trauma team activati<strong>on</strong>. J Trauma.<br />
2000; 48: 1034-7; discussi<strong>on</strong> 1037-9.<br />
2 Tink<strong>of</strong>f GH,O'C<strong>on</strong>nor RE. Validati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> new trauma<br />
triage rules for trauma attending resp<strong>on</strong>se to the<br />
emergency department. J Trauma. 2002; 52: 1153-8;<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> 1158-9.<br />
3 Smith J, Caldwell E, Sugrue M. Difference in trauma<br />
team activati<strong>on</strong> criteria between hospitals <strong>with</strong>in the<br />
same regi<strong>on</strong>. Emerg Med Australas. 2005; 17: 480-7.<br />
4 Henry MC. Trauma triage: New York experience.<br />
Prehosp Emerg Care. 2006; 10: 295-302.<br />
5 Sava J, Alo K, Velmahos GC, Demetriades D. All<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> truncal gunshot wounds deserve trauma<br />
team activati<strong>on</strong>. J Trauma. 2002; 52: 276-9.<br />
6 Velmahos GC, Degiannis E, Souter I, Allwood AC,<br />
Saadia R. Outcome <strong>of</strong> a strict policy <strong>on</strong> emergency<br />
department thoracotomies. Arch Surg. 1995; 130:<br />
774-7.<br />
7 Rhee PM, Acosta J, Bridgeman A, Wang D, Jordan<br />
M, Rich N. Survival after emergency department<br />
thoracotomy: review <strong>of</strong> published data from the past<br />
25 years. J Am Coll Surg. 2000; 190: 288-98.<br />
8 Knopp R, Yanagi A, Kallsen G, Geide A, Doehring L.<br />
Mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury <strong>and</strong> anatomic injury as criteria<br />
for prehospital trauma triage. Ann Emerg Med. 1988;<br />
17: 895-902.<br />
9 Kohn MA, Hammel JM, Bretz SW, Stangby A.<br />
Trauma team activati<strong>on</strong> criteria as predictors <strong>of</strong><br />
patient dispositi<strong>on</strong> from the emergency department.<br />
Acad Emerg Med. 2004; 11: 1-9.<br />
10 Kuhne CA, Homann M, Ose C, Waydhas C, Nast-<br />
Kolb D, Ruchholtz S. [Emergency room patients].<br />
Unfallchirurg. 2003; 106: 380-6.<br />
11 Norwood SH, McAuley CE, Berne JD, Vallina VL,<br />
Creath RG, McLarty J. A prehospital glasgow coma<br />
scale score < or = 14 accurately predicts the need for<br />
full trauma team activati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> patient hospitalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
after motor vehicle collisi<strong>on</strong>s. J Trauma. 2002; 53:<br />
503-7.<br />
12 Engum SA, Mitchell MK, Scherer LR, Gomez G,<br />
Jacobs<strong>on</strong> L, Solotkin K, Grosfeld JL. Prehospital<br />
triage in the injured pediatric patient. J Pediatr Surg.<br />
2000; 35: 82-7.<br />
13 Norcross ED, Ford DW, Cooper ME, Z<strong>on</strong>e-Smith L,<br />
Byrne TK, Yarbrough DR, 3rd. Applicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s' field triage guidelines<br />
by pre-hospital pers<strong>on</strong>nel. J Am Coll Surg. 1995; 181:<br />
539-44 [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
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14 B<strong>on</strong>d RJ, Kortbeek JB, Preshaw RM. Field trauma<br />
triage: combining mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury <strong>with</strong> the<br />
prehospital index for an improved trauma triage tool. J<br />
Trauma. 1997; 43: 283-7.<br />
15 Santaniello JM, Esposito TJ, Luchette FA, Atkian<br />
DK, Davis KA, Gamelli RL. Mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury<br />
does not predict acuity or level <strong>of</strong> service need: field<br />
triage criteria revisited. Surgery. 2003; 134: 698-703;<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> 703-4.<br />
16 Champi<strong>on</strong> HR, Lombardo LV, Shair EK. The<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> vehicle rollover as a field triage<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong>. J Trauma. 2009; 67: 350-7.<br />
17 Palanca S, Taylor DM, Bailey M, Camer<strong>on</strong> PA.<br />
Mechanisms <strong>of</strong> motor vehicle accidents that predict<br />
major injury. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2003; 15: 423-<br />
8.<br />
18 Wang SW, Review <strong>of</strong> NASS CDS <strong>and</strong> CIREN data<br />
for mechanism criteria for field triage. Presented at<br />
the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Expert Panel <strong>on</strong> Field Triage meeting.<br />
2005: Atlanta, Georgia.<br />
19 Yagmur Y, Guloglu C, Aldemir M, Orak M. Falls<br />
from flat-ro<strong>of</strong>ed houses: a surgical experience <strong>of</strong> 1643<br />
patients. Injury. 2004; 35: 425-8.<br />
20 Demetriades D, Sava J, Alo K, Newt<strong>on</strong> E, Velmahos<br />
GC, Murray JA, Belzberg H, Asensio JA, Berne TV.<br />
Old age as a criteri<strong>on</strong> for trauma team activati<strong>on</strong>. J<br />
Trauma. 2001; 51: 754-6; discussi<strong>on</strong> 756-7.<br />
21 Kuhne CA, Ruchholtz S, Kaiser GM, Nast-Kolb D.<br />
Mortality in severely injured elderly trauma patients-when<br />
does age become a risk factor? World J Surg.<br />
2005; 29: 1476-82.<br />
22 MacKenzie EJ, Rivara FP, Jurkovich GJ, Nathens AB,<br />
Frey KP, Eglest<strong>on</strong> BL, Salkever DS, Scharfstein DO.<br />
A nati<strong>on</strong>al evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the effect <strong>of</strong> trauma-center<br />
care <strong>on</strong> mortality. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 366-78.<br />
23 Grossman MD, Miller D, Scaff DW, Arc<strong>on</strong>a S. When<br />
is an elder old? Effect <strong>of</strong> preexisting c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
mortality in geriatric trauma. J Trauma. 2002; 52:<br />
242-6.<br />
24 Morris JA, Jr., MacKenzie EJ, Edelstein SL. The<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> preexisting c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> mortality in trauma<br />
patients. JAMA. 1990; 263: 1942-6.<br />
25 American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Committee <strong>on</strong> Trauma<br />
(2006) Resources for optimal care <strong>of</strong> the injured<br />
patient. American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s, Chicago<br />
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2.4 Thorax<br />
What importance does the previous medical history have?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A detailed previous medical history (from third party if necessary) should be<br />
taken.<br />
High energy trauma <strong>and</strong> road traffic accidents <strong>with</strong> lateral collisi<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
interpreted as indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> a chest injury/aortic rupture.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Even if there are <strong>on</strong>ly a few studies <strong>on</strong> taking the medical history <strong>with</strong> regard to chest injury, it is<br />
still an essential requirement for assessing the injury severity <strong>and</strong> the injury pattern <strong>and</strong> is used to<br />
establish whether an accident has in fact occurred. Collecting exact details <strong>of</strong> the circumstances<br />
<strong>of</strong> the accident is important in taking the medical history. The speed <strong>of</strong> the vehicle at the moment<br />
<strong>of</strong> impact <strong>and</strong> the directi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the impacting force are particularly important questi<strong>on</strong>s in road<br />
traffic accidents involving passenger vehicles. For instance, there are marked differences in the<br />
occurrence <strong>and</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> the chest injury <strong>and</strong> the overall injury severity depending <strong>on</strong> whether<br />
the impact is lateral or fr<strong>on</strong>tal.<br />
Hort<strong>on</strong> et al. [1] dem<strong>on</strong>strated a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 34% for aortic rupture in<br />
a lateral collisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the vehicle <strong>and</strong>/or <strong>with</strong> a change in velocity (delta V) ≥ 30 km/h. In another<br />
study [2], high velocity injuries at speeds <strong>of</strong> > 100 km/h were graded as suspicious for aortic<br />
rupture. Richter et al [3] also found an increased risk <strong>of</strong> chest injury in lateral collisi<strong>on</strong>s. In this<br />
study, delta V correlated <strong>with</strong> the AIS (thorax), ISS, <strong>and</strong> clinical course. In the study by<br />
Ruchholtz et al. [4], chest injury was diagnosed in 8 out <strong>of</strong> 10 cases <strong>of</strong> passenger vehicle<br />
accidents involving lateral collisi<strong>on</strong>. In this study, 72% <strong>of</strong> patients who had an accidental fall<br />
also sustained a chest injury.<br />
In a study <strong>of</strong> 286 passenger vehicle occupants <strong>with</strong> an ISS ≥ 16, the probability <strong>of</strong> an aortic<br />
injury after a lateral collisi<strong>on</strong> was twice as high as after a fr<strong>on</strong>tal collisi<strong>on</strong> [5]. An impact in the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the superior thoracic aperture appears to be particularly important <strong>and</strong> there appears to<br />
be increased incidence <strong>of</strong> fractures to ribs 1-4 [6].<br />
Children also have a 5-fold higher risk <strong>of</strong> a severe chest injury (AIS ≥ 3) <strong>and</strong> a significantly<br />
higher overall injury severity when they are passenger vehicle occupants in a lateral collisi<strong>on</strong><br />
compared to a fr<strong>on</strong>tal collisi<strong>on</strong> [7].<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> a seatbelt <strong>on</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> a chest injury appears uncertain. Thus, in a<br />
retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 1,124 patients <strong>with</strong> relatively minor overall injury severity (ISS 11.6),<br />
Porter <strong>and</strong> Zaho [8] did find cumulative incidence <strong>of</strong> sternum fractures (4% versus 0.7%) in<br />
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belted patients but the proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> chest injury was identical in both groups<br />
(21.8% versus 19.1%).<br />
What importance do physical examinati<strong>on</strong> findings have?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the thorax must be carried out. GoR A<br />
The physical examinati<strong>on</strong> should include auscultati<strong>on</strong>. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Even if there are hardly any scientific studies except for auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the importance <strong>and</strong> the<br />
required scope <strong>of</strong> the physical examinati<strong>on</strong>, it is still an indispensable requirement in identifying<br />
symptoms <strong>and</strong> in making (suspected) diagnoses. The above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed examinati<strong>on</strong>s are used to<br />
identify relevant, life-threatening or potentially fatal disorders or injuries which require<br />
immediate, specific treatment. Even if a physical examinati<strong>on</strong> has already been carried out in the<br />
prehospital phase <strong>and</strong> a chest drain has already been inserted, the physical examinati<strong>on</strong> must be<br />
carried out in the emergency room as a change could have occurred in the c<strong>on</strong>stellati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
findings.<br />
The initial physical examinati<strong>on</strong> should include:<br />
� auscultati<strong>on</strong> (presence <strong>of</strong> breath sounds <strong>and</strong> lateral uniformity)<br />
� details <strong>of</strong> pain<br />
� respiratory rate<br />
� inspecti<strong>on</strong> (skin <strong>and</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries, symmetry <strong>of</strong> the thorax, symmetry <strong>of</strong> respiratory<br />
excursi<strong>on</strong>, paradoxical respirati<strong>on</strong>, inflow c<strong>on</strong>gesti<strong>on</strong>, belt marks)<br />
� palpati<strong>on</strong> (subcutaneous emphysema, crepitati<strong>on</strong>, tenderness points)<br />
� dyspnea<br />
M<strong>on</strong>itoring ventilati<strong>on</strong> pressure, blood oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> (pulse oxymetry), <strong>and</strong> expiratory<br />
CO2c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> can be added during the course.<br />
The auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding is the lead finding for making a diagnosis <strong>of</strong> chest injury. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
subcutaneous emphysema, palpable instabilities, crepitati<strong>on</strong>s, pain, dyspnea, <strong>and</strong> elevated<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> pressures can be indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> a chest injury.<br />
In a prospective study, Bokhari et al. [9] examined 676 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt or penetrating chest<br />
injury for clinical signs <strong>and</strong> symptoms <strong>of</strong> hemopneumothorax. But out <strong>of</strong> 523 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
trauma, <strong>on</strong>ly 7 had a hemopneumothorax. In this group, auscultati<strong>on</strong> has a sensitivity <strong>and</strong><br />
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negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100%. The specificity was 99.8% <strong>and</strong> positive predictive value was<br />
87.5%. In penetrati<strong>on</strong> injuries, the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> auscultati<strong>on</strong> is 50%, specificity <strong>and</strong> positive<br />
predictive value 100%, <strong>and</strong> negative predictive value 91.4%. In both mechanisms <strong>of</strong> injury, pain<br />
<strong>and</strong> tachypnea are inadequate indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> a hemopneumothorax.<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 118 patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating trauma, Chen et al. [10] also found for<br />
auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 58%, specificity <strong>and</strong> positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 98%, <strong>and</strong><br />
negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 61%. In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 51 patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating trauma,<br />
the combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> percussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> auscultati<strong>on</strong> exhibited a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 96%, specificity <strong>of</strong><br />
93%, <strong>and</strong> positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 83% [11].<br />
These studies show that in penetrating trauma a weakened breath sound generally has an<br />
underlying pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> a chest drain can then be inserted before a radiograph is taken.<br />
In their search for a clinical decisi<strong>on</strong> aid to identify children <strong>with</strong> chest injury, Holmes et al. [12]<br />
studied 986 patients, 80 <strong>of</strong> whom had a chest injury. This yielded an odds ratio <strong>of</strong> 8.6 for a<br />
positive auscultati<strong>on</strong> finding, an odds ratio <strong>of</strong> 3.6 for an abnormal physical examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
(reddening, skin lesi<strong>on</strong>s, crepitati<strong>on</strong>, tenderness), <strong>and</strong> an odds ratio <strong>of</strong> 2.9 for an elevated<br />
respiratory rate.<br />
What importance is attached to the diagnostic equipment (chest radiograph, ultrasound,<br />
CT, angiography, ECG, laboratory tests) <strong>and</strong> when is it indicated?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If a chest injury cannot be clinically excluded, a radiologic diagnostic study<br />
must be carried out in the emergency room.<br />
Every patient <strong>with</strong> clinical <strong>and</strong> anamnestic indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> a severe chest injury<br />
should undergo a helical CT scan <strong>of</strong> the thorax <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
As given under points 1 <strong>and</strong> 2, both the mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury <strong>and</strong> the findings from the physical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> provide important informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the presence or absence <strong>of</strong> a chest injury. For this<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>, a chest radiograph can be dispensed <strong>with</strong> if, <strong>with</strong> respect to the circumstances <strong>of</strong> the<br />
accident, a chest injury can be excluded <strong>and</strong> at the same time there are no findings from the<br />
physical examinati<strong>on</strong> that make an intrathoracic injury probable.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, a chest radiograph should be taken <strong>of</strong> all patients <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed chest injury.<br />
This serves to c<strong>on</strong>firm diagnoses already made <strong>and</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>firm or exclude further possible<br />
diagnoses. The initially taken radiograph is used to diagnose a pneumothorax <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
hemothorax, rib fractures, tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries, pneumomediastinum, mediastinal<br />
hematoma, <strong>and</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> [13]. The chest radiograph is widely used as the primary<br />
diagnostic tool due to its low costs <strong>and</strong> availability. Nevertheless, there is little evidence <strong>on</strong><br />
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sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary or thoracic injuries. There are <strong>on</strong>ly a<br />
few studies that report <strong>on</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> major injuries missed in the radiographs.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 100 patients, there was evidence that the most important chest injuries<br />
can be detected by a chest radiograph examinati<strong>on</strong>. The sensitivity <strong>of</strong> images taken upright was<br />
78.7% <strong>and</strong> that <strong>of</strong> supine images 58.3% [14]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, McLellan et al. [15] found<br />
autopsy evidence in a series <strong>of</strong> 37 patients who died <strong>with</strong>in 24 hours <strong>of</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> that the chest<br />
radiograph did not detect important injuries in 11 cases. Am<strong>on</strong>g these were 11 cases <strong>of</strong> multiple<br />
rib fractures, 3 sternum fractures, 2 diaphragmatic ruptures, <strong>and</strong> 1 aortic intimal tear.<br />
The chest radiograph <strong>of</strong>fers sufficient accuracy for indicating a chest drain, for example. In a<br />
prospective study <strong>of</strong> 400 multiply injured patients, Peytel et al. [16] thus showed that inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
chest drains (n = 77) based <strong>on</strong> the radiographic findings was correct in all cases.<br />
Yet, numerous studies have shown that intrathoracic injuries can be revealed <strong>with</strong> significantly<br />
higher frequency by CT scan than by chest radiograph al<strong>on</strong>e. In particular, there is a marked<br />
superiority in the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pneumothoraces <strong>and</strong> hemothoraces, pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
aortic injuries. Here, preference should be given to the helical CT <strong>with</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
intravenous (i.v.) c<strong>on</strong>trast agent [17]. By using multi-slice helical CTs, the examinati<strong>on</strong> time for<br />
a full-body scan can be reduced from an average <strong>of</strong> 28 to 16 minutes compared to the single-slice<br />
helical CT, <strong>and</strong> initial diagnostic informati<strong>on</strong> can even be taken from the realtime images <strong>on</strong> the<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor [18].<br />
In a series <strong>of</strong> 103 severely injured patients, Trupka et al. [19] obtained additi<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong><br />
from 65% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>on</strong> the underlying chest injury (pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> n = 33, pneumothorax<br />
n = 34, hemothorax n = 21) compared to the radiographic examinati<strong>on</strong>. In 63% <strong>of</strong> these patients,<br />
direct therapeutic c<strong>on</strong>sequences resulted from the additi<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong>, which in the majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> cases c<strong>on</strong>sisted <strong>of</strong> the chest drain being re-inserted or corrected.<br />
In patients <strong>with</strong> relevant trauma (road traffic accidents <strong>with</strong> crash speed > 15 km/h, fall from a<br />
height <strong>of</strong> > 1.5 m), Exadaktylos et al. [20] were unable to detect chest injuries in 25 out <strong>of</strong> 93<br />
patients using the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiograph. In 13 <strong>of</strong> these 25 patients, however, the CT showed<br />
in part substantial chest injuries, including 2 aortic lacerati<strong>on</strong>s. In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 112<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> decelerati<strong>on</strong> trauma, Demetriades et al. [21] performed a helical CT scan <strong>of</strong> the<br />
chest, which produced the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> aortic rupture in 9 patients. Four <strong>of</strong> these patients<br />
exhibited a normal chest radiograph. The aortic rupture was c<strong>on</strong>firmed by CT in 8 patients. In<br />
<strong>on</strong>e patient <strong>with</strong> an injury to the brachiocephalic artery, the CT revealed a local hematoma but<br />
the vessel was not visible in the CT slices. Even in patients <strong>with</strong>out clinical signs <strong>of</strong> chest injury<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> a negative radiographic finding, chest injuries showed up in the CT in 39% <strong>of</strong> patients,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in 5% <strong>of</strong> cases led to a change in treatment [22].<br />
Blostein et al. [23] come to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that a routine CT is not to be recommended generally<br />
in blunt chest injury as, out <strong>of</strong> 40 prospectively studied patients <strong>with</strong> defined chest injuries, 6<br />
patients had a change in treatment (5x chest drains, 1x aortography <strong>with</strong> negative result).<br />
However, the authors also state that, in patients who require intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong>, the CT<br />
produces findings that are not visible <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiograph. In patients <strong>with</strong> an<br />
oxygenati<strong>on</strong> index (PaO2/FiO2) < 300, the CT can help to estimate the extent <strong>of</strong> the pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
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c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> to identify patients at risk <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary failure. Moreover, patients can be<br />
identified in whom an incompletely decompressed hemo- <strong>and</strong>/or pneumothorax could lead to<br />
further decompensati<strong>on</strong>. In a retrospective study <strong>with</strong> 45 children [24] <strong>with</strong> 1) pathologic<br />
radiographic finding (n = 27), 2) abnormal physical examinati<strong>on</strong> finding (n = 8), <strong>and</strong> 3)<br />
substantial impact <strong>on</strong> the chest wall (n = 33), additi<strong>on</strong>al injuries were found in the CT in 40%, <strong>of</strong><br />
which 18% <strong>of</strong> cases led to a change in treatment.<br />
Although for blunt chest trauma the supplementary diagnostic informati<strong>on</strong> from the chest CT is<br />
generally accepted in more recent literature [25], there is c<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounding the benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
the effect <strong>on</strong> the clinical outcome <strong>and</strong> it is not yet c<strong>on</strong>firmed. In a prospective study by Guerrero-<br />
Lopez et al. [26], the chest CT proved to be more sensitive in detecting hemo/pneumothorax,<br />
pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>, spinal fractures, <strong>and</strong> chest drain misplacements <strong>and</strong> led to treatment<br />
changes in 29% <strong>of</strong> cases. In the multivariate analysis, no therapeutic relati<strong>on</strong>ship could be<br />
ascertained between the CT <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> time, intensive care stay or mortality. The authors<br />
therefore c<strong>on</strong>clude that a chest CT should <strong>on</strong>ly be performed if there are suspected severe<br />
injuries that can be c<strong>on</strong>firmed or excluded by the CT.<br />
Current studies showed a clear benefit from multi-slice CTs <strong>of</strong> the chest if there was a defined<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>. Brink et al. [122] studied its routine, selective use in 464 <strong>and</strong> 164 patients. The<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s for a routine CT were: high-energy trauma, vital parameters under threat, <strong>and</strong> severe<br />
injuries such as pelvic or spinal fractures, for example. The indicati<strong>on</strong>s for a selective CT were:<br />
abnormal mediastinum, more than 3 rib fractures, pulm<strong>on</strong>ary shadowing, emphysema, <strong>and</strong><br />
fractures in the thoracolumbar spine. Injuries which were not visible in the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
radiograph were found in 43% <strong>of</strong> patients who underwent routine CT. This led to changes in<br />
treatment for 17% <strong>of</strong> patients. Am<strong>on</strong>g the 7.9% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> a normal chest radiograph,<br />
Salim et al. [121] found pneumothoraces in 3.3%, a suspected aortic rupture in 0.2%, pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>s in 3.3%, <strong>and</strong> rib fractures in 3.7%.<br />
If the literature results are summarized, this produces an indicati<strong>on</strong> for chest CT in the presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> the following indicati<strong>on</strong> criteria:<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong> criteria for chest CT (summarized according to [121, 122]):<br />
� road traffic accident Vmax > 50 km/h<br />
� fall from > 3 m height<br />
� patient ejected from vehicle<br />
� rollover trauma<br />
� substantial vehicle deformati<strong>on</strong><br />
� pedestrian knocked down at > 10 km/h<br />
� biker knocked down at > 30 km/h<br />
� crush<br />
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� pedestrian hit by vehicle <strong>and</strong> flung > 3 m<br />
� GCS < 12<br />
� Cardio-circulatory abnormalities (respiratory rate > 30/min, pulse > 120/min, systolic blood<br />
pressure < 100 mmHg, blood loss > 500 ml; capillary refill > 4 sec<strong>on</strong>ds)<br />
� <strong>Severe</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries (pelvic ring fracture, unstable spinal fracture or spinal cord<br />
compressi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
A retrospective multicenter analysis using the database <strong>of</strong> the DGU Trauma Registry found<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> an improvement in survival probability for patients who had initially underg<strong>on</strong>e a<br />
full-body CT scan [128]. The use <strong>of</strong> full-body CT leads to a relative reducti<strong>on</strong> in mortality <strong>of</strong><br />
25% in TRISS <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> 13% in the RISC score. The CT proved to be an independent predictor for<br />
survival in the multivariate analysis.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Every patient <strong>with</strong> clinical signs <strong>of</strong> chest injury should undergo an initial<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> (as part <strong>of</strong> the ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the torso)<br />
unless an initial chest helical CT <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent has been carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 27 patients, chest X-rays, ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> CT were<br />
compared for accuracy in diagnosing a pneumothorax. The ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the thorax<br />
showed a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 94% [27]. In<br />
another study, the ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> compared <strong>with</strong> the X-ray examinati<strong>on</strong> showed a<br />
sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 95% <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100% for<br />
diagnosing a pneumothorax [28]. However, emphysema bullae, pleural adhesi<strong>on</strong>s or extensive<br />
subcutaneous emphysema can falsify the results <strong>of</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography.<br />
As a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 240 patients showed, the ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> ranks equally <strong>with</strong><br />
the X-ray in diagnosing hemothorax. In 26 <strong>of</strong> these patients, the hemothorax was c<strong>on</strong>firmed<br />
either by a chest drain or by chest CT. Ultrasound <strong>and</strong> chest X-ray each showed a sensitivity <strong>of</strong><br />
96%, a specificity <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100%, <strong>and</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong><br />
99.5% [29].<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 261 patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating injuries, chest ultrasound had a sensitivity<br />
<strong>of</strong> 100% <strong>and</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> 96.9% for detecting pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade [30]. However, falsenegative<br />
ultrasound results can occur especially in patients <strong>with</strong> larger hemothoraces which can<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ceal smaller hematomas in the pericardium [31]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the ultrasound<br />
was <strong>on</strong>ly 56% in this study.<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 37 patients <strong>with</strong> a pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed in a CT,<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography revealed a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 94.6%, specificity <strong>of</strong> 96.1%, <strong>and</strong> a positive <strong>and</strong><br />
negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 94.6% <strong>and</strong> 96.1%, respectively [127].<br />
A chest helical CT scan <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent excluded aortic injuries in patients <strong>with</strong>out detected<br />
mediastinal hematoma, resulting in angiography not being necessary. Due to inadequate<br />
sensitivity, c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al CT examinati<strong>on</strong>s are less suited for the exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury<br />
[32, 33, 34].<br />
In the prospective study by Gavant et al. [35], 1,518 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma underwent helical<br />
CT scans <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent. Of this group, 127 patients <strong>with</strong> abnormalities in the mediastinum<br />
or aorta received aortography. An aortic injury was detected in 21 <strong>of</strong> these patients. Sensitivity<br />
for the CT <strong>and</strong> the aortography was 100 <strong>and</strong> 94.4%, respectively, whereas specificity was 81.7<br />
<strong>and</strong> 96.3%, respectively. It was c<strong>on</strong>cluded from this that in the absence <strong>of</strong> a mediastinal<br />
hematoma or if the aorta presented normally despite mediastinal hematoma, CT was sufficient<br />
for diagnosis <strong>and</strong> aortography was not necessary.<br />
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In a prospective study, Dyer et al. [2] studied 1,346 patients after blunt chest trauma using<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast CT <strong>and</strong> 19 <strong>of</strong> the patients exhibited an aortic injury in the CT. All patients <strong>with</strong> positive<br />
CT findings had additi<strong>on</strong>al angiography. On the assumpti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a periaortal hematoma as<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury, the CT has a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100%, a<br />
specificity <strong>of</strong> 95%, <strong>and</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 22%. The authors c<strong>on</strong>clude that<br />
aortography should <strong>on</strong>ly be carried out in patients who have underg<strong>on</strong>e a CT scan that cannot be<br />
interpreted or have a periaortal hematoma <strong>with</strong>out direct signs <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury. Aortography<br />
can also prove necessary if the proximal extent <strong>of</strong> the aortic injury cannot be reliably assessed<br />
from the CT scan.<br />
In another prospective study <strong>of</strong> 494 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt chest trauma <strong>and</strong> mediastinal hematoma,<br />
the sensitivity for helical CT <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent was 100% compared to 92% for aortography<br />
[36]. The specificity for the CT was 83% compared to 99% for aortography. The positive<br />
predictive value for the CT was 50% compared to 97% for aortography <strong>and</strong> the negative<br />
predictive value was 100% compared to 97%. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed study by Dyer<br />
et al. [2], Fabian et al. [36] c<strong>on</strong>clude that patients <strong>with</strong> a mediastinal hematoma but no direct<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury also require no further diagnostic workup.<br />
The prospective study by Parker et al. [37] <strong>of</strong> 142 patients <strong>with</strong> radiographically abnormal<br />
mediastinum showed that both the helical CT <strong>and</strong> the aortography produced a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a<br />
negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100% for aortic injury. In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 74 patients, Tello<br />
et al. [38] found normal CT findings in 39 patients. Of these 39 patients, 5 received an<br />
angiography which showed all findings normal <strong>and</strong> 34 patients were asymptomatic at a clinical<br />
follow-up examinati<strong>on</strong> 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths later.<br />
There is general c<strong>on</strong>sensus now that helical CT <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent is suitable for the exclusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> an aortic rupture [123, 124, 126]. There is a high probability that patients <strong>with</strong>out detectable<br />
mediastinal hematoma have no aortic injury. Through the use <strong>of</strong> computed tomography, a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> unnecessary aortographs can thus be avoided. However, if a brain CT scan is<br />
required, it should be carried out before the chest CT scan as the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent<br />
hampers the traumatic brain injury diagnosis.<br />
As comparative studies <strong>on</strong> angiography have shown, a CT <strong>with</strong>out evidence <strong>of</strong> a mediastinal<br />
hematoma has a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100% for the injury <strong>of</strong> large intrathoracic vessels<br />
[39]. However, the specificity in the study by Parker et al. [37] is <strong>on</strong>ly 89% due to 14 falsepositive<br />
findings. It is therefore recommended that angiography is performed <strong>on</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> a<br />
para-aortic hematoma detected by CT or <strong>with</strong> peribranch vessel hematomas <strong>and</strong> abnormal aortic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tours. A negative c<strong>on</strong>trast agent CT scan definitively excludes an aortic rupture [34, 40, 41].<br />
In an analysis <strong>of</strong> 54 patients <strong>with</strong> surgically detected aortic ruptures, Downing et al. [42] showed<br />
a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100% <strong>and</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> 96% for helical CT. In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 1,104<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> blunt chest trauma, Mirvis et al. [43] found mediastinal bleeding in 118 cases, <strong>of</strong><br />
which 25 patients had an aortic rupture. For the aortic rupture, the helical CT showed a<br />
sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100%, a specificity <strong>of</strong> 99.7%, <strong>and</strong> a positive<br />
predictive value <strong>of</strong> 89%. In a retrospective study <strong>on</strong> chest CT, Bruckner et al. found a negative<br />
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predictive value <strong>of</strong> 99%, a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 15%, a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 95%, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
specificity <strong>of</strong> 40%.<br />
In another prospective study <strong>of</strong> 1,009 patients, 10 patients had an aortic injury [44]. For the<br />
detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> direct signs <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury, the helical CT showed a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a negative<br />
predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100%, a specificity <strong>of</strong> 96%, <strong>and</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 40%.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed prospective studies, Collier et al. [45] found <strong>on</strong>ly a sensitivity<br />
<strong>of</strong> 90% <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 99% in a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 242 patients; an aortic<br />
injury was found during the autopsy <strong>of</strong> <strong>on</strong>e patient <strong>with</strong> a normal CT finding who had<br />
subsequently died from the c<strong>on</strong>sequences <strong>of</strong> a traumatic brain injury. In another retrospective<br />
study, angiography did not detect any aortic injury in 72 patients <strong>with</strong> an intrathoracic hematoma<br />
detected in a CT scan but no evidence <strong>of</strong> a direct aortic or other intrathoracic vessel injury [125].<br />
Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is a sensitive screening test [46, 47, 48] but<br />
angiography was <strong>of</strong>ten additi<strong>on</strong>ally carried out afterwards [49, 50]. TEE requires an experienced<br />
examiner [51] <strong>and</strong> is generally not so rapidly available as CT or angiography. The benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
TEE may lie in imaging small intimal tears [47] which might not be visible in angiography or<br />
helical CT. However, TEE cannot provide good images <strong>of</strong> the ascending aorta <strong>and</strong> the branches<br />
<strong>of</strong> the aorta, which thereby elude diagnosis [52]. To date, there is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e prospective study in<br />
which helical CT has been compared to TEE in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> aortic injury. CT <strong>and</strong> TEE<br />
showed a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 73 <strong>and</strong> 93%, respectively, <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 95%.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A 3-lead ECG must be carried out to m<strong>on</strong>itor vital functi<strong>on</strong>s. GoR A<br />
A 12-lead ECG should be carried out if there is a suspected blunt myocardial<br />
injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The initial ECG is essential for every severely injured patient. The ECG is necessary particularly<br />
in the absence <strong>of</strong> palpable pulses in order to differentiate in cardiac arrest between rhythms that<br />
can be defibrillated <strong>and</strong> those that cannot be defibrillated. The ECG can also be used as a<br />
screening test for potential cardiac complicati<strong>on</strong>s from a blunt cardiac injury.<br />
<strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> a normal ECG, normal hemodynamics <strong>and</strong> no other additi<strong>on</strong>al relevant injuries do<br />
not require any further diagnostic tests or treatment. Cardiac enzymes are irrelevant in predicting<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s from a blunt cardiac injury although raised trop<strong>on</strong>in I levels can predict<br />
abnormalities in echocardiography. The echocardiogram should not be used in the emergency<br />
room for the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> blunt cardiac injury as it does not correlate <strong>with</strong> the occurrence <strong>of</strong><br />
clinical complicati<strong>on</strong>s. Echocardiography should be carried out <strong>on</strong> hemodynamically unstable<br />
patients in order to diagnose pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade or pericardial rupture. Transthoracic<br />
echocardiography should be the method <strong>of</strong> choice here as to date there have been no clear<br />
evidence that transesophageal echocardiography is superior in diagnosing blunt cardiac injury.<br />
The ECG is a rapid, cost-effective, n<strong>on</strong>-invasive examinati<strong>on</strong> which is always available in the<br />
emergency room. In a meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 41 studies, it was shown that the ECG <strong>and</strong> the creatine<br />
kinase MB (CK-MB) levels have a higher importance than radi<strong>on</strong>uclide examinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the<br />
echocardiogram in diagnosing clinically relevant blunt cardiac injury (defined as a complicati<strong>on</strong><br />
requiring treatment) [53].<br />
Fides et al. [54] report prospectively <strong>on</strong> 74 hemodynamically stable patients <strong>with</strong> normal initial<br />
ECG <strong>with</strong> no existing heart disease or other injuries. N<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> these patients developed cardiac<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s. Another retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 184 children <strong>with</strong> blunt cardiac injury showed that<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> a normal ECG in the emergency room did not develop complicati<strong>on</strong>s [55]. In a<br />
meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 41 studies, an abnormal admissi<strong>on</strong> ECG correlated <strong>with</strong> the development <strong>of</strong><br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s requiring treatment [53]. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, in a prospective study by Biffl et al. [56], 17<br />
out <strong>of</strong> 107 patients <strong>with</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> developed complicati<strong>on</strong>s. Only 2 out <strong>of</strong> 17 patients initially<br />
had an abnormal ECG <strong>and</strong> 3 had sinus tachycardia. In another retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 133 patients<br />
in 2 establishments <strong>with</strong> clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a blunt cardiac injury, 13 patients (9.7%)<br />
developed complicati<strong>on</strong>s but no patient <strong>with</strong> a normal initial ECG showed other abnormalities<br />
[57]. In the study by Miller et al. [58], 4 out <strong>of</strong> 172 patients developed arrhythmias requiring<br />
treatment <strong>with</strong> all 4 patients having an abnormal initial ECG. Wisner et al. [59] studied 95<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> suspected blunt cardiac injury <strong>and</strong> discovered that 4 patients developed clinically<br />
significant arrhythmias, <strong>on</strong>ly 1 <strong>of</strong> which had a normal admissi<strong>on</strong> ECG. In summary, the majority<br />
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<strong>of</strong> authors recommend that asymptomatic, patients <strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a normal ECG do<br />
not require any further diagnostic tests or treatment.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The measurement <strong>of</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in I levels can be undertaken as an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
laboratory test in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> blunt myocardial injuries.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
The studies <strong>on</strong> creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> blunt cardiac injury reveal a<br />
major limitati<strong>on</strong> in the lack <strong>of</strong> a clear definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> blunt cardiac injury <strong>and</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> a gold<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard. In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 359 patients, 217 <strong>of</strong> whom were included to exclude blunt<br />
cardiac injury, 107 were diagnosed either because <strong>of</strong> an abnormal ECG finding or elevated CK-<br />
MB level. 16% <strong>of</strong> patients developed complicati<strong>on</strong>s requiring treatment (arrhythmias or<br />
cardiogenic shock). All <strong>of</strong> these patients had an abnormal ECG but <strong>on</strong>ly 41% <strong>of</strong> them had<br />
elevated CK-MB levels. The course was <strong>with</strong>out complicati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> normal ECG <strong>and</strong><br />
elevated CK-MB [56]. In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 92 patients who all received an ECG, a CK-MB<br />
analysis, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinuous m<strong>on</strong>itoring, 23 patients developed arrhythmias which, however, did not<br />
require any specific treatment. This shows that the number <strong>of</strong> arrhythmias requiring clinical<br />
treatment is small. 52% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> arrhythmias revealed elevated CK-MB levels whereas<br />
19% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong>out arrhythmias also had elevated CK-MK levels [60]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, other<br />
studies showed no correlati<strong>on</strong> between elevated CK-MB levels <strong>and</strong> cardiac complicati<strong>on</strong>s [58,<br />
59, 61-65].<br />
Trop<strong>on</strong>in I <strong>and</strong> T are sensitive markers in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> myocardial infarcti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderably more specific than CK-MB as they are not present in skeletal muscle. In a study <strong>of</strong><br />
44 patients, the 6 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt cardiac injury c<strong>on</strong>firmed by echocardiography showed<br />
simultaneously elevated CK-MB <strong>and</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in I. Of the 37 patients <strong>with</strong>out cardiac injury, 26<br />
had elevated CK-MB levels but no patient had elevated trop<strong>on</strong>in I [66]. In another study <strong>of</strong> 28<br />
patients, 5 <strong>of</strong> whom had a blunt cardiac injury detected by echocardiography, trop<strong>on</strong>in I had a<br />
specificity <strong>and</strong> sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100% for the c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>. In a study <strong>of</strong> 29 patients, trop<strong>on</strong>in T<br />
showed higher sensitivity (31%) than CK-MB (9%) in diagnosing blunt cardiac injury. Trop<strong>on</strong>in<br />
T showed a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 27% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 91% in 71 patients for predicting clinically<br />
significant ECG changes [67].<br />
In a more current prospective study <strong>of</strong> 94 patients, 26 patients were diagnosed <strong>with</strong> blunt cardiac<br />
injury either by ECG or echocardiography. Trop<strong>on</strong>in I <strong>and</strong> T showed a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 23 <strong>and</strong><br />
12%, respectively, sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 97 <strong>and</strong> 100%, respectively, <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong><br />
76.5 <strong>and</strong> 74%, respectively. The authors describe an unsatisfactory correlati<strong>on</strong> between the two<br />
enzymes <strong>and</strong> the occurrence <strong>of</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s [68]. In another prospective study, sensitivity,<br />
specificity, <strong>and</strong> the positive <strong>and</strong> negative predictive values <strong>of</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in I are given as 63, 98, 40,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 98%, respectively, for detecting blunt cardiac injury [69]. Velmahos et al. carried out ECG<br />
tests <strong>and</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in I measurements prospectively in 333 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt chest trauma [70]. In<br />
44 diagnosed cardiac injuries, the ECG <strong>and</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in I showed a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 89 <strong>and</strong> 73%,<br />
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respectively, <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 98% <strong>and</strong> 94%, respectively. The combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
ECG <strong>and</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in I produced a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100% each. Rajan<br />
et al. [71] showed that a cTnI level below 1.05 µg/l at admissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> after 6 hours excludes<br />
myocardial injury.<br />
The results available to date show that trop<strong>on</strong>in I in particular is a more specific indicator than<br />
CK-MB for the presence <strong>of</strong> a blunt cardiac injury. However, the importance <strong>of</strong> trop<strong>on</strong>in in<br />
predicting complicati<strong>on</strong>s is still the subject <strong>of</strong> current discussi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is <strong>of</strong>ten carried out in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> blunt cardiac<br />
injury but has hardly any importance in patients <strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong>. In a prospective study,<br />
Beggs et al. carried out TTE in 40 patients <strong>with</strong> suspected blunt chest injury. Half <strong>of</strong> the patients<br />
had at least <strong>on</strong>e pathologic finding either in the ECG, in the cardiac enzymes or in TTE. There<br />
was no correlati<strong>on</strong> between TTE, the enzyme or ECG findings, <strong>and</strong> TTE could not predict the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s [72]. In another prospective study <strong>of</strong> 73 patients who all<br />
underwent TTE, CK-MB measurements, <strong>and</strong> cardiac m<strong>on</strong>itoring, 14 patients presented<br />
abnormalities in the echocardiography. However, <strong>on</strong>ly 1 patient who initially had a pathologic<br />
ECG developed a complicati<strong>on</strong> in the form <strong>of</strong> a ventricular arrhythmia [73]. A prospective study<br />
<strong>of</strong> 172 patients came to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that <strong>on</strong>ly an abnormal ECG or shock has a predictive<br />
value <strong>with</strong> reference to m<strong>on</strong>itoring or to a specific treatment. <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> abnormalities in TTE<br />
or elevated CK-MB levels <strong>with</strong>out a simultaneous pathologic ECG developed no complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
requiring treatment [58]. Although there are a number <strong>of</strong> studies which show the benefit <strong>of</strong> TTE<br />
in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> pericardial effusi<strong>on</strong> or <strong>of</strong> pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade in penetrating trauma, the<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> this study <strong>on</strong> blunt trauma is debatable [30, 58, 74].<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> studies which show that the accuracy <strong>of</strong> transesophageal<br />
echocardiography (TEE) is greater than that <strong>of</strong> TTE in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cardiac injuries [75-79].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, other cardiovascular changes such as aortic injuries, for example, can be diagnosed<br />
by TEE. Vign<strong>on</strong> et al. [80] prospectively carried out helical CT <strong>and</strong>, in the intensive care unit,<br />
TEE <strong>on</strong> 95 patients <strong>with</strong> risk factors for an aortic injury. The sensitivity <strong>of</strong> TEE <strong>and</strong> CT was 93<br />
<strong>and</strong> 73%, respectively, the negative predictive value was 99% <strong>and</strong> 95%, respectively, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
specificity <strong>and</strong> the positive predictive value were 100% for both examinati<strong>on</strong> methods. TEE<br />
proved to be superior in identifying intimal tears whereas an aortic branch lesi<strong>on</strong> was missed.<br />
In summary, echocardiography should be carried out if a pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade or pericardial<br />
rupture is suspected.<br />
What additi<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic tests exist for emergency room patients?<br />
Fabian et al. [36] state that patients <strong>with</strong> a mediastinal hematoma <strong>and</strong> no direct evidence <strong>of</strong> an<br />
aortic injury require no further assessment. This also applies to intimal tears <strong>and</strong> pseudoaneurysms.<br />
However, patients <strong>with</strong> changes that cannot be classified in more detail should<br />
undergo angiography for further assessment. Gavant et al. [35] also stated that, in the absence <strong>of</strong><br />
a mediastinal hematoma or if the aorta presented normally despite mediastinal hematoma, helical<br />
CT <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent was sufficient for diagnosis <strong>and</strong> aortography was not necessary.<br />
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Mirvis et al. [43] <strong>and</strong> Dyer et al [44] suggest that an aortic injury detected in a CT or an injury to<br />
the main lateral branches <strong>and</strong> a mediastinal hematoma require either an angiography or direct<br />
thoracotomy depending <strong>on</strong> the experience <strong>of</strong> the establishment c<strong>on</strong>cerned. Angiography is also<br />
necessary for a mediastinal hematoma in direct c<strong>on</strong>tact <strong>with</strong> the aorta or <strong>with</strong> the proximal great<br />
vessels <strong>with</strong>out direct evidence <strong>of</strong> a vessel injury or for abnormal aortic c<strong>on</strong>tours [37].<br />
Downing et al. [42] c<strong>on</strong>clude from the results <strong>of</strong> their study that surgical treatment can be carried<br />
out <strong>with</strong>out further diagnostic tests if a helical CT clearly detects an aortic rupture. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to<br />
the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed study by Dyer et al. [2], Fabian et al. [36] c<strong>on</strong>clude that patients <strong>with</strong> a<br />
mediastinal hematoma but no direct evidence <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury require no further work-up.<br />
To date, there are no comparative studies which investigate the necessity <strong>of</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
angiography prior to a planned interventi<strong>on</strong> for an aortic injury detected in a CT scan. For this<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>, the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s are based, <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s from studies which<br />
evaluated angiography <strong>and</strong> CT in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> aortic injury <strong>and</strong>, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>on</strong> data<br />
from diagnostic tests carried out prior to endovascular treatment.<br />
Thus, Gavant et al. [35], recommend that aortography is carried out prior to surgical or<br />
endovascular treatment in order to c<strong>on</strong>firm the injury <strong>and</strong> define the extent <strong>of</strong> the damage. Parker<br />
et al. [37] also c<strong>on</strong>sider angiography necessary for c<strong>on</strong>firming positive CT findings.<br />
In patients <strong>with</strong> direct indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an aortic injury <strong>and</strong> a mediastinal hematoma, Mirvis et al.<br />
[43] <strong>and</strong> Dyer et al [44] suggest either angiography or direct thoracotomy depending <strong>on</strong> the<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the establishment c<strong>on</strong>cerned.<br />
Downing et al. [42] <strong>and</strong> Fabian et al. [36] hold the view that a thoracotomy can also be carried<br />
out <strong>with</strong>out additi<strong>on</strong>al angiography if the CT finding is clear.<br />
In a series <strong>of</strong> 5 patients <strong>with</strong> acute traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> the thoracic aorta, a CT scan <strong>and</strong><br />
angiography were carried out <strong>on</strong> all patients prior to stent implantati<strong>on</strong> [81].<br />
What importance is attached to emergency procedures (chest drain, intubati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
pericardiocentesis, thoracotomy)?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A clinically relevant or progressive pneumothorax must first be decompressed<br />
in the ventilated patient.<br />
A progressive pneumothorax should be decompressed in the n<strong>on</strong>-ventilated<br />
patient.<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
A chest drain must be inserted for this purpose. GoR A<br />
Preference should be given to wide lumen chest drains. GoR B<br />
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Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A pneumothorax detected in the radiographic image represents an indicati<strong>on</strong> to insert a chest<br />
drain particularly if mechanical ventilati<strong>on</strong> is necessary. This represents general clinical practice<br />
although there are no comparative studies <strong>on</strong> this in the literature [12, 82-85]. Due to the<br />
underlying pathophysiology, it is upgraded to Grade <strong>of</strong> Recommendati<strong>on</strong> A. Westaby <strong>and</strong><br />
Brayley [86] recommend that a chest drain should always be inserted for a pneumothorax which<br />
exceeds 1.5 cm in size <strong>and</strong> is at the level <strong>of</strong> the 3rd intercostal space. If the size is less than 1.5<br />
cm, a chest drain should <strong>on</strong>ly be inserted if ventilati<strong>on</strong> is necessary or if there is bilateral<br />
occurrence. The inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain can be omitted <strong>on</strong>ly in small ventral pneumothoraces<br />
detected by CT although close clinical m<strong>on</strong>itoring is required.<br />
The inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain should be carried out in the emergency room as the risk <strong>of</strong> a<br />
progressive pneumothorax can lead to a tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> the timespan <strong>of</strong> such a<br />
development cannot be estimated. The risk <strong>of</strong> a tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax occurring should be rated<br />
markedly higher in ventilated patients than in n<strong>on</strong>-ventilated patients. In n<strong>on</strong>-ventilated patients,<br />
small pneumothoraces less than 1-1.5 cm in width can initially be treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively by close<br />
clinical m<strong>on</strong>itoring. If this is not possible for logistic reas<strong>on</strong>s, the pneumothorax should also be<br />
decompressed in this situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The increasing use <strong>of</strong> abdominal <strong>and</strong> chest CT in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> blunt trauma has led to<br />
pneumothoraces being detected in a CT scan which had not been detected previously by<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al supine radiographic images. These so-called occult pneumothoraces, usually lying<br />
ventrally, are found in 2-25% <strong>of</strong> patients after severe multiple injuries [19, 22, 23, 87-89]. Based<br />
<strong>on</strong> the available literature, the initial inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a Bülau drain should be omitted in an occult<br />
pneumothorax diagnosed by CT if:<br />
� the patients are hemodynamically stable <strong>and</strong> have a largely normal lung functi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
� there are frequent clinical checks <strong>with</strong> the possibility <strong>of</strong> radiography in between<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
� a chest drain can be inserted at any time by a qualified physician.<br />
Also in a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study, Brasel et al. [91] studied the necessity <strong>of</strong> inserting a<br />
chest drain for an occult traumatic pneumothorax. Chest drains were inserted in 18 patients while<br />
21 patients were clinically observed <strong>on</strong>ly. Ventilati<strong>on</strong> was necessary in 9 patients in each group.<br />
In the group <strong>with</strong> chest drains, the pneumothorax increased in 4 patients; in the group <strong>with</strong>out<br />
chest drain, a Bülau drain was inserted in 3 patients, <strong>of</strong> whom 2 patients were then also<br />
ventilated.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 36 patients <strong>with</strong> 44 occult pneumothoraces, the subdivisi<strong>on</strong> was made<br />
into minimal (< 1 cm visible <strong>on</strong> a maximum <strong>of</strong> 4 CT slices), anterior (> 1 cm but not extending<br />
laterally into the dorsal half <strong>of</strong> the chest), <strong>and</strong> anterolateral pneumothoraces [92]. Fifteen<br />
minimal pneumothoraces were closely clinically m<strong>on</strong>itored irrespective <strong>of</strong> the necessity for<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong>. The sec<strong>on</strong>dary inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain was then required in 2 cases. A drain was<br />
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always inserted for anterior <strong>and</strong> anterolateral pneumothoraces if ventilati<strong>on</strong> was required. In a<br />
prospective study <strong>of</strong> children, Holmes et al. identified 11 patients <strong>with</strong> occult pneumothoraces<br />
which were also subdivided according to the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed plan [93]. In the case <strong>of</strong> minimal<br />
pneumothoraces, the patients were also c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated irrespective <strong>of</strong> the necessity for<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In a retrospective study, patients <strong>with</strong> pneumothorax were treated <strong>with</strong> (13) <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out (13) a<br />
chest drain [94]. Out <strong>of</strong> 10 patients who required mechanical ventilati<strong>on</strong>, 2 patients had to have a<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary chest drain inserted. However, there are no data <strong>on</strong> the size <strong>of</strong> the initial<br />
pneumothorax. In another retrospective study, the size <strong>of</strong> the occult pneumothorax was<br />
compared against the requirement to insert a chest drain <strong>and</strong> it was suggested that<br />
pneumothoraces less than 5 x 80 mm could be observed irrespective <strong>of</strong> the necessity for<br />
mechanical ventilati<strong>on</strong> [95]. Weißberg et al. [96] stated in their retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 1,199<br />
patients (<strong>of</strong> whom 403 patients had traumatic pneumothorax) that management by clinical<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> is possible for a pneumothorax volume less than 20% <strong>of</strong> the pleural space. However,<br />
there are no details <strong>on</strong> the effect <strong>of</strong> possible mechanical ventilati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A score was proposed by De Moya for the improved definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the “small” pneumothorax,<br />
which is composed <strong>of</strong> 2 parts: 1) the largest diameter <strong>of</strong> the pneumothorax <strong>and</strong> 2) its relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
to the pulm<strong>on</strong>ary hilus. If the pneumothorax does not exceed the pulm<strong>on</strong>ary hilus, 10 is added to<br />
the millimeter figure <strong>of</strong> the pneumothorax; if the hilus is exceeded, 20 is added. The sum <strong>of</strong> the<br />
individual values for each side gives the score value. The positive predictive value for a chest<br />
drain was 78% for a score > 30 <strong>and</strong> the negative predictive value was 70% for a score < 20<br />
[136]. In a r<strong>and</strong>omized study <strong>of</strong> 21 ventilated patients, observati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the occult pneumothorax<br />
proved to be reliable. In 13 patients initially treated <strong>with</strong>out a chest drain, there was no need for<br />
emergency decompressi<strong>on</strong> in any case even though pleural effusi<strong>on</strong> had to be decompressed<br />
during the course in 2 patients <strong>and</strong> an increasing pneumothorax had to be decompressed after<br />
inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a central venous catheter in <strong>on</strong>e patient. It seems justifiable to take a “wait <strong>and</strong> see”<br />
attitude towards inserting a chest drain for an occult pneumothorax both in sp<strong>on</strong>taneously<br />
breathing <strong>and</strong> ventilated patients [129, 130].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Pericardial decompressi<strong>on</strong> should be carried out if there is evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade <strong>and</strong> acute deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in vital parameters.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Irrespective <strong>of</strong> the patient’s c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade should be made<br />
rapidly <strong>and</strong> reliably so that surgery can be performed quickly if required. Although the diagnosis<br />
<strong>of</strong> tamp<strong>on</strong>ade can be c<strong>on</strong>firmed by the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a pericardial window, this is an invasive<br />
procedure, particularly if there is <strong>on</strong>ly slight suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a cardiac injury. Ultrasound<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> has been proven to be a sensitive procedure in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> pericardial effusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> thus represents the current method <strong>of</strong> choice. In a prospective multicenter study <strong>of</strong> 261<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating pericardial chest injuries, there was a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100%, a specificity<br />
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<strong>of</strong> 96.7%, <strong>and</strong> an accuracy <strong>of</strong> 97% [30]. There were no false-negative study results. In another<br />
study, fluid was detected by ultrasound scan in the pericardium in 3 cases out <strong>of</strong> 34 patients. One<br />
patient, who was hemodynamically unstable, underwent a thoracotomy <strong>and</strong> the other two<br />
patients had a negative pericardial window [105].<br />
Pericardiocentesis is now <strong>of</strong> lesser importance in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade, having<br />
been replaced by ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> [30, 106].<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A thoracotomy can be performed if there is an initial blood loss <strong>of</strong> > 1,500 ml<br />
from the chest drain or if there is persistent blood loss <strong>of</strong> > 250 ml/h over more<br />
than 4 hours.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
The indicati<strong>on</strong> for thoracotomy depending <strong>on</strong> the volume <strong>of</strong> initial or c<strong>on</strong>tinuous blood loss from<br />
the chest drain has been intensely discussed by the guideline group, not least because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
inc<strong>on</strong>sistent volumes described in the literature. These are almost exclusively cohort studies <strong>on</strong><br />
penetrating trauma; r<strong>and</strong>omized studies are not available <strong>on</strong> this research questi<strong>on</strong>. The available<br />
data is c<strong>on</strong>siderably less clear for blunt trauma; a thoracotomy is indicated rather less frequently<br />
<strong>and</strong> usually later than for penetrating trauma. Under certain circumstances, <strong>with</strong> a certain volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> blood loss, the thoracotomy can also be useful in hemodynamically stable patients. There are<br />
no data <strong>on</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> status as a decisi<strong>on</strong> criteri<strong>on</strong> but body temperature can be taken into<br />
account.<br />
In the 1970s, based <strong>on</strong> the experiences <strong>of</strong> penetrating injuries in the Vietnam War, McNamara et<br />
al. [107] described a reducti<strong>on</strong> in mortality after early thoracotomy. Indicati<strong>on</strong> criteria for<br />
thoracotomy were given as an initial blood loss after chest drainage <strong>of</strong> 1,000-1,500 ml <strong>and</strong> a<br />
blood loss <strong>of</strong> 500 ml during the first hour after inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the drain.<br />
Kish et al. [108] analyzed 59 patients in whom <strong>on</strong>e thoracotomy was necessary. A thoracotomy<br />
was performed in 4 out <strong>of</strong> 44 patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating injuries <strong>and</strong> in 2 out <strong>of</strong> 15 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
blunt trauma 6-36 hours after the accident where there was c<strong>on</strong>tinuous bleeding <strong>of</strong> 150 ml/hour<br />
over more than 10 hours or 1,500 ml over a shorter time span. The strategy <strong>of</strong> performing a<br />
thoracotomy where there is an initial blood loss <strong>of</strong> > 1,500 ml after inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain or a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuous hourly blood loss <strong>of</strong> > 250 ml over 4 hours is accepted for penetrating injuries [109].<br />
In a multicenter study <strong>of</strong> 157 patients who had a thoracotomy because <strong>of</strong> chest bleeding, there<br />
was a correlati<strong>on</strong> between mortality <strong>and</strong> the level <strong>of</strong> thoracic blood loss [110]. With a blood loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1,500 ml compared to 500 ml, the mortality risk was increased by the factor 3.2. The authors<br />
thus c<strong>on</strong>clude that a thoracotomy should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered in patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating <strong>and</strong> blunt<br />
trauma <strong>with</strong> a thoracic blood loss <strong>of</strong> 1,500 ml in the first 24 hours after admissi<strong>on</strong> even if there<br />
are no signs <strong>of</strong> hemorrhagic shock.<br />
In the current versi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the NATO H<strong>and</strong>book [111], an initial blood loss <strong>of</strong> 1,500 ml <strong>and</strong><br />
drainage <strong>of</strong> 250 ml over more than 4 hours are given as indicati<strong>on</strong> for a thoracotomy. The<br />
different volumes given as threshold values for indicating a thoracotomy were checked by the<br />
guideline group. Agreement was reached <strong>on</strong> the volume laid down in the recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
> 1,500 ml initially or > 250 ml/h over more than 4 hours.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
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An emergency thoracotomy should not be performed in the emergency room<br />
<strong>on</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma <strong>and</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> vital signs at the accident scene.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
If vital signs are absent at the accident scene, an emergency thoracotomy is not indicated in the<br />
emergency room for patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma. Vital signs include pupillary reacti<strong>on</strong> to light,<br />
any type <strong>of</strong> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing, movement caused by painful stimulus or supraventricular<br />
activity in the ECG [112]. However, if cardiac arrest <strong>on</strong>ly develops <strong>on</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> to hospital, an<br />
immediate thoracotomy should be performed particularly in the case <strong>of</strong> penetrating trauma.<br />
Boyd et al. carried out a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 28 patients who underwent a thoracotomy in the<br />
emergency room for the purpose <strong>of</strong> resuscitati<strong>on</strong>. A meta-analysis was also carried out [112].<br />
The survival rate was 2 out <strong>of</strong> 11 patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating trauma <strong>and</strong> 0 out <strong>of</strong> 17 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
blunt trauma, <strong>with</strong> the survival rate (2 out <strong>of</strong> 3 patients) being highest if vital signs were present<br />
both at the accident scene <strong>and</strong> in the emergency room. A meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 2,294 patients yielded<br />
a survival rate <strong>of</strong> 11% <strong>with</strong> the survival rate being significantly better after penetrating trauma<br />
compared to blunt trauma (14% versus 2%). There were no survivors in the patient group <strong>with</strong><br />
absent vital signs at the accident scene <strong>and</strong> there were no survivors <strong>of</strong> blunt trauma <strong>with</strong>out<br />
neurologic deficit am<strong>on</strong>g the patients <strong>with</strong> absent vital signs in the emergency room.<br />
Velhamos et al. [113] retrospectively analyzed 846 patients, who underwent an emergency<br />
thoracotomy in the emergency room. All patients presented a loss <strong>of</strong> vital signs at the time <strong>of</strong><br />
admissi<strong>on</strong> or cardiac arrest in the emergency room. Out <strong>of</strong> 162 patients who were successfully<br />
resuscitated, it was possible to discharge 43 (5.1%) from hospital <strong>with</strong> 38 <strong>of</strong> these patients<br />
having no neurologic deficit. Out <strong>of</strong> 176 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma, <strong>on</strong>ly 1 patient (0.2%)<br />
survived <strong>with</strong> serious neurologic deficits.<br />
Branney et al. [114] found an overall survival rate <strong>of</strong> 4.4% in 868 patients who underwent<br />
emergency thoracotomy. Eight out <strong>of</strong> 385 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma survived (2%). Of these, 4<br />
patients had no neurologic deficit. Out <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma <strong>and</strong> absent vital signs at the<br />
accident scene, 2 patients survived <strong>with</strong> serious neurologic deficit. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, the outcome for<br />
absent vital signs at the accident scene <strong>and</strong> penetrating trauma was markedly better <strong>with</strong> 12<br />
neurologically-intact surviving patients out <strong>of</strong> 355. This result differs markedly from the abovementi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
meta-analysis by Boyd et al. [112] <strong>and</strong> later studies by Esposito et al. [115],<br />
Mazzorana et al. [116], Brown et al. [117], <strong>and</strong> Lorenz et al. [118], which described no surviving<br />
patients am<strong>on</strong>g those <strong>with</strong> penetrating trauma <strong>and</strong> absent vital signs.<br />
Another retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 273 thoracotomies performed in the emergency room yielded 10<br />
surviving patients <strong>with</strong>out neurologic deficit [119]. These all had penetrating injuries <strong>and</strong><br />
presented vital signs either at the accident scene or in the emergency room. Out <strong>of</strong> 21 patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> blunt trauma, no patient survived. The authors thus c<strong>on</strong>clude that an emergency room<br />
thoracotomy should <strong>on</strong>ly be performed <strong>on</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> penetrating trauma who show vital signs<br />
either at the accident scene or in the emergency room. Out <strong>of</strong> 19 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma,<br />
Grove et al. [120] were also unable to list any surviving patients after an emergency<br />
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thoracotomy. On admissi<strong>on</strong>, 5 <strong>of</strong> these patients showed no vital signs <strong>and</strong> 14 patients showed<br />
vital signs. All patients died <strong>with</strong>in 4 days. The survival rate for penetrating trauma was 3 out <strong>of</strong><br />
10 patients.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> a meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 42 outcome studies <strong>with</strong> a total <strong>of</strong> 7,035 documented “Emergency<br />
Department Thoracotomies”, the American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s has published a guideline <strong>on</strong> the<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> an emergency room thoracotomy [131]. The resulting statements<br />
are based chiefly <strong>on</strong> the finding that, <strong>with</strong> an overall survival rate <strong>of</strong> 7.8%, <strong>on</strong>ly 1.6% <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
survived after blunt trauma but 11.2% after penetrating trauma. More recent studies have also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firmed that an emergency thoracotomy during cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> (CPR) can<br />
improve the prognosis particularly in the case <strong>of</strong> penetrating trauma <strong>and</strong> appears to be<br />
particularly expedient if vital signs are initially present [132, 133, 134, 135].<br />
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131. Working Group, Ad Hoc Subcommittee <strong>on</strong> Outcomes,<br />
American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s-Committee <strong>on</strong><br />
Trauma. Practice management guidelines for<br />
emergency department thoracotomy. J Am Coll Surg<br />
2001;193:303—9 [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
132. Karmy-J<strong>on</strong>es R, Nathens A, et al. Urgent <strong>and</strong><br />
emergent thoracotomy for penetrating chest trauma. J<br />
T Trauma 2004; 56(3): 664-8<br />
133. Powell, D. W., E. E. Moore, et al. Is emergency<br />
department resuscitative thoracotomy futile care for<br />
the critically injured patient requiring prehospital<br />
cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong>? J Am Coll Surg 2004;<br />
199(2): 211-5.<br />
134. Seam<strong>on</strong> MJ, Fisher CA et al. Emergency department<br />
thoracotomy: survival <strong>of</strong> the least expected. World J<br />
Surg 2008; 32(4): 604-12.<br />
135. Fialka C, Sebok C, et al. Open-chest cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> after cardiac arrest in cases <strong>of</strong> blunt chest<br />
or abdominal trauma: a c<strong>on</strong>secutive series <strong>of</strong> 38 cases.<br />
J Trauma 2004; 57: 809-14.<br />
136. De Moya MA, Seaver C et al. Occult pneumothorax<br />
in trauma patients: development <strong>of</strong> an objective<br />
scoring system. J Trauma2007; 63: 13-7 [LoE 2b].<br />
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2.5 Abdomen<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The abdomen must be examined although a normal finding does not exclude a<br />
relevant intraabdominal injury even in the alert patient.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> hemodynamically stable patients after blunt abdominal trauma, Miller<br />
et al. describe how, out <strong>of</strong> 372 patients examined, an intraabdominal injury could be detected by<br />
CT in <strong>on</strong>ly 25.5% <strong>of</strong> 157 <strong>with</strong> a painful abdomen or pelvis. The CT detected an injury in <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
20% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> “seatbelt sign” [24].<br />
Livingst<strong>on</strong> et al. [18] report in a multicenter prospective study <strong>of</strong> 2,299 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
abdominal trauma (exclusi<strong>on</strong> criteria: GCS ≤ 14, children ≤ 16, patients having underg<strong>on</strong>e<br />
emergency laparotomy) that 1,406 (61%) <strong>of</strong> patients had a positive clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
regard to external signs <strong>of</strong> injury or stomach pain. Of these, an abdominal injury could <strong>on</strong>ly be<br />
detected by CT in 26 % whilst the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> was recorded as normal in 11% <strong>of</strong><br />
patients <strong>with</strong> an injury detected in the CT. Out <strong>of</strong> 265 patients <strong>with</strong> free intraabdominal fluid<br />
detected in the CT, 212 (80%) had an abnormal finding in the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong>. In the study,<br />
the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> for free fluid detected in CT is 85%, specificity 28%,<br />
the positive predictive value 63%, <strong>and</strong> the negative predictive value 57%.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 350 patients, Ferrara et al. studied the informative value <strong>of</strong> abdominal<br />
painfulness for the presence <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal injury which had been verified either by CT or<br />
diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage (DPL) [6]. They calculated a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 82%, a specificity <strong>of</strong><br />
45%, <strong>and</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 21% <strong>with</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 93%.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 162 patients (2001-2003, Level 1 trauma center) after blunt trauma <strong>with</strong><br />
a state <strong>of</strong> clear c<strong>on</strong>sciousness (GCS ≥ 14) <strong>and</strong> normal clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the abdomen (but<br />
<strong>with</strong> the necessity <strong>of</strong> an emergency extraabdominal surgical interventi<strong>on</strong> [88% trauma surgery]<br />
<strong>and</strong> a CT scan <strong>of</strong> the abdomen), G<strong>on</strong>zalez et al. [7] showed that these patients do not need to<br />
receive any CT diagnostic test prior to the emergency interventi<strong>on</strong> being carried out as the<br />
clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong>fers sufficient reliability in this patient populati<strong>on</strong>. The CT diagnostic<br />
study produced pathologic intraperit<strong>on</strong>eal findings in <strong>on</strong>ly 2 cases (1.2%), which did not require<br />
further interventi<strong>on</strong> (spleen injury, mesenteric hematoma).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries<br />
In a study <strong>of</strong> 1,096 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt abdominal trauma, Grieshop et al. [9] attempted to<br />
discriminate clinical opti<strong>on</strong>s by which patients who do not require a further diagnostic test such<br />
as CT or DPL could be filtered out. <strong>Patients</strong> in a state <strong>of</strong> shock <strong>with</strong> a GCS value < 11 or who<br />
had suffered spinal trauma were analyzed but due to the limited possibility <strong>of</strong> clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> were not included in the statistics (n = 140). The authors came to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
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besides an abnormal clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> (abdominal tenderness, guarding or other signs <strong>of</strong><br />
perit<strong>on</strong>ism) the presence <strong>of</strong> gross hematuria or chest trauma (fractures in ribs 1 or 2, multiple rib<br />
fractures, sternum fracture, scapula fracture, mediastinal widening, hemo- or pneumothorax)<br />
must also be viewed as risk factors. According to them, the risk <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal injury <strong>with</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>comitant chest trauma increases by a factor <strong>of</strong> 7.6 <strong>and</strong> in the case <strong>of</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>comitant gross<br />
hematuria by a factor <strong>of</strong> 16.4. All patients <strong>with</strong> relevant intraabdominal injuries (n = 44)<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>ged to the group <strong>with</strong> either an abnormal clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> or the presence <strong>of</strong> either or<br />
both cited risk factors (n = 253) corresp<strong>on</strong>ding to a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100%. To exclude an injury to<br />
an organ, the authors further claim that additi<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic tests, e.g., performing a computed<br />
tomography scan <strong>of</strong> the abdomen, must be carried out in such cases. No intraabdominal injuries<br />
were found in the remaining 703 patients who had neither an abnormal clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> nor<br />
a risk factor. The calculated negative predictive value was 100% so that further diagnostic tests<br />
could be dispensed <strong>with</strong> in these cases. A c<strong>on</strong>comitant b<strong>on</strong>y pelvic injury, a closed traumatic<br />
brain injury, spinal injuries, <strong>and</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es in the lower extremity are not<br />
significant independent risk factors according to this study.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, Ballard et al. <strong>and</strong> Mackersie et al. found in prospective studies that pelvic fractures<br />
are also linked to an increased risk <strong>of</strong> intraabdominal organ injury so that a computed<br />
tomography diagnostic test is thus required for several reas<strong>on</strong>s [2, 20].<br />
Schurink et al. [39] studied the importance <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> in a retrospective study <strong>of</strong><br />
204 patients <strong>with</strong> further subdivisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the collective into 4 groups: patients <strong>with</strong> isolated<br />
abdominal trauma (n = 23), patients <strong>with</strong> lower rib fractures (ribs 7-12) (n = 30), patients <strong>with</strong><br />
isolated head injury (n = 56), <strong>and</strong> multiply injured patients (ISS ≥ 18) (n = 95). All patients<br />
received an abdominal ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>. With reference to the group <strong>with</strong> isolated<br />
abdominal trauma, the researchers found in the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 20 patients a sensitivity<br />
<strong>of</strong> 95%, <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 71% <strong>with</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 84% for the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal injury. In the patients <strong>with</strong> rib fractures, there was a sensitivity<br />
<strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 100% in 4 abnormal clinical findings.<br />
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Ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Initial focused abdominal ultras<strong>on</strong>ography should be performed to screen for<br />
free fluid, “focused assessment <strong>with</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography for trauma” (FAST).<br />
Ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>s should be repeated at intervals if a computed<br />
tomography scan cannot be performed promptly.<br />
If computed tomography cannot be performed, a focused ultras<strong>on</strong>ographic<br />
search for parenchymal injuries can represent an alternative to FAST.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
In a systematic review <strong>of</strong> 4 r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials <strong>on</strong> the value <strong>of</strong> ultrasound-based<br />
algorithms in diagnosing patients after blunt abdominal trauma, Stengel et al. showed that there<br />
is no evidence at present to recommend ultrasound-based algorithms [45]. The same author<br />
carried out an earlier meta-analysis/systematic review <strong>on</strong> the topic <strong>of</strong> the diagnostic value <strong>of</strong><br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography as the primary test tool for detecting free intraabdominal fluid (FAST) (19<br />
studies) or an intraabdominal organ injury (11 studies) after blunt abdominal trauma. The 30<br />
analyzed studies included studies up to July 2000 <strong>with</strong> a total <strong>of</strong> 9,047 patients <strong>and</strong> evidence<br />
levels from IIb-IIIb [44]. One reported result <strong>of</strong> the analysis is that abdominal ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
has <strong>on</strong>ly low sensitivity in diagnosing free fluid <strong>and</strong> intraabdominal organ injuries. It is stated,<br />
for example, that 1 in 10 organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s are not identified in primary ultras<strong>on</strong>ography. For this<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>, ultras<strong>on</strong>ography is c<strong>on</strong>sidered inadequate in the primary diagnostic study after abdominal<br />
trauma, <strong>and</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic tests (e.g., helical CT) are recommended both in the case <strong>of</strong> a<br />
negative <strong>and</strong> a positive finding [44, 45].<br />
FAST<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 359 hemodynamically stable patients, Miller et al. studied the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> FAST under the hypothesis that c<strong>on</strong>fidence in the reliability <strong>of</strong> a FAST<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> leads to intraabdominal injuries after abdominal trauma being missed [24]. As the<br />
gold st<strong>and</strong>ard, an abdominal CT scan was performed <strong>on</strong> all patients <strong>with</strong>in 1 hour <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>. FAST was carried out in 4 views <strong>and</strong> positively assessed if there was<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> free fluid. The FAST examinati<strong>on</strong> yielded 313 true-negative, 16 true-positive, 22<br />
false-negative, <strong>and</strong> 8 false-positive findings. This led to a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 42%, a specificity <strong>of</strong><br />
98%, a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong> 67%, <strong>and</strong> a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 93%. Of the 22<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> a false-negative diagnosis, 16 had parenchymal damage <strong>of</strong> the liver or spleen, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
each had a mesenteric injury <strong>and</strong> a gallbladder rupture, 2 had a retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal injury, <strong>and</strong> 2<br />
further patients had free fluid <strong>with</strong>out any injury detectable by CT. Six patients in this group<br />
required surgery <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e underwent vascular embolizati<strong>on</strong> by means <strong>of</strong> angiography. Am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
313 patients <strong>with</strong> a true-negative FAST finding, a further 19 hepatic <strong>and</strong> splenic injuries, <strong>and</strong> 11<br />
retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal injuries (inter alia hematoma in the aortic wall, bleeding from pancreas head,<br />
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renal c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>) were diagnosed by the CT scan. N<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> these patients had to undergo surgery.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequently, irrespective <strong>of</strong> the FAST examinati<strong>on</strong> finding, the authors call for further<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> the adequately hemodynamically stable patient by a CT scan <strong>of</strong> the abdomen <strong>and</strong><br />
pelvis [24].<br />
In a systematic review <strong>of</strong> studies by McGahan et al. <strong>on</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> FAST in the diagnostic<br />
study after abdominal trauma, the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the examinati<strong>on</strong> for detecting free fluid ranged<br />
widely from 63 to 100%. McGahan et al. are critical <strong>of</strong> the fact that, in the studies which gave<br />
high sensitivities <strong>and</strong> which cited FAST as a suitable initial screening method, significant<br />
weaknesses can be found in the study design (no st<strong>and</strong>ard reference, no c<strong>on</strong>secutive inclusi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
[22].<br />
Various other authors also report <strong>on</strong> organ injuries which could not be diagnosed by FAST <strong>and</strong><br />
led to subsequent surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>. In a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 2,576 patients, Dolich et al.<br />
found that there were false-negative FAST findings in 1.7% (43 patients) [5]. Ten <strong>of</strong> these<br />
patients had to undergo a laparotomy as a result. The lack <strong>of</strong> hemoperit<strong>on</strong>eum in detected<br />
intraabdominal injuries is described as a limitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the FAST examinati<strong>on</strong>, which is intended<br />
to be used for the primary rapid screening <strong>of</strong> free fluid. In a retrospective study, it was<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated that 34% <strong>of</strong> patients (157 out <strong>of</strong> 467 patients) <strong>with</strong> an intraabdominal injury had no<br />
hemoperit<strong>on</strong>eum <strong>and</strong> thus eluded diagnosis. Twenty-six <strong>of</strong> these patients had to undergo surgery<br />
[40].<br />
Soyuncu et al. describe a prospective case series <strong>with</strong> 442 included patients who sustained a<br />
blunt abdominal trauma. They were able to show that a FAST examinati<strong>on</strong> carried out by an<br />
operator experienced in abdominal ultras<strong>on</strong>ography (minimum 1 year’s experience) has a<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 86% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 99% <strong>with</strong> 0.95% false-positive <strong>and</strong> 1.1% false-negative<br />
results (verified by laparotomy, CT, autopsy) [43].<br />
Ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>with</strong> organ diagnosis<br />
In a prospective study, Liu et al. [17] compared am<strong>on</strong>g 55 hemodynamically stable patients the<br />
diagnostic evidential value <strong>of</strong> ultrasound (<strong>with</strong> screening for free fluid <strong>and</strong> organ lesi<strong>on</strong>),<br />
computed tomography, <strong>and</strong> DPL each <strong>on</strong> the same patients. The DPL was carried out after the<br />
imaging procedures so that they did not falsify the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> free fluid. In the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> an<br />
intraabdominal injury (<strong>with</strong>out differentiating between the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> free fluid <strong>and</strong> the direct<br />
detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an organ lesi<strong>on</strong>), the authors found a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 91.7% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 94.7%<br />
for ultrasound, which lay below the results <strong>of</strong> DPL <strong>and</strong> CT. The disadvantages <strong>of</strong> ultrasound are:<br />
(1) the technical difficulty <strong>of</strong> ultrasound in subcutaneous emphysema, (2) in pre-operated<br />
patients free fluid possibly may not flow into the Douglas space <strong>and</strong> thus elude diagnosis, (3)<br />
pancreas <strong>and</strong> hollow organ injuries might not be well assessed <strong>and</strong> (4) the poor assessability <strong>of</strong><br />
the retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal space. In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, the authors recommended ultrasound because <strong>of</strong> its<br />
practicability as a primary diagnostic tool in the examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hemodynamically unstable<br />
patients. However, due to the limitati<strong>on</strong>s cited, they warned against overestimating its<br />
informative value.<br />
In a study <strong>of</strong> 3,264 patients, Richards et al. [34] examined the quality <strong>of</strong> the abdominal<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> free fluid <strong>and</strong> parenchymal organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s after<br />
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abdominal trauma. Diverging from the FAST examinati<strong>on</strong>, ultrasound was thus used explicitly in<br />
this study to detect parenchymal organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s in the liver <strong>and</strong> spleen or kidneys. The results<br />
were verified by CT, laparotomy, DPL or clinical observati<strong>on</strong>. Free fluid was detected by<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography in 288 patients <strong>and</strong> checked by CT <strong>and</strong> laparotomy. This yielded a sensitivity <strong>of</strong><br />
60%, a specificity <strong>of</strong> 98%, a negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> 95%, <strong>and</strong> a positive predictive value <strong>of</strong><br />
82% for the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> free fluid al<strong>on</strong>e. Specific organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s were found in 76 cases, 45 <strong>with</strong><br />
simultaneously occurring free fluid. The simultaneous focused ultrasound for a parenchymal<br />
organ lesi<strong>on</strong> increased the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal injury to 67%.<br />
Like Richards <strong>and</strong> Liu et al., Brown et al. [4] examined 2,693 patients after abdominal trauma<br />
for free fluid <strong>and</strong> also focused for parenchymal injuries. Of these, 172 had an intraabdominal<br />
injury which had been verified by laparotomy, DPL, CT, clinical course or autopsy. In 44<br />
patients (26%) no hemoperit<strong>on</strong>eum could be detected in the ultrasound but in 19 <strong>of</strong> these patients<br />
(43%) an organ lesi<strong>on</strong> could be diagnosed in the ultrasound. The authors c<strong>on</strong>clude that organ<br />
injuries are missed by limiting to short ultras<strong>on</strong>ography focused (FAST) <strong>on</strong> the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> free<br />
fluid. As part <strong>of</strong> the emergency diagnostic study, therefore, an ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> must be<br />
carried out to look for free fluid <strong>and</strong> injuries to parenchymal organs.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 800 patients, higher sensitivities (88%) for the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an<br />
intraabdominal injury were found by Healey et al. [10]. This study also included screening for<br />
free fluid <strong>and</strong> organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s, which were compared to CT, DPL, laparotomy, repeated<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography or clinical course.<br />
In a comparative study design, Poletti et al. [33] also reported higher sensitivities. They<br />
examined 439 patients after abdominal trauma. Of these patients, 222 were not further examined<br />
after the primary normal finding <strong>and</strong> were discharged <strong>with</strong> the proviso that they should return if<br />
they thought there was deteriorati<strong>on</strong>. Only the remaining 217 patients were analyzed: For the<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 93% (77 out <strong>of</strong> 83 patients) was dem<strong>on</strong>strated for detecting free<br />
fluid <strong>and</strong> a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 41% (39 out <strong>of</strong> 99 patients) for the direct detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a parenchymal<br />
organ injury, injuries to the liver being well diagnosed compared to other organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s. In a<br />
repeat examinati<strong>on</strong> in the case <strong>of</strong> a primary negative finding, these values could be increased<br />
further but a pathologic finding had previously been found in a CT examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> was also<br />
known to the examiner. A total <strong>of</strong> 205 patients underwent a follow-up CT examinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Likewise, in these two studies <strong>and</strong> in another by Yoshii et al. [52], the high sensitivities for<br />
detecting free fluid are debatable as not all patients received a baseline examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
different baseline examinati<strong>on</strong>s (DPL, CT, laparotomy, repeat ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, clinical<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>) had been used. In additi<strong>on</strong>, patients <strong>with</strong> primary normal findings were discharged<br />
<strong>and</strong> did not receive a follow-up examinati<strong>on</strong> either [31].<br />
McElveen et al. [21] studied 82 c<strong>on</strong>secutive patients (for free fluid <strong>and</strong> organ lesi<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> verified<br />
all these patients <strong>with</strong> a baseline examinati<strong>on</strong> (71 by CT, 6 by repeat examinati<strong>on</strong>, 3 by DPL, <strong>and</strong><br />
2 by laparotomy) <strong>and</strong> a follow-up for a period <strong>of</strong> 1 week after trauma, either as an inpatient or an<br />
outpatient. With a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 88% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 98%, accompanied by a negative<br />
predictive value <strong>of</strong> 97% for the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal injury, they recommended the<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> as the initial examinati<strong>on</strong> method after abdominal trauma.<br />
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In a prospective examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 210 c<strong>on</strong>secutively included, hemodynamically stable patients<br />
after blunt abdominal trauma, Poletti et al. compared the diagnostic quality <strong>of</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
(<strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out intravenous c<strong>on</strong>trast agent) <strong>with</strong> CT. The patients first received c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography (including organ diagnostic workup) <strong>and</strong> then a CT scan. <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> falsenegative<br />
findings in the primary ultras<strong>on</strong>ography then received c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al repeat<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>and</strong>, if that yielded a negative finding as well, c<strong>on</strong>trast agent enhanced<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>. Poletti et al. [32] showed that neither c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al repeat<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography nor c<strong>on</strong>trast agent enhanced ultras<strong>on</strong>ography achieved the quality <strong>of</strong> computed<br />
tomography in detecting organ injuries. In the computed tomography, 88 organ injuries (solid<br />
organs) were detected in 71 patients. Out <strong>of</strong> 142 patients in whom no free fluid (intra- or<br />
retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal) could be detected in the CT, 33 (23%) organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s (all organs) were found.<br />
Four <strong>of</strong> these patients (12%) required an interventi<strong>on</strong> (laparotomy/interventi<strong>on</strong>al angiography).<br />
Primary ultras<strong>on</strong>ography identified 40% (35 out <strong>of</strong> 88), m<strong>on</strong>itoring ultras<strong>on</strong>ography 57% (50 out<br />
<strong>of</strong> 88), <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent enhanced ultras<strong>on</strong>ography 80% (70 out <strong>of</strong> 88) <strong>of</strong> injuries to solid<br />
organs. They c<strong>on</strong>cluded that even c<strong>on</strong>trast agent enhanced ultras<strong>on</strong>ography cannot replace<br />
computed tomography in hemodynamically stable patients.<br />
Repeat examinati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
With regard to the importance <strong>of</strong> repeat s<strong>on</strong>ographic m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> the patient after abdominal<br />
trauma, H<strong>of</strong>fmann et al. [13] showed that in 19 (18%) <strong>of</strong> 105 patients <strong>with</strong> a primary unclear<br />
finding it was <strong>on</strong>ly possible to definitely detect free fluid intraabdominally <strong>with</strong> a repeat<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> in the emergency room (after circulati<strong>on</strong>-stabilizing procedures). The<br />
authors pointed out that, if possible, the examinati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out by the same examiner<br />
to achieve optimum m<strong>on</strong>itoring. The m<strong>on</strong>itoring examinati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out about 10-15<br />
minutes after the primary examinati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> initially minimal evidence <strong>of</strong> fluid (1-<br />
2 mm border) or unclear findings. Compared to a DPL, a possible increase in free fluid can by<br />
documented by repeat ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>and</strong> the ultras<strong>on</strong>ography can also be used to diagnose<br />
retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal <strong>and</strong> intrathoracic injuries.<br />
In the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed study, Richards et al. [34] also report an increase in sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> through a repeat examinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In a prospective study <strong>of</strong> 156 patients after blunt or penetrating abdominal trauma, Numes et al.<br />
[29] showed that, through repeat ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>s during the course, false-negative<br />
results for the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> free intraabdominal fluid could be reduced by 50% <strong>and</strong> thus the<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 69% (<strong>with</strong> a single scan) was increased to 85%.<br />
Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
With regard to the questi<strong>on</strong> as to who must carry out the examinati<strong>on</strong>, H<strong>of</strong>fmann et al. [13] are<br />
<strong>of</strong> the opini<strong>on</strong> that st<strong>and</strong>-al<strong>on</strong>e screening for free fluid by ultrasound is easily learnt <strong>and</strong> can then<br />
be reliably carried out by a member <strong>of</strong> the emergency room team. However, the extent to which<br />
specific questi<strong>on</strong>s can be reliably answered depending <strong>on</strong> the type <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> training remains<br />
unclear.<br />
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A prospective study by Ma et al. [19] showed that a 10-hour theory introducti<strong>on</strong> coupled <strong>with</strong><br />
carrying out 10-15 examinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> healthy subjects is sufficient to achieve diagnostic certainty<br />
in emergency ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>of</strong> the abdomen provided this is restricted to detecti<strong>on</strong>/exclusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> free fluid.<br />
McElveen et al. [21] make the same recommendati<strong>on</strong> although it is not based <strong>on</strong> a study. They<br />
stipulate 15 examinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> normal patients <strong>and</strong> 50 m<strong>on</strong>itored examinati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> trauma patients.<br />
A retrospective study by Smith et al. [42] <strong>on</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> the ultrasound by trained, experienced<br />
surge<strong>on</strong>s showed that previous extensive ultrasound experience is not required <strong>and</strong> there is no<br />
learning curve.<br />
Although also <strong>with</strong>out a comparator study, Brown et al. [4] call for screening for specific organ<br />
lesi<strong>on</strong>s to be also included in terms <strong>of</strong> increasing the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> recommend that this is carried out by an experienced practiti<strong>on</strong>er.<br />
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Diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage (DPL)<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage (DPL) must <strong>on</strong>ly be used in excepti<strong>on</strong>al cases. GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
With a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 100% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 84.2%, DPL was the most sensitive method for<br />
detecting an intraabdominal injury in the comparative study <strong>with</strong> CT <strong>and</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography by Liu<br />
et al. [17]. As the authors argue, however, the high sensitivity (e.g., by detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> blood from<br />
catheter inserti<strong>on</strong>) leads to a relevant number <strong>of</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-therapeutic laparotomies. Lui et al. are<br />
critical <strong>of</strong> DPL also when a retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal hematoma is present as even small tears in the<br />
perit<strong>on</strong>eum were reported to yield a positive result, which led to an unnecessary laparotomy in<br />
half <strong>of</strong> the 6 patients <strong>with</strong> a retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal hematoma.<br />
DPL is rapid <strong>and</strong>, like ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, can be carried out in parallel <strong>with</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
patient. Its interpretati<strong>on</strong> is not as practiti<strong>on</strong>er-dependent as ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, it is easy to learn<br />
<strong>and</strong> can also be repeated. The complicati<strong>on</strong> rate is generally given as approximately 1% [8, 23,<br />
47]. Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> DPL are its invasiveness <strong>and</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> ability to c<strong>on</strong>firm precisely the<br />
underlying injury type <strong>and</strong> locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the injury <strong>and</strong> thus the assessment <strong>of</strong> its clinical relevance.<br />
Using a study <strong>of</strong> 167 patients <strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> suspected intraabdominal lesi<strong>on</strong>, Mele<br />
et al. showed that, firstly, the number <strong>of</strong> missed injuries could be reduced by combining a<br />
positive DPL <strong>with</strong> a subsequent specific examinati<strong>on</strong> such as CT compared to a single diagnostic<br />
test by CT <strong>and</strong>, sec<strong>on</strong>dly, as <strong>with</strong> st<strong>and</strong>-al<strong>on</strong>e DPL, the number <strong>of</strong> unnecessary laparotomies<br />
could be reduced [23].<br />
G<strong>on</strong>zalez et al. [8] came to the same results in a study <strong>of</strong> 252 hemodynamically stable patients.<br />
Due to the lower complicati<strong>on</strong> rate, <strong>with</strong> identical diagnostic accuracy, preference should be<br />
given to the open technique over the closed technique for carrying out DPL [12].<br />
H<strong>of</strong>fmann [13] sees the indicati<strong>on</strong> for DPL <strong>on</strong>ly in excepti<strong>on</strong>al cases where patients cannot be<br />
examined <strong>with</strong> ultrasound (e.g., extreme obesity or abdominal wall emphysema) as DPL permits<br />
no c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal injuries compared to ultrasound <strong>and</strong> to CT. Waydas cites prior<br />
laparotomies in the lower abdomen in particular as a c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> DPL. However, in a<br />
prospective study <strong>of</strong> 106 multiply injured patients, the authors found a marked lower sensitivity<br />
for ultras<strong>on</strong>ography (88%) compared to DPL (95%). Despite the lower sensitivity, they<br />
recommended ultrasound as the initial screening method because it is n<strong>on</strong>-invasive, never<br />
c<strong>on</strong>traindicated, <strong>and</strong> as a diagnostic tool is also able to detect specific organ lesi<strong>on</strong>s. In the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> hemodynamic instability <strong>with</strong> unclear or negative ultrasound finding, this method can be<br />
supplemented by DPL to increase sensitivity [47].<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong>s for primary use <strong>of</strong> DPL theoretically exist for hemodynamically unstable patients <strong>and</strong><br />
if other diagnostic tools (ultras<strong>on</strong>ography) have failed.<br />
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Computed tomography<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Multi-slice helical CT (MSCT) has a high sensitivity <strong>and</strong> the highest specificity<br />
for identifying intraabdominal injuries <strong>and</strong> must therefore be carried out<br />
after abdominal trauma.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
In the prospective study by Liu et al. [17], the authors compared am<strong>on</strong>g 55 hemodynamically<br />
stable patients the diagnostic evidential value <strong>of</strong> ultrasound (<strong>with</strong> screening for free fluid <strong>and</strong><br />
organ lesi<strong>on</strong>), computed tomography, <strong>and</strong> DPL each <strong>on</strong> the same patients. They found a<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 97.2% <strong>with</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 94.7% for CT. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dingly good results are also<br />
separately described in more recent studies [15, 30] for the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a hollow organ injury by<br />
computed tomography (after administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an oral, intravenous c<strong>on</strong>trast agent) but in other<br />
studies this was identified as a diagnostic weak point <strong>of</strong> CT [41]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, Liu et al. describe<br />
the advantages <strong>of</strong> computed tomography <strong>of</strong> the abdomen compared to ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>and</strong> DPL<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the opti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> reliably imaging the retroperit<strong>on</strong>eum as well. CT can differentiate well<br />
between hemoperit<strong>on</strong>eum <strong>and</strong> fluid retenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> can localize fresh bleeding by means <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent. In additi<strong>on</strong>, computed tomography <strong>of</strong> the abdomen (through the b<strong>on</strong>e window)<br />
could simultaneously provide a diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> the spine <strong>and</strong> the pelvis (or a full-body<br />
helical scan depending <strong>on</strong> the injury pattern) [28]. Due to the results likewise already reported,<br />
Miller et al. <strong>and</strong> other authors recommend computed tomography <strong>of</strong> the abdomen in patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong> irrespective <strong>of</strong> the ultrasound result from a FAST examinati<strong>on</strong> as CT<br />
appears, in comparis<strong>on</strong>, to be more sensitive in diagnosing an intraabdominal lesi<strong>on</strong> [24].<br />
With regard to the technicalities <strong>of</strong> the examinati<strong>on</strong>, Linsenmaier recommends a multi-slice<br />
helical CT (MSCT) <strong>with</strong> regular venous administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent for abdominal trauma.<br />
At a pitch <strong>of</strong> 1.5, the layer thickness should be a minimum <strong>of</strong> 5-8 mm in the craniocaudal<br />
scanning directi<strong>on</strong>. If there is a suspected injury to the genitourinary system, a delayed scan (3-5<br />
minutes after bolus dose) should be carried out [16]. If it is feasible, an oral c<strong>on</strong>trast agent can<br />
also be administered in principle to improve the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> intestinal injuries [16, 28].<br />
Novelline describes the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Gastrografin via nasogastric tube first in the<br />
emergency room directly after inserti<strong>on</strong>, then shortly before transfer, <strong>and</strong> lastly in the gantry.<br />
Normally, the stomach, duodenum, <strong>and</strong> jejunum could be visualized in this way. It is also<br />
possible to c<strong>on</strong>trast the rectum/sigmoid via administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>trast agent through a rectal<br />
drain [28].<br />
In a retrospective case-c<strong>on</strong>trol study <strong>of</strong> 96 patients (54 c<strong>on</strong>secutively included <strong>with</strong><br />
intestinal/mesenteric injury <strong>and</strong> 42 matched pairs <strong>with</strong>out injury) <strong>with</strong> laparotomy after<br />
abdominal trauma <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> pre-operative CT (st<strong>and</strong>ardized <strong>with</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an oral<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent via the nasogastric tube while still in the emergency room), Atri et al. [1] showed<br />
that the multi-slice CT reliably detects relevant injuries in the intestine/mesentery <strong>and</strong> has a high<br />
negative predictive value. Three radiologists at different stages <strong>of</strong> training evaluated the CTs<br />
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<strong>with</strong>out knowing the outcome. Thirty-eight (40%) <strong>of</strong> those examined had surgically relevant<br />
injuries, 58 (60%) had either no or negligible injuries in the intestine or mesentery. Sensitivity<br />
was between 87-95% for the 3 examiners. Only 10 CTs were carried out <strong>with</strong>out oral c<strong>on</strong>trast<br />
agent as the patients were transferred immediately to CT.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, Stuhlfaut et al. came to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> in a retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 1,082 patients<br />
(2001-2003) who underwent a multi-slice CT <strong>of</strong> the abdomen <strong>and</strong> pelvis <strong>with</strong>out oral c<strong>on</strong>trast<br />
agent that this procedure is sufficient to detect intestinal <strong>and</strong> mesenteric injuries that require<br />
surgical treatment. Fourteen patients had a suspected intestinal or mesenteric injury after the CT.<br />
Four CTs <strong>of</strong> these patients showed a pneumoperit<strong>on</strong>eum, 2 a mesenteric hematoma <strong>and</strong> intestinal<br />
wall changes, <strong>and</strong> 4 each showed <strong>on</strong>ly a mesenteric hematoma or intestinal wall thickening. In<br />
11 <strong>of</strong> these patients, an intestinal/mesenteric injury was surgically c<strong>on</strong>firmed. There were 1,066<br />
true-negative, 9 true-positive, 2 false-negative, <strong>and</strong> 5 false-positive results. Sensitivity was 82%<br />
<strong>and</strong> specificity 99%. The negative predictive value <strong>of</strong> the multi-slice helical CT (MSCT)<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out c<strong>on</strong>trast agent was 99% [46].<br />
In cases <strong>of</strong> unclarity (<strong>on</strong>ly unspecific radiologic findings), Br<strong>of</strong>man et al. [3] recommend a<br />
clinical re-evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> a repeat examinati<strong>on</strong> for the possible presence <strong>of</strong> intestinal/mesenteric<br />
injuries.<br />
The introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> multi-slice helical CTs is evaluated unanimously by expert opini<strong>on</strong> as<br />
progress in helical CT technology because, in additi<strong>on</strong> to better resoluti<strong>on</strong>, the scanning period<br />
can be c<strong>on</strong>siderably shortened <strong>and</strong> moti<strong>on</strong> artifacts have less effect [16, 28, 33, 35]. The same<br />
authors point out the importance <strong>of</strong> using pre-programmed protocols for CT diagnosis <strong>of</strong> recently<br />
injured pers<strong>on</strong>s (positi<strong>on</strong>ing, layer thickness, table advance, time <strong>and</strong> type <strong>of</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent, b<strong>on</strong>e/s<strong>of</strong>t tissue window, rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s) as the examinati<strong>on</strong> can thereby be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderably shortened. In c<strong>on</strong>sidering the c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, some authors recommend the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> a full-body MSCT after stabilizati<strong>on</strong>, if necessary (during which ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>of</strong> the<br />
abdomen must be carried out to detect free fluid). Besides the examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the abdomen, the<br />
full-body MSCT also allows the diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> head, thorax, skeletal trunk, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
extremities in <strong>on</strong>e examinati<strong>on</strong> round [35].<br />
Computed tomography is the <strong>on</strong>ly diagnostic method for which injury scores [25] exist, <strong>on</strong> the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> which treatment decisi<strong>on</strong>s can be derived [38].<br />
Carrying out an MSCT can be restricted by the hemodynamic status <strong>of</strong> the patient (see secti<strong>on</strong><br />
“Influence <strong>of</strong> the hemodynamic status <strong>of</strong> the patient <strong>on</strong> diagnostic study”).<br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> the hemodynamic status <strong>of</strong> the patient <strong>on</strong> the diagnostic study<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
An emergency laparotomy should be introduced <strong>with</strong>out delay in patients who<br />
cannot be hemodynamically stabilized because <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal lesi<strong>on</strong><br />
(free fluid). The possibility <strong>of</strong> shock <strong>of</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-abdominal origin should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered here.<br />
GoR B<br />
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Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The diagnostic algorithm <strong>of</strong> a patient <strong>with</strong> blunt abdominal trauma is fundamentally influenced<br />
by his vital parameters.<br />
The immediate evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the vital parameters thus have top priority in the<br />
early phase <strong>of</strong> treatment. In this secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the early hospital treatment phase, a systolic blood<br />
pressure <strong>of</strong> > 90 mmHg after infusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 2,000 ml <strong>of</strong> crystalloid soluti<strong>on</strong> (or > 100 mmHg in<br />
elderly patients) is c<strong>on</strong>sidered hemodynamically stable <strong>with</strong> regard to circulatory stability. If,<br />
despite immediate volume replacement <strong>and</strong> massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>, adequate circulatory functi<strong>on</strong><br />
cannot be restored, Nast-Kolb et al. call for an immediate emergency laparotomy to be<br />
performed in the event <strong>of</strong> a positive accident anamnesis <strong>and</strong> existing suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an<br />
intraabdominal injury [27]. It is imperative that, even <strong>with</strong> unstable vital parameters, the<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> for emergency laparotomy should be supported by ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>of</strong> the abdomen in<br />
parallel <strong>with</strong> polytrauma management. This basic diagnostic work-up is possible <strong>with</strong>out an<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al delay in time [17, 33]. Nast-Kolb’s working group calls for early laparotomy when a<br />
state <strong>of</strong> shock exists <strong>and</strong> in multiply injured patients (ISS ≥ 29) even if the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fluid is<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly small. The authors justify this <strong>with</strong> the fact that a retrospective, n<strong>on</strong>-therapeutic laparotomy,<br />
compared to the necessary sec<strong>on</strong>dary operati<strong>on</strong> in the case <strong>of</strong> primary missed organ injury,<br />
represents c<strong>on</strong>siderably less traumatizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> danger [27].<br />
A CT examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the abdomen should not be carried out until there is adequate circulatory<br />
stability [26, 27, 35, 36, 48] as therapeutic interventi<strong>on</strong>s which can sometimes be necessary for<br />
stabilizing the patient are <strong>on</strong>ly possible to a limited extent in the CT gantry [27, 35, 36, 48].<br />
According to some authors, this recommendati<strong>on</strong> maintains its validity despite the integrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the CT in the emergency room (in terms <strong>of</strong> a priority-oriented use <strong>of</strong> the emergency room CT<br />
after ABC <strong>with</strong> basic diagnostic work-up) [14, 49, 50], while Hilbert et al. [11] already discuss<br />
the primary use <strong>of</strong> CT even in unstable patients.<br />
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8. G<strong>on</strong>zalez Rp, Ickler J, Gachassin P (2001)<br />
Complementary roles <strong>of</strong> diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage<br />
<strong>and</strong> computed tomography in the evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> blunt<br />
abdominal trauma. J Trauma 51:1128-1134;<br />
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9. Grieshop Na, Jacobs<strong>on</strong> Le, Gomez Ga et al. (1995)<br />
Selective use <strong>of</strong> computed tomography <strong>and</strong> diagnostic<br />
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10. Healey Ma, Sim<strong>on</strong>s Rk, Winchell Rj et al. (1996) A<br />
prospective evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> abdominal ultrasound in<br />
blunt trauma: is it useful? J Trauma 40:875-883;<br />
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11. Hilbert P, Zur Nieden K, H<strong>of</strong>mann Go et al. (2007)<br />
New aspects in the emergency room management <strong>of</strong><br />
critically injured patients: a multi-slice CT-oriented<br />
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12. Hodgs<strong>on</strong> Nf, Stewart Tc, Girotti Mj (2000) Open or<br />
closed diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage for abdominal<br />
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13. H<strong>of</strong>fmann R, Nerlich M, Muggia-Sullam M et al.<br />
(1992) Blunt abdominal trauma in cases <strong>of</strong> multiple<br />
trauma evaluated by ultras<strong>on</strong>ography: a prospective<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> 291 patients. J Trauma 32:452-458 [LoE<br />
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14. Kanz Kg, Korner M, Linsenmaier U et al. (2004)<br />
[Priority-oriented shock trauma room management<br />
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tomography]. Unfallchirurg 107:937-944 [LoE 4]<br />
15. Killeen Kl, Shanmuganathan K, Poletti Pa et al.<br />
(2001) Helical computed tomography <strong>of</strong> bowel <strong>and</strong><br />
mesenteric injuries. J Trauma 51:26-36 [LoE 3b]<br />
16. Linsenmaier U, Kanz Kg, Rieger J et al. (2002)<br />
[Structured radiologic diagnosis in polytrauma].<br />
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17. Liu M, Lee Ch, P'eng F K (1993) Prospective<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage, computed<br />
tomographic scanning, <strong>and</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography for the<br />
diagnosis <strong>of</strong> blunt abdominal trauma. J Trauma<br />
35:267-270 [LoE 2b]<br />
18. Livingst<strong>on</strong> Dh, Lavery Rf, Passannante Mr et al.<br />
(2001) Free fluid <strong>on</strong> abdominal computed tomography<br />
<strong>with</strong>out solid organ injury after blunt abdominal<br />
injury does not m<strong>and</strong>ate celiotomy. Am J Surg 182:6-<br />
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19. Ma Oj, Kefer Mp, Stevis<strong>on</strong> Kf et al. (2001) Operative<br />
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fluid levels. Am J Emerg Med 19:284-286 [LoE 2b]<br />
20. Mackersie Rc, Tiwary Ad, Shackford Sr et al. (1989)<br />
Intra-abdominal injury following blunt trauma.<br />
Identifying the high-risk patient using objective risk<br />
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21. Mcelveen Ts, Collin Gr (1997) The role <strong>of</strong><br />
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22. Mcgahan Jp, Richards J, Gillen M (2002) The focused<br />
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23. Mele Ts, Stewart K, Marokus B et al. (1999)<br />
Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a diagnostic protocol using screening<br />
diagnostic perit<strong>on</strong>eal lavage <strong>with</strong> selective use <strong>of</strong><br />
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24. Miller Mt, Pasquale Md, Bromberg Wj et al. (2003)<br />
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25. Moore Ee, Cogbill Th, Jurkovich Gj et al. (1995)<br />
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26. Nast-Kolb D, Bail Hj, Taeger G (2005) [Current<br />
diagnostics for intra-abdominal trauma]. Chirurg<br />
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27. Nast-Kolb D, Trupka A, Ruchholtz S et al. (1998)<br />
[Abdominal trauma]. Unfallchirurg 101:82-91 [LoE 5]<br />
28. Novelline Ra, Rhea Jt, Rao Pm et al. (1999) Helical<br />
CT in emergency radiology. Radiology 213:321-339<br />
[LoE 5]<br />
29. Nunes Lw, Simm<strong>on</strong>s S, Hallowell Mj et al. (2001)<br />
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30. Pal Jd, Victorino Gp (2002) Defining the role <strong>of</strong><br />
computed tomography in blunt abdominal trauma: use<br />
in the hemodynamically stable patient <strong>with</strong> a<br />
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31. Poletti Pa, Kinkel K, Vermeulen B et al. (2003) Blunt<br />
abdominal trauma: should US be used to detect both<br />
free fluid <strong>and</strong> organ injuries? Radiology 227:95-103<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
32. Poletti Pa, Plat<strong>on</strong> A, Becker Cd et al. (2004) Blunt<br />
abdominal trauma: does the use <strong>of</strong> a sec<strong>on</strong>dgenerati<strong>on</strong><br />
s<strong>on</strong>ographic c<strong>on</strong>trast agent help to detect<br />
solid organ injuries? AJR Am J Roentgenol 183:1293-<br />
1301 [LoE 4]<br />
33. Poletti Pa, Wintermark M, Schnyder P et al. (2002)<br />
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34. Richards Jr, Schleper Nh, Woo Bd et al. (2002)<br />
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4-year prospective study. J Clin Ultrasound 30:59-67<br />
[LoE 3b]<br />
35. Rieger M, Sparr H, Esterhammer R et al. (2002)<br />
[Modern CT diagnosis <strong>of</strong> acute thoracic <strong>and</strong><br />
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36. Ruchholtz S, Waydhas C, Schroeder T et al. (2002)<br />
[The value <strong>of</strong> computed tomography in the early<br />
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73:1005-1012 [LoE 4]<br />
37. Sackett Dl, Richards<strong>on</strong> Ws, Rosenberg W et al.<br />
(1997) Evidence-based medicine: How to practice <strong>and</strong><br />
teach EBM. Churchill Livingst<strong>on</strong>e, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
38. Schueller G (2008) [Evidence-based diagnosis <strong>of</strong><br />
abdominal trauma]. Radiologe 48:474-479 [LoE 5]<br />
39. Schurink Gw, Bode Pj, Van Luijt Pa et al. (1997) The<br />
value <strong>of</strong> physical examinati<strong>on</strong> in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong><br />
patients <strong>with</strong> blunt abdominal trauma: a retrospective<br />
study. Injury 28:261-265 [LoE 4]<br />
40. Shanmuganathan K, Mirvis Se, Sherbourne Cd et al.<br />
(1999) Hemoperit<strong>on</strong>eum as the sole indicator <strong>of</strong><br />
abdominal visceral injuries: a potential limitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
screening abdominal US for trauma. Radiology<br />
212:423-430 [LoE 4]<br />
41. Sherck Jp, Oakes Dd (1990) Intestinal injuries missed<br />
by computed tomography. J Trauma 30:1-5;<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> 5-7 [LoE 3b]<br />
42. Smith Rs, Kern Sj, Fry Wr et al. (1998) Instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
learning curve <strong>of</strong> surge<strong>on</strong>-performed trauma<br />
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536 [LoE 4]<br />
43. Soyuncu S, Cete Y, Bozan H et al. (2007) Accuracy<br />
<strong>of</strong> physical <strong>and</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ographic examinati<strong>on</strong>s by<br />
emergency physicians for the early diagnosis <strong>of</strong><br />
intraabdominal haemorrhage in blunt abdominal<br />
trauma. Injury 38:564-569 [LoE 4]<br />
44. Stengel D, Bauwens K, Sehouli J et al. (2001)<br />
Systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> emergency<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography for blunt abdominal trauma. Br J<br />
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45. Stengel D, Bauwens K, Sehouli J et al. (2005)<br />
Emergency ultrasound-based algorithms for<br />
diagnosing blunt abdominal trauma. Cochrane<br />
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46. Stuhlfaut Jw, Soto Ja, Lucey Bc et al. (2004) Blunt<br />
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47. Waydhas C, Nast-Kolb D, Blahs U et al. (1991)<br />
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2.6 Traumatic brain injury<br />
Acute management in the emergency room<br />
Once the clinical finding has been checked <strong>and</strong> the vital functi<strong>on</strong>s secured, an imaging diagnostic<br />
study that includes the brain is generally required for multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic<br />
brain injury. As the immediate eliminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> intracranial bleeding can be life-saving, there is no<br />
reas<strong>on</strong> for delay if both respiratory <strong>and</strong> circulatory functi<strong>on</strong>s are stable. This requirement also<br />
applies to the resp<strong>on</strong>sive injured pers<strong>on</strong> at the accident scene who is sedated for intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
transport because <strong>on</strong>ly a CT examinati<strong>on</strong> can differentiate between intracranial bleeding that is<br />
developing <strong>and</strong> a drug cause for unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness.<br />
M<strong>on</strong>itoring the clinical finding<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
State <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sciousness <strong>with</strong> pupil functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Glasgow Coma Scale (bilateral<br />
motor functi<strong>on</strong>) must be recorded <strong>and</strong> documented at repeated intervals.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
In the literature, the <strong>on</strong>ly clinical findings <strong>with</strong> a prognostic informative value are the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
wide, fixed pupils [11, 23, 26] <strong>and</strong> a deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in the GCS score [11, 15, 23], both <strong>of</strong> which<br />
correlate <strong>with</strong> a poor outcome. There are no prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials <strong>on</strong> using<br />
the clinical findings to guide the treatment. As such studies are definitely not ethically justifiable,<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> was upgraded to a Grade <strong>of</strong> Recommendati<strong>on</strong> A<br />
during the development <strong>of</strong> the guideline <strong>on</strong> the assumpti<strong>on</strong>, which cannot be c<strong>on</strong>firmed at<br />
present, that the outcome can be improved by the earliest possible detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> life-threatening<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding therapeutic c<strong>on</strong>sequences (see the following recommendati<strong>on</strong>s).<br />
Despite various difficulties [3], the Glasgow coma scale (GCS) has established itself<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ally as the assessment <strong>of</strong> the recorded severity at a given point in time <strong>of</strong> a brain<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> impairment. It enables the st<strong>and</strong>ardized assessment <strong>of</strong> the following aspects: eye<br />
opening, verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se <strong>and</strong> motor resp<strong>on</strong>se. The neurologic findings documented <strong>with</strong> time <strong>of</strong><br />
day in the file are vital for the sequence <strong>of</strong> future treatment. Frequent checks <strong>of</strong> the neurologic<br />
finding must be carried out to detect any deteriorati<strong>on</strong> [11, 13].<br />
However, the use <strong>of</strong> the GCS <strong>on</strong> its own carries the risk <strong>of</strong> a diagnostic gap, particularly if <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
cumulative values are c<strong>on</strong>sidered. This applies to the initial <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> apallic syndrome, which can<br />
become noticeable through sp<strong>on</strong>taneous decerebrate rigidity which is not recorded <strong>on</strong> the GCS,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries to the spinal cord. Motor functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the extremities must therefore<br />
be recorded <strong>with</strong> separate lateral differentiati<strong>on</strong> in arm <strong>and</strong> leg as to whether there is incomplete,<br />
complete or no paralysis. Attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid here to the presence <strong>of</strong> decorticate or<br />
decerebrate rigidity. Providing no voluntary movements are possible, reacti<strong>on</strong> to painful stimulus<br />
must be recorded <strong>on</strong> all extremities.<br />
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If the patient is not unc<strong>on</strong>scious, then orientati<strong>on</strong>, cranial nerve functi<strong>on</strong>, coordinati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
speech functi<strong>on</strong> must also be recorded.<br />
2.7.3.2 Vital functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
The goals are normoxia, normocapnia, <strong>and</strong> normotensi<strong>on</strong>. A fall in arterial<br />
oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> below 90% must be avoided.<br />
Intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> adequate ventilati<strong>on</strong> (<strong>with</strong> capnometry <strong>and</strong> blood gas<br />
analysis) must be carried out in unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients (reference value GCS<br />
≤ 8).<br />
The goal in adults should be arterial normotensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a systolic blood<br />
pressure not below 90 mmHg.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
Prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials which study the effect <strong>of</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or hypoxia<br />
<strong>on</strong> the outcome are certainly indefensible <strong>on</strong> ethical grounds. However, there are many<br />
retrospective studies [11, 25] which provide evidence <strong>of</strong> a markedly worse outcome if<br />
hypotensi<strong>on</strong> or hypoxia is present. The first priority is to avoid all c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s associated <strong>with</strong> a<br />
fall in blood pressure or reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> in the blood. Due to side effects,<br />
however, aggressive treatment to raise blood pressure <strong>and</strong> oxygen saturati<strong>on</strong> has not always<br />
proved successful. The goals are normoxia, normocapnia, <strong>and</strong> normotensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Intubati<strong>on</strong> is necessary in the case <strong>of</strong> inadequate sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing but definitely also in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>scious pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> adequate sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing. Unfortunately, the literature<br />
does not c<strong>on</strong>tain any high quality evidence <strong>on</strong> this to prove a clear benefit for the interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The main argument in favor <strong>of</strong> intubati<strong>on</strong> is the efficient preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hypoxia. This is a threat<br />
in unc<strong>on</strong>scious pers<strong>on</strong>s even <strong>with</strong> adequate sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing as the impaired protective<br />
reflexes can cause aspirati<strong>on</strong>. The main argument against intubati<strong>on</strong> is the hypoxic damage that<br />
can occur through misplaced intubati<strong>on</strong>. In the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the emergency room, however, it<br />
can be assumed that misplaced intubati<strong>on</strong> can be recognized <strong>and</strong> corrected immediately. After<br />
intubating, it is frequently necessary to ventilate, the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> which must be m<strong>on</strong>itored<br />
by capnometry <strong>and</strong> blood gas analyses.<br />
Procedures to secure cardiac circulatory functi<strong>on</strong>s are arresting obvious bleeding (provided this<br />
has not already been d<strong>on</strong>e), m<strong>on</strong>itoring blood pressure <strong>and</strong> pulse, <strong>and</strong> replacing fluid losses, as<br />
described in this guideline. Specific recommendati<strong>on</strong>s cannot be made for the infusi<strong>on</strong> soluti<strong>on</strong><br />
to be used in the case <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant traumatic brain injury [11].<br />
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Imaging diagnostic tests<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A CCT scan must be performed in the case <strong>of</strong> polytrauma <strong>with</strong> suspected<br />
traumatic brain injury.<br />
A (m<strong>on</strong>itoring) CT scan must be performed in the case <strong>of</strong> neurologic<br />
deteriorati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A m<strong>on</strong>itoring CCT should be performed <strong>with</strong>in 8 hours <strong>on</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>scious<br />
patients <strong>and</strong>/or if there are signs <strong>of</strong> injury in the initial CCT.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
The literature does not disclose any high quality evidence <strong>on</strong> which situati<strong>on</strong>s require cranial<br />
imaging when there is suspected traumatic brain injury. In TBI <strong>on</strong> its own, the following findings<br />
are associated <strong>with</strong> an increased risk <strong>of</strong> intracranial bleeding (absolute indicati<strong>on</strong> [16]).<br />
� coma<br />
� clouded c<strong>on</strong>sciousness<br />
� amnesia<br />
� other neurologic disorders<br />
� vomiting if there is a close time relati<strong>on</strong>ship to the impact <strong>of</strong> force<br />
� cramp seizure<br />
� clinical signs or roentgenologic evidence <strong>of</strong> a brain fracture<br />
� suspected impressi<strong>on</strong> fracture <strong>and</strong>/or penetrating injuries<br />
� suspected cerebrospinal fluid fistula<br />
� evidence <strong>of</strong> a coagulati<strong>on</strong> disorder (third party medical history, “marcumar pass”, n<strong>on</strong>arresting<br />
bleeding from superficial injuries, etc.)<br />
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Opti<strong>on</strong>al indicati<strong>on</strong>s that require close m<strong>on</strong>itoring as an alternative to imaging comprise:<br />
� unclear informati<strong>on</strong> about the accident history<br />
� severe headache<br />
� intoxicati<strong>on</strong> through alcohol or drugs<br />
� evidence <strong>of</strong> high-energy trauma. These are [1] a vehicle speed > 60 km/h, a large<br />
deformati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the vehicle, penetrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> > 30 cm into the passenger cabin, time required to<br />
rescue from vehicle > 20 min, a fall > 6 m, a rollover trauma, a pedestrian or motorbike<br />
collisi<strong>on</strong> at > 30 km/h or the rider being thrown from his motorbike.<br />
As a bigger impact force can always be assumed in a multiply injured patient, there was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus in the development <strong>of</strong> the guideline that cranial imaging must be performed in the<br />
event <strong>of</strong> symptoms <strong>of</strong> brain damage. If symptoms first occur during the course <strong>of</strong> treatment or<br />
increase in severity during the course, the imaging must be m<strong>on</strong>itored as intracranial bleeding<br />
can have a delayed <strong>on</strong>set or can increase in size. The finding <strong>of</strong> compressive intracranial<br />
bleeding (see Chapter 3.5) requires surgical interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out delay.<br />
This recommendati<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> the clinical observati<strong>on</strong> that in patients <strong>with</strong> initially<br />
apparently normal cranial computed tomogram (CCT), intracranial bleeding causing<br />
compressi<strong>on</strong> can develop or smaller findings not requiring surgery increase markedly in size <strong>and</strong><br />
thus represent a surgery indicati<strong>on</strong>. The occurrence <strong>of</strong> neurologic symptoms can take several<br />
hours <strong>and</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>cealed by the intensive care treatment <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients. For this reas<strong>on</strong>,<br />
there was agreement that m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> CCT should be carried out regularly in these cases.<br />
Computed tomography is the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>of</strong> cranial imaging because <strong>of</strong> its generally rapid<br />
availability <strong>and</strong> easier examinati<strong>on</strong> procedure compared to magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging [28].<br />
Magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging has a higher sensitivity for localized tissue injuries [10]. For this<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>, it is recommended particularly in patients <strong>with</strong> neurologic disorders <strong>with</strong>out pathologic<br />
CT finding.<br />
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Cerebral protecti<strong>on</strong> treatment<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Glucocorticoids must not be administered in the treatment <strong>of</strong> TBI. GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Replacement <strong>of</strong> failed functi<strong>on</strong>s (respirati<strong>on</strong>, nutrient intake [17, 25] etc.) is necessary in braininjured<br />
patients. In the current state <strong>of</strong> scientific knowledge, the most important goal is to<br />
achieve homeostasis (normoxia, normotensi<strong>on</strong>, preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hyperthermia) <strong>and</strong> avert<br />
threatening (e.g., infectious) complicati<strong>on</strong>s. Sepsis, pneum<strong>on</strong>ia, <strong>and</strong> blood coagulati<strong>on</strong> disorders<br />
are independent predictors <strong>of</strong> a poor clinical outcome [18]. The goal <strong>of</strong> these measures is to limit<br />
the extent <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary brain damage <strong>and</strong> to provide those brain cells which have functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
impairment but which have not been destroyed <strong>with</strong> the best c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
regenerati<strong>on</strong>. This applies equally if a traumatic brain injury is present in multiple injuries.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>troversy has surrounded the necessity <strong>of</strong> antibiotic prophylaxis in fr<strong>on</strong>tobasal fractures <strong>with</strong><br />
liquorrhea. However, there is no evidence for administering antibiotics [5, 27].<br />
Thrombosis prophylaxis by means <strong>of</strong> physical measures (e.g., compressi<strong>on</strong> stockings) is an<br />
undisputed measure for preventing sec<strong>on</strong>dary complicati<strong>on</strong>s. When administering heparin or<br />
heparin derivatives, the benefit must be weighed up against the risk <strong>of</strong> an increase in the scale <strong>of</strong><br />
intracranial bleeding as these drugs are not approved for brain injuries <strong>and</strong> thus their <strong>of</strong>f-label<br />
use must be approved by the patient or his legal representative.<br />
Antiepileptic treatment prevents the incidence <strong>of</strong> epileptic seizures in the first week after trauma.<br />
However, the incidence <strong>of</strong> a seizure in the early phase does not lead to a worse clinical outcome<br />
[22, 25]. Administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antiepileptics extending over 1-2 weeks is not associated <strong>with</strong> a<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in late traumatic seizures [6, 22, 25].<br />
Up till now, the available data in the scientific literature has been unable to prove the benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
other treatment regimens regarded as specifically cerebral-protective. At present, no<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> can be given <strong>on</strong> hyperbaric oxygen treatment [4], therapeutic hypothermia [12,<br />
21], administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 21-aminosteroids, calcium antag<strong>on</strong>ists, glutamate receptor antag<strong>on</strong>ists or<br />
TRIS buffer [11, 14, 20, 30].<br />
Administering glucocorticoids is no l<strong>on</strong>ger indicated due to a significantly increased 14-day case<br />
fatality rate [2, 7] <strong>with</strong> no improvement in clinical outcome [8].<br />
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<strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> increased intracranial pressure<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If severely elevated intracranial pressure is suspected, particularly <strong>with</strong> signs<br />
<strong>of</strong> transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong> (pupil widening, decerebrate rigidity, extensor<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong> to painful stimulus, progressive clouded c<strong>on</strong>sciousness), the following<br />
treatments can be given:<br />
� Hyperventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
� Mannitol<br />
� Hypert<strong>on</strong>ic saline soluti<strong>on</strong><br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
In cases <strong>of</strong> suspected transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> signs <strong>of</strong> apallic syndrome (pupil widening,<br />
decerebrate rigidity, extensor reacti<strong>on</strong> to painful stimulus, progressive clouded c<strong>on</strong>sciousness),<br />
hyperventilati<strong>on</strong> can be introduced as a treatment opti<strong>on</strong> in the early phase after trauma [11, 25].<br />
The guide values are 20 breaths/min in adults. However, hyperventilati<strong>on</strong>, which used to be used<br />
because <strong>of</strong> its <strong>of</strong>ten impressive effect in reducing intracranial pressure, also causes reduced<br />
cerebral perfusi<strong>on</strong> because <strong>of</strong> the induced vasoc<strong>on</strong>stricti<strong>on</strong>. With aggressive hyperventilati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
this involves the risk <strong>of</strong> cerebral ischemia <strong>and</strong> thus deteriorati<strong>on</strong> in clinical outcome [25].<br />
The administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> mannitol can lower intracranial pressure [ICP] for a short time (up to 1<br />
hour) [25]. Preference should be given to managing treatment through ICP measurement [29].<br />
Mannitol can also be given <strong>with</strong>out measuring ICP if transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong> is suspected.<br />
Attenti<strong>on</strong> must be paid to serum osmolarity <strong>and</strong> renal functi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Up till now, there has been a paucity <strong>of</strong> evidence <strong>on</strong> the cerebral-protective effect <strong>of</strong> hypert<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
saline soluti<strong>on</strong>s. Mortality appears to be somewhat less compared to mannitol. However, this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> a small number <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>and</strong> is statistically not significant [29].<br />
The raised positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the upper body to 30 ° is <strong>of</strong>ten recommended although CPP is not affected<br />
by this. However, extremely high ICP values are reduced.<br />
(Analgesic) sedati<strong>on</strong> per se has no ICP reducing effect. However, restless states <strong>with</strong> abnormal<br />
independent breathing can lead to an increase in ICP but can be favorably influenced. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, improved oxygenati<strong>on</strong> can be achieved through improved breathing. There is<br />
insufficient evidence [19] for the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> barbiturates, which was recommended in<br />
previous guidelines for intracranial pressure crises not c<strong>on</strong>trollable by other means [23]. When<br />
administering barbiturates, attenti<strong>on</strong> must be paid to the negative inotropic effect, possible fall in<br />
blood pressure, <strong>and</strong> impaired neurologic assessment.<br />
Emergency room – Traumatic brain injury 194
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References<br />
1. Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS ® ) for Doctors.<br />
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Trauma, 7th edn. Chicago/IL, 2004<br />
2. Alders<strong>on</strong> P, Roberts I. Corticosteroids for acute<br />
traumatic brain injury. The Cochrane Database <strong>of</strong><br />
Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 1. Art. No.:<br />
CD000196.pub2. DOI:<br />
10.1002/14651858.CD000196.pub2<br />
3. Balestreri M, Czosnyka M, Chatfield DA, Steiner LA,<br />
Schmidt EA, Smielewski P, Matta B, Pickard JD:<br />
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4. Bennett M, Heard R. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for<br />
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CD003057.pub2. DOI:<br />
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5. Brodie HA. Prophylactic antibiotics for posttraumatic<br />
cerebrospinal fluid fistulae. A meta-analysis. Arch<br />
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6. Chang BS, Lowenstein DH. Practice parameter:<br />
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corticosteroids <strong>on</strong> death <strong>with</strong>in 14 days in 10008<br />
adults <strong>with</strong> clinically significant head injury (MRC<br />
CRASH trial): r<strong>and</strong>omised placebo-c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial.<br />
Lancet 364:1321 – 28, 2004.<br />
8. CRASH trial collaborators. Final results <strong>of</strong> MRC<br />
CRASH, a r<strong>and</strong>omised placebo-c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial <strong>of</strong><br />
intravenous corticosteroid in adults <strong>with</strong> head injury -<br />
outcomes at 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths. Lancet 365: 1957–59, 2005<br />
[LoE 1b].<br />
9. Firsching R, Messing-Jünger M, Rickels E, Gräber S<br />
und Schwerdtfeger K. Leitlinie Schädelhirntrauma im<br />
Erwachsenenalter der Deutschen Gesellschaft für<br />
Neurochirurgie. <strong>AWMF</strong> <strong>on</strong>line 2007. http://www.uniduesseldorf.de/<strong>AWMF</strong>/ll/008-001.htm.<br />
10. Firsching R, Woischneck D, Klein S, Reissberg S,<br />
Döhring W, Peters B. Classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> severe head<br />
injury based <strong>on</strong> magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging. Acta<br />
Neurochir (Wien) 143: 263-71, 2001<br />
11. Gabriel EJ, Ghajar J, Jagoda A, P<strong>on</strong>s PT, Scalea T,<br />
Walters BC; Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for<br />
prehospital management <strong>of</strong> traumatic brain injury. J<br />
Neurotrauma. 19:111-74, 2002 [Evidenzbasierte<br />
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12. Harris OA, Colford JM Jr, Good MC, Matz PG. The<br />
role <strong>of</strong> hypothermia in the management <strong>of</strong> severe<br />
brain injury: a meta-analysis. Arch Neurol 59:1077-<br />
83, 2002.<br />
13. Karimi A, Burchardi H, Deutsche Interdisziplinäre<br />
Vereinigung für Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin (DIVI)<br />
Stellungnahmen, Empfehlungen zu Problemen der<br />
Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin, 5. Auflage. Köln,<br />
asmuth druck + crossmedia. 2004.<br />
14. Langham J, Goldfrad C, Teasdale G, Shaw D, Rowan<br />
K. Calcium channel blockers for acute traumatic brain<br />
injury (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library,<br />
Issue 1, 2004. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Ltd.<br />
15. Marmarou A, Lu J, Butcher I, McHugh GS, Murray<br />
GD, Steyerberg EW, Mushkudiani NA, Choi S, Maas<br />
AI. Prognostic value <strong>of</strong> the Glasgow Coma Scale <strong>and</strong><br />
pupil reactivity in traumatic brain injury assessed<br />
pre‐hospital <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> enrollment: an IMPACT<br />
analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2007; 24(2):270-80 [LoE<br />
3a].<br />
16. Mendelow AD, Teasdale G, Jennett B, Bryden J,<br />
Hessett C, Murray G. Risks <strong>of</strong> intracranial haematoma<br />
in head injured adults. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 287,<br />
1173-1176, 1983.<br />
17. Perel P, Yanagawa T, Bunn F, Roberts IG, Wentz R.<br />
Nutriti<strong>on</strong>al support for head-injured patients.<br />
Cochrane Database <strong>of</strong> Systematic Reviews 2006,<br />
Issue 4.<br />
18. Piek J, Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, van Berkum-Clark<br />
M, Klauber MR, Blunt BA, Eisenberg HM, Jane JA,<br />
Marmarou A, Foulkes MA. Extracranial<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> severe head injury. J Neurosurg<br />
77:901-7, 1992<br />
19. Roberts I. Barbiturates for acute traumatic brain injury<br />
(Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue<br />
1, 2004. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s, Ltd.<br />
20. Roberts I Aminosteroids for acute traumatic brain<br />
injury (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library,<br />
Issue 1. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s, Ltd.<br />
2004<br />
21. Saxena M, Andrews PJD, Cheng A .Modest cooling<br />
therapies (35ºC to 37.5ºC) for traumatic brain injury.<br />
CochraneDatabase <strong>of</strong> Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue<br />
3.<br />
22. Schierhout G, Roberts I. Anti-epileptic drugs for<br />
preventing seizures following acute traumatic brain<br />
injury (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library,<br />
Issue 1, 2004. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Ltd.<br />
23. The Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. The American<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Neurological Surge<strong>on</strong>s. The Joint<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Neurotrauma <strong>and</strong> Critical Care.<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> Prognosis <strong>of</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> Traumatic<br />
Brain Injury. 2000<br />
http://www2.braintrauma.org/guidelines/downloads/bt<br />
f_guidelines_management.pdf [Evidenzbasierte<br />
Leitlinie]<br />
24. The Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. The American<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Neurological Surge<strong>on</strong>s. The Joint<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Neurotrauma <strong>and</strong> Critical Care.<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> Prognosis <strong>of</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> Traumatic<br />
Brain Injury. Update 2003<br />
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f_guidelines_cpp_u1.pdf [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
25. The Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. The American<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Neurological Surge<strong>on</strong>s. The Joint<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Neurotrauma <strong>and</strong> Critical Care. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
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_Supp1.pdf [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
26. Tien HC, Cunha JR, Wu SN, Chughtai T, Tremblay<br />
LN, Brenneman FD, Rizoli SB. Do trauma patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> a Glasgow Coma Scale score <strong>of</strong> 3 <strong>and</strong> bilateral<br />
fixed <strong>and</strong> dilated pupils have any chance <strong>of</strong> survival?<br />
J Trauma. 2006;60(2):274-8 [LoE 3b].<br />
27. Villalobos T, Arango C, Kubilis P, Rathore M.<br />
Antibiotic prophylaxis after basilar skull fractures: a<br />
meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 27:364-69, 1998.<br />
28. Vos PE, Alekseenko Y, Battistin L, Birbamer G,<br />
Gerstenbr<strong>and</strong> F, Potapov A, Prevec T, Stepan Ch A,<br />
Traubner P, Twijnstra A, Vecsei L, v<strong>on</strong> Wild K.<br />
Ch 16 Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. In: Hughes RA,<br />
Brainin M, Gilhus NE, eds. European H<strong>and</strong>book <strong>of</strong><br />
Neurological Management, 1ed. Blackwell<br />
Publishing, 2006.<br />
29. Wakai A, Roberts IG, Schierhout G. Mannitol for<br />
acute traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database <strong>of</strong><br />
Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 1. Art. No.:<br />
CD001049. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001049.pub4<br />
[LoE 3b].<br />
30. Willis C, Lybr<strong>and</strong> S, Bellamy N. Excitatory amino<br />
acid inhibitors for traumatic brain injury (Cochrane<br />
Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004.<br />
Chichester, UK: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s, Ltd.<br />
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2.7 Pelvis<br />
What importance does the initial clinical evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvis have?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
An acute life-threatening pelvic injury must be excluded when the patient is<br />
admitted to the hospital.<br />
GoR A<br />
The stability <strong>of</strong> the patient’s pelvis must be clinically examined. GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Circulatory unstable polytrauma <strong>with</strong> external pelvic massive bleeding represents an acute lifethreatening<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>. There is no alternative to immediate surgery to arrest bleeding <strong>and</strong> to<br />
accelerated blood replacement (expert opini<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> str<strong>on</strong>g evidence from medical experience in<br />
general). A life-threatening pelvic injury must therefore be excluded at the earliest opportunity<br />
<strong>with</strong>in the first minutes after arrival in the emergency room [1].<br />
Prerequisites for making the diagnosis are the pelvic examinati<strong>on</strong> for stability <strong>and</strong> external injury<br />
signs <strong>and</strong> inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the abdomen by ultras<strong>on</strong>ography.<br />
As a rollover trauma is associated <strong>with</strong> a pelvic fracture in approximately 80% <strong>of</strong> cases, the<br />
detailed circumstances <strong>of</strong> the accident event should be ascertained.<br />
The following definiti<strong>on</strong>s are comm<strong>on</strong>ly used for the most serious type <strong>of</strong> pelvic fracture <strong>with</strong><br />
threatened vitals:<br />
“in extremis” pelvic injury: external pelvic massive bleeding such as, for example, in traumatic<br />
hemipelvectomy or crush injuries after a severe rollover trauma<br />
complex trauma <strong>of</strong> the pelvis <strong>and</strong> acetabulum: pelvic <strong>and</strong> acetabular fractures/<br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al peripelvic injuries to the cutaneous muscle sheath, the genitourinary<br />
system, the intestine, the great vessels <strong>and</strong>/or the major neural pathways<br />
complex pelvic trauma, modified according to Pohlemann [43, 45]: similar see above including<br />
pelvic bleeding from torn pelvic veins <strong>and</strong> venous plexus<br />
traumatic hemipelvectomy: unilateral or bilateral tearing <strong>of</strong> the b<strong>on</strong>y hemipelvis combined <strong>with</strong><br />
the tearing <strong>of</strong> the major intrapelvic neural <strong>and</strong> vessel pathways<br />
pelvic-induced circulatory instability (importance <strong>of</strong> initial blood loss, e.g., > 2,000 ml according<br />
to B<strong>on</strong>e [6] <strong>and</strong> > 150 ml/min according to Trunkey [62])<br />
If, based <strong>on</strong> the clinical assessment, a complex pelvic trauma in terms <strong>of</strong> an “in extremis”<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> is probable (complex trauma <strong>with</strong> circulatory instability), the pelvic ring must be closed<br />
immediately, if possible while the patient is still in the emergency room.<br />
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The priorities <strong>of</strong> individual injuries should be weighed up against each other if several injuries<br />
are present. If <strong>on</strong>e or several injuries per se are also life-threatening, <strong>on</strong>ly emergency pelvic<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is initially undertaken.<br />
What procedures should be performed during the primary diagnostic study if pelvic<br />
injuries are suspected?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
During the diagnostic study a pelvic survey radiograph should be taken<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or computed tomography (CT) be performed.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Clinical examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
GoR A<br />
If the patient does not have acute life-threatening injuries, the physical examinati<strong>on</strong> can be<br />
carried out in more detail. It c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> an external inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> palpati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvic regi<strong>on</strong><br />
ventrally <strong>and</strong> dorsally. The examinati<strong>on</strong> comprises the external search for bruising or<br />
hematomas, checking pelvic stability, <strong>and</strong> inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> body orifices <strong>with</strong> vaginal <strong>and</strong> rectal<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>. Shlamovitz et al. attest <strong>on</strong>ly a low sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pelvis for detecting a, by definiti<strong>on</strong>, mechanically unstable pelvic ring fracture [52]. In a study<br />
from Essen, the sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvis for instability<br />
was 44% <strong>and</strong> 99%, respectively. However, approximately 1/5 <strong>of</strong> the unstable pelvic injuries<br />
were first diagnosed using the survey radiograph <strong>of</strong> the pelvis [38]. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to Kessel et al.<br />
[33] <strong>and</strong> Their et al. [57], who questi<strong>on</strong>ed the necessity <strong>of</strong> an emergency pelvic survey<br />
radiograph if there is provisi<strong>on</strong> for an emergency CT, the pelvic survey should c<strong>on</strong>tinue to<br />
remain part <strong>of</strong> the emergency room diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> polytrauma, according to Pehle [38]. This<br />
also corresp<strong>on</strong>ds to the current recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the ATLS ® algorithm. The circulatory<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> must be given priority in decisi<strong>on</strong>-making: according to the data from Miller et al. [35],<br />
if blood pressure does not resp<strong>on</strong>d to volume replacement, a 30% specificity can be c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
for relevant intrapelvic bleeding. C<strong>on</strong>versely, relevant bleeding can be excluded <strong>with</strong> a high<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> certainty if blood pressure exceeds 90 mmHg (negative predictive value 100%).<br />
Imaging diagnostic tests:<br />
The radiograph diagnosis should c<strong>on</strong>sist <strong>of</strong> a minimum <strong>of</strong> an a.p. (anteroposterior) view, which<br />
is then supplemented if necessary by inlet/outlet or oblique views according to Judet. Young et<br />
al. [66] describe that 94% <strong>of</strong> all pelvic fractures are correctly classified <strong>with</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly an a.p. view <strong>of</strong><br />
the pelvis. Edeiken-M<strong>on</strong>roe [19] found a success rate <strong>of</strong> 88% for the a.p. view <strong>of</strong> the pelvis.<br />
Petrisor [41] found that the Judet views usually provide no relevant informati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
There are several studies available <strong>on</strong> the comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> CT <strong>and</strong> radiography diagnostic tests<br />
<strong>with</strong> respect to pelvic fractures: In a retrospective study by Berg [4], 66% <strong>of</strong> all pelvic fractures<br />
were detected in the a.p. radiograph whereas this rate was 86% in the CT scan <strong>with</strong> 10-mm axial<br />
slices. The inlet/outlet views also <strong>on</strong>ly achieved a success rate <strong>of</strong> 56%. The study by Harley [30]<br />
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also found a higher sensitivity in the CT scan especially for identifying fractures in the sacrum<br />
<strong>and</strong> acetabulum. Resnik [46] also described how the plain radiograph misses 9% <strong>of</strong> fractures but<br />
noted that these missed fractures were not clinically relevant. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, Stewart [55]<br />
recommends that plain radiography should be omitted if computed tomography is already<br />
planned. Kessel et al. [33], Their et al. [57], <strong>and</strong> Duane et al [18] also questi<strong>on</strong> the necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
an emergency pelvic survey radiograph if there is provisi<strong>on</strong> for an emergency CT.<br />
There is also a series <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>on</strong> the different modalities <strong>of</strong> CT diagnostic tests, which suggest<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that a 3D rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> particularly the multi-plane rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> provide<br />
clear informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> simplify the presentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> the injury.<br />
Naturally, the plain radiograph is <strong>of</strong> little help in diagnosing bleeding from the pelvic vessels.<br />
Such bleeding can be excluded <strong>with</strong> high probability <strong>on</strong>ly in cases in which no fracture can be<br />
detected in the radiograph. Individual studies have examined to what extent a classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
fractures can be deduced using c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology <strong>of</strong> vessel lesi<strong>on</strong>s. Thus, Dalal<br />
et al [15] found a significantly higher volume requirement particularly in critical anteroposterior<br />
pelvic fractures but which can also be explained by the intraabdominal injuries.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, there are figures <strong>on</strong> the comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> CT <strong>and</strong> angiography in the diagnostic study <strong>of</strong><br />
relevant pelvic bleeding: In the study by Pereira [39], an accuracy exceeding 90% was<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated for the dynamic helical CT in identifying pelvic bleeding which required<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong>. Similarly, Miller [35] also reports a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> 60% <strong>and</strong> 92%,<br />
respectively. For Kamaoui, the CT scan <strong>of</strong> the pelvis <strong>with</strong> or <strong>with</strong>out c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong><br />
also assists in selecting patients who should undergo angiography [32].<br />
In a study by Brown et al [9], 73% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fracture <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast blush in the CT<br />
showed relevant bleeding in the subsequent angiography. C<strong>on</strong>versely, a source <strong>of</strong> bleeding was<br />
found in the angiography in almost 70% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> a negative CT so that the relevance <strong>of</strong><br />
the bleeding must be questi<strong>on</strong>ed here. Brasel et al. also describe c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the CT as a marker for the injury severity <strong>of</strong> pelvic injuries which, however, do not make<br />
angiography compulsory. Similarly to Brown, even though the CT was negative, they found<br />
bleeding in the pelvic regi<strong>on</strong> in 33% <strong>of</strong> cases, which benefit from angiography <strong>and</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
[8].<br />
Blackmore [5] suggested inferring intrapelvic bleeding from c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
CT <strong>of</strong> 500 ml or more. The analysis <strong>of</strong> 759 patients produced a highly significant associati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
this correlati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a relative risk <strong>of</strong> 4.8 (95% CI, 3.0-7.8). With an extravasate exceeding<br />
500 ml, bleeding is thus present in almost half <strong>of</strong> cases. However, provided that less than 200 ml<br />
extravasate is visible, it can be assumed <strong>with</strong> 95% certainty that there is no bleeding. Sheridan<br />
[51] reports that the bleeding can also be estimated in the plain CT as a correlati<strong>on</strong> exists in the<br />
CT between hematoma formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> bleeding area exceeding 10 cm 3 .<br />
A current study from 2007 [24] studied as an alternative to CT the sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong><br />
FAST in patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fracture as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid between emergency laparotomy <strong>and</strong><br />
emergency angiography. The sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity for FAST yielded 26% <strong>and</strong> 96% but the<br />
emergency ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>with</strong> negative result did not assist in deciding between the need for a<br />
laparotomy <strong>and</strong> angiography in patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fracture [24]. A CT scan <strong>of</strong> the abdomen is<br />
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stipulated for this decisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> an ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> in terms <strong>of</strong> FAST is not classified as<br />
adequate [8].<br />
Classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> injuries<br />
The injuries <strong>of</strong> the b<strong>on</strong>y pelvis should be classified using imaging diagnostic tests. A precise<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvic fracture forms the basis <strong>of</strong> prioritized treatment [19]. This<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> should also be undertaken as so<strong>on</strong> as possible in patients <strong>with</strong> life-threatening<br />
vitals.<br />
Generally, the classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Working Group <strong>on</strong> Osteosynthesis is used here, which<br />
distinguishes according to Tile between 3 groups:<br />
� stable A injuries <strong>with</strong> osteoligamentous integrity in the posterior pelvis ring, intact pelvic<br />
floor; the pelvis can resist physiologic forces <strong>with</strong>out dislocati<strong>on</strong><br />
� rotati<strong>on</strong>ally unstable B injuries <strong>with</strong> partially retained stability in the posterior pelvic ring<br />
� translati<strong>on</strong>ally unstable C injuries <strong>with</strong> disrupti<strong>on</strong> in all posterior osteoligamentous<br />
structures <strong>and</strong> also in the pelvic floor. The dislocati<strong>on</strong> directi<strong>on</strong> (vertical, posterior,<br />
distracti<strong>on</strong>, excess rotati<strong>on</strong>) plays a subordinate role. Thus, the pelvic ring is disrupted<br />
anterior <strong>and</strong> posterior <strong>and</strong> the pelvic halves are unstable.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>cept <strong>of</strong> a complex pelvic fracture applies to all b<strong>on</strong>y injuries <strong>of</strong> the pelvis <strong>with</strong> an injury<br />
to the hollow visceral pelvic organs being simultaneously present or injuries to nerves <strong>and</strong><br />
vessels or to the efferent urinary tract.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, it is helpful to differentiate between open <strong>and</strong> closed pelvic injuries. A pelvic injury<br />
is described as open in the following situati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
� primary open pelvic fractures: according to the definiti<strong>on</strong>, direct link between b<strong>on</strong>e fracture<br />
<strong>and</strong> skin or membrane <strong>of</strong> vagina or <strong>of</strong> anorectum<br />
� closed pelvic fracture <strong>with</strong> enclosed tamp<strong>on</strong>ades for hemostasis<br />
� closed pelvic lesi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> documented c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the retroperit<strong>on</strong>eum due to an<br />
intraabdominal injury [31]<br />
� In c<strong>on</strong>trast, pelvic fractures <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>with</strong> an injury to the bladder or urethra should not be<br />
described as open but instead as complex. Due to the c<strong>on</strong>comitant intraabdominal injuries<br />
<strong>with</strong> the risk <strong>of</strong> acute exsanguinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> late <strong>on</strong>set sepsis, open pelvic injuries also have a<br />
high mortality rate <strong>of</strong> approximately 45% [17].<br />
How is an unstable pelvic fracture detected?<br />
Instability, particularly in the posterior pelvic ring, is accompanied by a str<strong>on</strong>g bleeding tendency<br />
from the presacral venous plexus. Detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> instability should lead to increased attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
being paid to the circulatory situati<strong>on</strong>. Instabilities are described, depending <strong>on</strong> the rotati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
ability <strong>of</strong> the iliac wing, inwards or outwards, as internal <strong>and</strong> external rotati<strong>on</strong>al instability. In the<br />
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case <strong>of</strong> translatory instability, this can be present in the horiz<strong>on</strong>tal plane as craniocaudal<br />
instability or in the sagittal directi<strong>on</strong> as anteroposterior instability. Besides increased risk <strong>of</strong><br />
bleeding, the instability can lead to further complicati<strong>on</strong>s such as thrombosis <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
nerve, vessel <strong>and</strong> organ injuries. The last-cited injuries can also be primary <strong>and</strong> have to be<br />
excluded during the primary diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> unstable pelvic injuries. The pelvic instability<br />
should be managed by early surgery which, depending <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient, can <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
be d<strong>on</strong>e as an emergency procedure initially or can be definitive straightaway, which <strong>of</strong>ten takes<br />
more time.<br />
Signs <strong>of</strong> pelvic instability can be identified in imaging diagnostic tests. These include, for<br />
example, a widening in the symphysis or in the SI joints. A displacement <strong>of</strong> the iliac wings in a<br />
horiz<strong>on</strong>tal or vertical directi<strong>on</strong> should likewise be interpreted as instability. It must always be<br />
borne in mind that the dislocati<strong>on</strong> at the time <strong>of</strong> the accident is <strong>of</strong>ten more drastic than at the time<br />
<strong>of</strong> the diagnostic study. Thus, the fracture in the transverse process <strong>of</strong> the 5th lumbar vertebra<br />
should also be classed as a sign <strong>of</strong> instability if there is simultaneously a pelvic injury but no<br />
displacement <strong>of</strong> the iliac wing can be detected in the imaging diagnostic study.<br />
The directi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvic instability is important for classificati<strong>on</strong>. If there is <strong>on</strong>ly rotati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
instability <strong>of</strong> the pelvis around the vertical axis <strong>of</strong> the posterior pelvic ring, this is a group B<br />
injury. If there is translati<strong>on</strong>al instability in the vertical or horiz<strong>on</strong>tal directi<strong>on</strong>, this is a group C<br />
injury.<br />
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How is emergency stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvis carried out?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Emergency mechanical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out if the pelvic ring is<br />
unstable <strong>and</strong> there is hemodynamic instability.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Only simple <strong>and</strong> rapidly applicable procedures are suitable for emergency stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pelvis. With regard to the mechanical stability achieved, wrapping a sheet round the pelvis or<br />
using a pneumatic or other type <strong>of</strong> industrial pelvic girdle is clearly inferior to the ventral<br />
external fixator <strong>and</strong> the pelvic C-clamp. Nevertheless, both procedures represent an effective<br />
emergency procedure at least temporarily in the emergency situati<strong>on</strong> [16]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the<br />
Ganz pelvic C-clamp or an external fixator differs in the achievable mechanical stability<br />
depending <strong>on</strong> the fracture type.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>troversy remains around the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> whether to use the ventral external fixator<br />
(supraacetabular) or the pelvic C-clamp. In unstable pelvic injuries <strong>of</strong> type C according to Tile et<br />
al., preference should be given to the pelvic C-clamp over the external fixator as evidenced by<br />
biomechanical studies [44]. In unstable pelvic injuries <strong>of</strong> type B, no notable differences could be<br />
found between the external fixator <strong>and</strong> pelvic C-clamp. There have also been no studies to date<br />
<strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> which method <strong>of</strong> emergency stabilizati<strong>on</strong> has the best effect <strong>on</strong> arresting<br />
bleeding [10, 14].<br />
Overall, the pelvic C-clamp is used less <strong>of</strong>ten than the fixator as it is <strong>of</strong> a preliminary nature <strong>with</strong><br />
regard to pelvic stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> is not <strong>with</strong>out risk in its use compared to the external fixator.<br />
Trans-iliac pelvic fractures represent a c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong> because, in the event <strong>of</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
pins can lead to an organ injury in the lesser pelvis. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, reliable stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
an external fixator is not always possible in dorsal instabilities. Siegmeth et al. [53] hypothesize<br />
that an external fixator is sufficient for instabilities in the anterior pelvic ring but that an injury to<br />
the posterior pelvic ring also requires additi<strong>on</strong>al compressi<strong>on</strong> in an emergency. As early as the<br />
1980s, Traft<strong>on</strong> et al. [61] also stipulated the same. The most recent studies <strong>on</strong> a commercial<br />
emergency pelvic girdle produce c<strong>on</strong>tradictory results regarding the reducti<strong>on</strong> in mortality <strong>and</strong><br />
the reducti<strong>on</strong> in transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> packed red blood cells <strong>and</strong> the length <strong>of</strong> hospital stay due to the<br />
accident. While Croce [13] found advantages in applying the pelvic girdle studied by him, this<br />
assumpti<strong>on</strong> was not c<strong>on</strong>firmed in the results by Ghaemmaghami et al. [25].<br />
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What procedures should be applied in pelvic fractures <strong>with</strong> regard to c<strong>on</strong>comitant<br />
hemodynamic instability?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> persistent bleeding, surgical hemostasis or selective angiography<br />
<strong>with</strong> subsequent angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> should be performed.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the degree <strong>of</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the posterior pelvic ring, an unstable pelvis fracture<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten leads to a str<strong>on</strong>g bleeding tendency. If an unstable pelvic fracture is diagnosed in<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> circulatory instability, the pelvic fracture should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as the possible<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> the circulatory instability. Except in the case <strong>of</strong> severe pelvic rollover trauma,<br />
emergency stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvis can effectuate sustained circulatory stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the<br />
methods already illustrated in combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the infusi<strong>on</strong> treatment so that the indicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
surgical hemostasis should be re-c<strong>on</strong>sidered.<br />
If circulatory instability c<strong>on</strong>tinues despite the previous procedures, further measures should be<br />
taken. There are principally 2 opti<strong>on</strong>s available: surgical packing <strong>and</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong>. In selecting<br />
the procedure, it should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered that <strong>on</strong>ly arterial bleeding can be embolized <strong>and</strong> that it is<br />
estimated that it is the cause <strong>of</strong> bleeding in severe pelvic injuries in <strong>on</strong>ly 10-20% <strong>of</strong> cases. The<br />
remaining 80% <strong>of</strong> bleeding is <strong>of</strong> venous origin [36].<br />
In view <strong>of</strong> these circumstances, arrest <strong>of</strong> bleeding through surgically undertaken packing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lesser pelvis appears expedient <strong>and</strong>, at least in the German-speaking world, is c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be<br />
the first line choice in such a case ([20], prospective study <strong>with</strong> 20 patients). Likewise in a<br />
prospective study <strong>with</strong> 150 patients, Cook [11] showed the advantage <strong>of</strong> rapid mechanical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> subsequent surgical arrest <strong>of</strong> bleeding or packing. Pohlemann [43] also came to<br />
similar recommendati<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> a prospective study <strong>with</strong> 19 patients, as did Bosch [7] after a<br />
retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> 132 patients.<br />
But embolizati<strong>on</strong> can also be c<strong>on</strong>sidered. Miller [35] values angiography <strong>and</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong> over<br />
mechanical stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. He c<strong>on</strong>siders surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> as simply c<strong>on</strong>stituting a delay in<br />
effective hemostasis <strong>and</strong> moreover as an avoidable surgical trauma for the patient. According to<br />
Hagiwara as well, patients <strong>with</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> partial resp<strong>on</strong>ders after 2 l fluid <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
abdominal trauma <strong>and</strong> injuries to the pelvis <strong>and</strong>/or liver <strong>and</strong>/or spleen, etc. benefit from<br />
angiography <strong>and</strong> subsequent embolizati<strong>on</strong>. Volume requirement fell significantly after<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the shock index normalized [28, 29].<br />
Agolini [2]states that <strong>on</strong>ly a small percentage <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fractures require<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong>. However, if applied, it can then be almost 100% effective. The age <strong>of</strong> the patient,<br />
the time <strong>of</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> the initial circulatory instability influence the survival<br />
rate; e.g., angiography performed 3 hours after the accident showed a mortality <strong>of</strong> 75%<br />
compared to 14% at less than 3 hours after the accident. In their article from 2004, Pieri et al.<br />
also report 100% effectiveness in emergency angiography <strong>with</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong> in pelvic-induced<br />
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circulatory instability <strong>and</strong> bleeding from the obturator artery <strong>and</strong> the gluteal arteries [42]. In a<br />
more recent study by Tottermann, 2.5% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic injury showed significant arterial<br />
bleeding from the internal iliac artery. With an all-cause mortality <strong>of</strong> 16% in the patient<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>, he found an inverse proporti<strong>on</strong>ality between age <strong>and</strong> survival probability [59].<br />
Panetta [37] postulated early embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> his own time <strong>of</strong> 1-5.5 hours (mean: 2.5 hours)<br />
but sees no correlati<strong>on</strong> between the time <strong>of</strong> the procedure <strong>and</strong> mortality. No advantages from<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong> were found in outcome reports <strong>with</strong> a success rate <strong>of</strong> approximately 50% <strong>with</strong> a<br />
time <strong>of</strong> procedure <strong>of</strong> less than 6 hours after the accident [39]. The group from Kimbrell [34] und<br />
Velmahos [63] c<strong>on</strong>firms the liberal use <strong>of</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong> in abdominal <strong>and</strong> pelvic injuries <strong>with</strong><br />
detected arterial bleeding even in patients <strong>with</strong>out initial signs <strong>of</strong> hemodynamic instability.<br />
Gourlay et al. [26] describe angiography as the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard in arterial bleeding <strong>with</strong> pelvic<br />
fractures. A special subpopulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> approximately 7-8% even needed follow-up angiography<br />
due to persistent circulatory instability. In a study by Shapiro [50], indicators for re-angiography<br />
were persistent shock symptoms (BP < 90 mmHg), absence <strong>of</strong> any other intraabdominal injury,<br />
<strong>and</strong> persistent base excess <strong>of</strong> < -10 for more than 6 hours after admissi<strong>on</strong>. In the subsequent reangiography,<br />
there was pelvic-induced bleeding in 97% <strong>of</strong> cases.<br />
In a study by Fangio, approximately 10% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic injury were circulatory<br />
unstable. Subsequent angiography was successful in 96% <strong>of</strong> cases. Angiography enabled pelvicindependent<br />
bleeding to be diagnosed <strong>and</strong> treated in 15% <strong>of</strong> cases. This led to the rate <strong>of</strong> falsepositive<br />
emergency laparotomies falling in the stated patient populati<strong>on</strong> [23]. Sadri et al [47] also<br />
discovered that a specific subgroup <strong>of</strong> pelvic injuries (approximately 9%) <strong>with</strong> persistent volume<br />
requirement benefited from emergency mechanical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvic ring <strong>with</strong> the pelvic<br />
C-clamp <strong>and</strong> subsequent angiography/embolizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, Perez [40] basically c<strong>on</strong>siders embolizati<strong>on</strong> a reliable procedure as well but<br />
sees a need for clarificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the parameters that define the indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the effectiveness. In<br />
a study by Salim et al., the following parameters were found to have significant predictive values<br />
in identifying the patient populati<strong>on</strong> which benefits from angioembolizati<strong>on</strong>: SI joint disrupti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
female gender, <strong>and</strong> persistent hypotensi<strong>on</strong> [48].<br />
According to Euler [21], interventi<strong>on</strong>al-radiologic procedures such as embolizati<strong>on</strong> or ballo<strong>on</strong><br />
catheter occlusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly have importance in the later, post-primary treatment phase <strong>and</strong> not<br />
during the management <strong>of</strong> polytrauma. Only 3-5% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
pelvic injury require or benefit from embolizati<strong>on</strong> [3, 22, 36].<br />
As illustrated, there are differing opini<strong>on</strong>s in the literature. To some extent, these differences can<br />
be explained through c<strong>on</strong>siderable differences in the patient collectives <strong>and</strong> their injury severity.<br />
Ultimately, no exclusive recommendati<strong>on</strong> can be given due to the lack <strong>of</strong> high quality evidence<br />
both for packing <strong>and</strong> for embolizati<strong>on</strong>. Which procedure is given preference in each case<br />
certainly also depends <strong>on</strong> the local c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Besides the availability <strong>of</strong> embolizati<strong>on</strong>, it should<br />
be particularly taken into account that no other procedures can be carried out in parallel <strong>on</strong> the<br />
patient during this procedure. Finally, reference is made to strict time management, which should<br />
be adhered to in each case.<br />
Emergency room – Pelvis 204
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
It is an interesting fact that 2 studies <strong>with</strong> favored pelvic packing turn up for the first time in the<br />
North American studies <strong>of</strong> 2007 which originally emphasized angiography: this corresp<strong>on</strong>ds to a<br />
paradigm shift. In his study, Tottermann found a significant BP increase after surgical packing<br />
was carried out. In the subsequent angiography, evidence <strong>of</strong> arterial bleeding was still<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated in 80% <strong>of</strong> cases in the patient populati<strong>on</strong> studied so that a graduated scheme <strong>with</strong><br />
surgical packing <strong>and</strong> subsequent embolizati<strong>on</strong> has been proposed by him [60]. In the study by<br />
Cothren, a significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in packed red blood cells requirement <strong>with</strong>in 24 hours after<br />
hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> (approximately 6 versus 12 packed red blood cells (ECs);[12]) was<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated in the pelvic packing-<strong>on</strong>ly group compared to the angiography group.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to this, the latest but not yet published data <strong>of</strong> the Working Group Pelvis III <strong>of</strong> the<br />
DGU indicate an increase in emergency angiographies carried out in Germany from<br />
approximately 2% to 4%. In 2008, Westh<strong>of</strong>f recommended the early clinical integrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>al emergency embolizati<strong>on</strong> for pelvic fractures if the appropriate infrastructure was<br />
available [65].<br />
Verbeek also discussed the necessity <strong>of</strong> adapting current treatment protocols in the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> seriously injured patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fractures. The goal is to arrest the pelvic-induced<br />
bleeding, <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-therapeutic <strong>and</strong> false-positive laparotomies in particular must be avoided in<br />
the future [64].<br />
Are there abnormalities present in children <strong>and</strong> elderly pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> pelvic fractures which<br />
must be noted?<br />
A severe pelvic injury is much more life-threatening to a child <strong>and</strong> also to the elderly than to a<br />
middle-aged adult, thus requiring even more rapid acti<strong>on</strong>. The physiologic compensati<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for circulatory regulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> homeostasis are markedly fewer. The time pressure for decisi<strong>on</strong>making<br />
is increased. The challenge <strong>with</strong> regard to the child is firstly to identify the threat to vital<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>. Circulatory decompensati<strong>on</strong> does not emerge but appears suddenly as the physiology <strong>of</strong><br />
the child scarcely <strong>of</strong>fers compensati<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s. Emergency stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvis can be<br />
carried out through simple, lateral compressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> both sides, if necessary using the h<strong>and</strong>s. There<br />
are no large series <strong>of</strong> pediatric pelvic fractures in the literature. The papers <strong>of</strong> Torode [58], Silber<br />
[54], <strong>and</strong> Tarman [56] can be cited, which all report that the treatment guidelines essentially do<br />
not differ from those for adults. There are no reports <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> a pelvic C-clamp in a child.<br />
The requirements <strong>of</strong> infusi<strong>on</strong> treatment <strong>and</strong> surgical arrest <strong>of</strong> bleeding apply as for adults.<br />
Regarding the imaging diagnostic tests, magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging has the advantage over<br />
computed tomography in the young growing skelet<strong>on</strong> in representing structures that are not yet<br />
ossified, thus enabling a multi-planar presentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a pelvic injury as well. Compared to<br />
computed tomography, plain radiographs have a markedly weaker informative value in<br />
diagnosing b<strong>on</strong>y pelvic structures <strong>and</strong>, according to Guillam<strong>on</strong>degui et al. [27], can be<br />
subordinate to CT or completely omitted. As part <strong>of</strong> screening for injury, the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al pelvic<br />
survey radiograph is <strong>on</strong>ly definitely indicated in patients <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong>, according to<br />
the authors. The elasticity <strong>of</strong> the pediatric pelvis should be particularly taken into account; it can<br />
lead to a complete restorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvic skelet<strong>on</strong> despite severe rollover trauma. In 20% <strong>of</strong><br />
pediatric complex pelvic injuries, a normal pelvic skelet<strong>on</strong> is visualized in the plain radiograph<br />
<strong>and</strong> in the computed tomography.<br />
Emergency room – Pelvis 205
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Figure 3: <strong>Treatment</strong> algorithm for complex pelvic trauma [49]<br />
1st decisi<strong>on</strong> (3-5 min)<br />
2nd decisi<strong>on</strong> (10-15 min)<br />
3rd decisi<strong>on</strong> (15-30 min)<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong> algorithm for complex pelvic trauma:<br />
Initial assessment,<br />
accident history<br />
2<br />
Complex trauma <strong>with</strong><br />
unstable circulati<strong>on</strong>? yes<br />
Emergency room – Pelvis 206<br />
no<br />
X-ray or CT <strong>of</strong> pelvis,<br />
general treatment, if<br />
necessary primary<br />
diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> other<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
yes<br />
Evidence <strong>of</strong> unstable<br />
pelvic fracture?<br />
yes<br />
Unstable circulati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
yes<br />
Massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
pelvic C-clamp<br />
Unstable circulati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
yes<br />
Surgery: open reducti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
packing,<br />
pelvic stabilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Angiography <strong>and</strong><br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
1<br />
4<br />
5<br />
7<br />
10<br />
6<br />
8<br />
12<br />
no<br />
no<br />
no<br />
Surgery:<br />
surgical hemostasis,<br />
packing, pelvic stabilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Primary diagnostic<br />
study/treatment <strong>of</strong> other<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s acc. to<br />
polytrauma protocol<br />
no<br />
Unstable circulati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
yes<br />
3<br />
9<br />
11
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Despite the varying <strong>and</strong> in part quite weak level <strong>of</strong> evidence, a treatment algorithm can be<br />
derived from the current state <strong>of</strong> knowledge which can, however, be modified depending <strong>on</strong><br />
local logistic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Emergency room – Pelvis 207
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Lower genitourinary injury <strong>and</strong> pelvic fractures in<br />
pediatric patients. Urology 59:123-126; discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
126 [LoE 4]<br />
57. Their Me, Bensch Fv, Koskinen Sk et al. (2005)<br />
Diagnostic value <strong>of</strong> pelvic radiography in the initial<br />
trauma series in blunt trauma. Eur Radiol 15:1533-<br />
1537 [LoE 4]<br />
58. Torode I, Zieg D (1985) Pelvic fractures in children. J<br />
Pediatr Orthop 5:76-84 [LoE 4]<br />
59. Totterman A, Dormagen Jb, Madsen Je et al. (2006) A<br />
protocol for angiographic embolizati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
exsanguinating pelvic trauma: a report <strong>on</strong> 31 patients.<br />
Acta Orthop 77:462-468 [LoE 3]<br />
60. Totterman A, Madsen Je, Skaga No et al. (2007)<br />
Extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal pelvic packing: a salvage procedure to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol massive traumatic pelvic hemorrhage. J<br />
Trauma 62:843-852 [LoE 4]<br />
61. Traft<strong>on</strong> Pg (1990) Pelvic ring injuries. Surg Clin<br />
North Am 70:655-669 [LoE 5]<br />
62. Trunkey Dd (1983) Trauma. Accidental <strong>and</strong><br />
intenti<strong>on</strong>al injuries account for more years <strong>of</strong> life lost<br />
in the U.S. than cancer <strong>and</strong> heart disease. Am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
prescribed remedies are improved preventive efforts,<br />
Emergency room – Pelvis 209
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speedier surgery <strong>and</strong> further research. Sci Am 249:28-<br />
35 [LoE 5]<br />
63. Velmahos Gc, Toutouzas Kg, Vassiliu P et al. (2002)<br />
A prospective study <strong>on</strong> the safety <strong>and</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong><br />
angiographic embolizati<strong>on</strong> for pelvic <strong>and</strong> visceral<br />
injuries. J Trauma 53:303-308; discussi<strong>on</strong> 308 [LoE<br />
4]<br />
64. Verbeek D, Sugrue M, Balogh Z et al. (2008) Acute<br />
management <strong>of</strong> hemodynamically unstable pelvic<br />
trauma patients: time for a change? Multicenter<br />
review <strong>of</strong> recent practice. World J Surg 32:1874-1882<br />
[LoE 3]<br />
65. Westh<strong>of</strong>f J, Laurer H, Wutzler S et al. (2008)<br />
[Interventi<strong>on</strong>al emergency embolizati<strong>on</strong> for severe<br />
pelvic ring fractures <strong>with</strong> arterial bleeding. Integrati<strong>on</strong><br />
into the early clinical treatment algorithm].<br />
Unfallchirurg 111:821-828 [LoE 4]<br />
66. Young Jw, Burgess Ar, Brumback Rj et al. (1986)<br />
Pelvic fractures: value <strong>of</strong> plain radiography in early<br />
assessment <strong>and</strong> management. Radiology 160:445-451<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
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2.8 Genitourinary tract<br />
Primary clinical diagnostic study<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
During the initial exploratory survey, the external urethral meatus <strong>and</strong> the<br />
transurethral bladder catheter (if the latter is already inserted) should be<br />
examined for blood.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Gross hematuria is the cardinal symptom for injuries to the kidney, bladder <strong>and</strong>/or urethra<br />
whereas in this primary survey ureter injuries are clinically normal in about half <strong>of</strong> cases [15].<br />
For this reas<strong>on</strong>, the urinary catheter or the meatus should be inspected for blood during the<br />
primary survey <strong>of</strong> the undressed patient. Blood at the urethral meatus <strong>and</strong> hematuria must be<br />
differentiated in the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> because they have different diagnostic meanings.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> flank, abdomen, perineum, <strong>and</strong> external genitals should be<br />
inspected for hematomas, ecchymoses, <strong>and</strong> external injuries.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
As the external physical examinati<strong>on</strong> can be carried out rapidly <strong>and</strong> easily, it should be carried<br />
out in full <strong>on</strong> all multiply injured patients even if it has <strong>on</strong>ly low diagnostic informative value<br />
[16]. The examinati<strong>on</strong> includes the search for external injury signs (hematomas, abrasi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
swellings, etc.) in the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the flanks, perineum, groins, <strong>and</strong> external genitals. Cott<strong>on</strong> et al.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Allen et al. showed that ecchymoses <strong>and</strong> abrasi<strong>on</strong>s in the abdominal regi<strong>on</strong> have a close<br />
correlati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the risk <strong>of</strong> an intraabdominal injury [17, 18]. However, a hematoma <strong>on</strong> the<br />
penile shaft or a perineal butterfly hematoma indicates an anterior urethral injury.<br />
The value <strong>of</strong> the digital rectal examinati<strong>on</strong> is very critically evaluated in the current literature<br />
[19, 20] as abnormalities are generally found <strong>on</strong>ly rarely. In additi<strong>on</strong> to assessing sphincter t<strong>on</strong>e<br />
in the patient <strong>with</strong> spinal cord injury, the rectal examinati<strong>on</strong> should also be carried out if blood<br />
<strong>on</strong> the meatus or the presence <strong>of</strong> a relatively severe pelvic fracture indicates a urethral injury.<br />
The finding <strong>of</strong> a n<strong>on</strong>-palpable, dislocated or hematoma-surrounded prostate represents additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
clinically valuable informati<strong>on</strong> which in turn indicates a prostato-membranous tear.<br />
The resp<strong>on</strong>sive patient can be questi<strong>on</strong>ed about possible details <strong>of</strong> the accident <strong>and</strong> pain from an<br />
injury to the genitourinary organs. Abdominal pain can give n<strong>on</strong>specific clues to the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
intraabdominal lesi<strong>on</strong>s [17, 21, 22]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, a bladder rupture is specifically indicated if a<br />
patient experiences the urge to urinate before the trauma but no l<strong>on</strong>ger experiences this urge after<br />
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the trauma (<strong>with</strong>out evidence <strong>of</strong> neurologic lesi<strong>on</strong>s) [23] or if the patient tries to urinate <strong>with</strong>out<br />
success [24].<br />
Further informati<strong>on</strong> is provided by the circumstances <strong>of</strong> the accident, the mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury<br />
[25, 26], <strong>and</strong> the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient [27]. In the injury pattern, particular attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
should be paid to the close relati<strong>on</strong>ship between a pelvic fracture <strong>and</strong> efferent urinary tract<br />
lesi<strong>on</strong>s; this will be differentiated below according to organ. From a general view, injuries to the<br />
bladder <strong>and</strong>/or urethra are present in 6% <strong>of</strong> all pelvic fractures but <strong>on</strong> an Abbreviated Injury<br />
Scale (AIS) ≥ 4 injuries are markedly more frequent at 15% than <strong>on</strong> an AIS ≤ 3 injuries at 5%<br />
[25]. With the same severity <strong>of</strong> pelvic injury, men have almost double the risk for urologic<br />
injuries due to their anatomy, in particular the urethra [25, 28]. Rib fractures <strong>and</strong> injuries to<br />
intraabdominal organs increase the probability <strong>of</strong> injuries being present in the kidneys, ureters,<br />
<strong>and</strong> bladder [29]. If hypotensi<strong>on</strong> cannot be explained by blood losses <strong>of</strong> other origin, this can<br />
indicate a relatively severe injury to the kidney.<br />
If there is complete urethral rupture, this can cause the transurethral catheter to go <strong>of</strong>f-course [13,<br />
14]. Likewise, an already existing urinary tract injury can be aggravated by the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
transurethral catheter [30]. Based <strong>on</strong> these c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s, the patient <strong>with</strong> clinical signs <strong>of</strong> a<br />
urethral injury can have a transurethral catheter inserted during the diagnostic examinati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
emergency room in order to better m<strong>on</strong>itor the patient’s urinati<strong>on</strong>. C<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
catheterizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly exist in very unstable patients for whom catheter inserti<strong>on</strong> would represent<br />
an unnecessary time delay <strong>and</strong> in unclear c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s even during the diagnostic test (e.g.,<br />
retrograde urethrogram). This also applies to the possibility that transurethral catheterizati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
impossible, e.g., due to a complete urethral tear. A more detailed diagnostic work-up follows<br />
below.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> circulatory instability that does not permit initial c<strong>on</strong>tinuing<br />
diagnostic tests <strong>and</strong> if it is impossible to insert a transurethral bladder<br />
catheter, a suprapubic urinary diversi<strong>on</strong> should be performed percutaneously<br />
or by laparotomy (<strong>with</strong> simultaneous explorati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
If circulatory instability is present <strong>and</strong> if the patient cannot be diagnosed further due to the time<br />
delay <strong>and</strong> for these reas<strong>on</strong>s a laparotomy should be performed, a suprapubic catheter should be<br />
inserted during this interventi<strong>on</strong> [31] as this can then also be used subsequently for diagnostic<br />
purposes [30]. A rapid urine test <strong>and</strong> measurement <strong>of</strong> serum creatinine should be carried out for<br />
laboratory tests.<br />
A rapid urine test (e.g., strip test) <strong>of</strong> the urine should be carried out to detect hematuria.<br />
Compared to the microscopic examinati<strong>on</strong>, the rapid urine test (e.g., strip test) has over 95%<br />
sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity [32-36]. The advantage <strong>of</strong> the rapid test lies in the results being<br />
available in less than 10 minutes. It is also helpful for the further course <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong> to have<br />
verificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> bacteriuria; this occurs more frequently in elderly patients <strong>and</strong> can then be<br />
particularly problematic when combined <strong>with</strong> a urinary tract injury.<br />
Measurement <strong>of</strong> serum creatinine can assist the <strong>on</strong>going course assessment <strong>and</strong> the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
pre-existing kidney diseases. Hematologic parameters which permit the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> bleeding,<br />
e.g., from the kidney, are also measured.<br />
Calling <strong>on</strong> a qualified urologist is c<strong>on</strong>sidered advisable for all patients <strong>with</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
genitourinary injuries [37-39], even if this naturally depends <strong>on</strong> the qualificati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the<br />
physicians involved <strong>and</strong> the physical <strong>and</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
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The necessity <strong>of</strong> imaging diagnostic tests<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
All patients <strong>with</strong> hematuria, blood discharge from the urethral meatus,<br />
dysuria, impossibility <strong>of</strong> catheterizati<strong>on</strong> or any other medical history<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> (local hematoma, c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury)<br />
have an increased risk <strong>of</strong> genitourinary injuries <strong>and</strong> should be given a focused<br />
diagnostic work-up <strong>of</strong> the kidney <strong>and</strong>/or the efferent urinary tract.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Even if lesi<strong>on</strong>s in the upper <strong>and</strong> lower urinary tract occur simultaneously in <strong>on</strong>ly approximately<br />
0.6% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> urologic injuries [40], a complete urological diagnostic study is still<br />
usually carried out in all patients <strong>with</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding indicati<strong>on</strong>s as this normally records the<br />
complete urinary system in the form <strong>of</strong> computed tomography <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed microscopic or<br />
gross hematuria [41, 42].<br />
Whereas gross hematuria is pathognom<strong>on</strong>ic for genitourinary injuries, microscopic hematuria<br />
represents a borderline situati<strong>on</strong>. In general, however, it is accepted nowadays that microscopic<br />
hematuria should <strong>on</strong>ly entail further diagnostic study if other diagnostic injury evidence is<br />
simultaneously present [43-47].<br />
In a large series <strong>of</strong> 1,588 patients <strong>with</strong> microscopic hematuria after sharp trauma, <strong>on</strong>ly 3 patients<br />
were found <strong>with</strong> relevant kidney injury [48]. In a similar study <strong>of</strong> 605 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt trauma,<br />
n<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the patients <strong>with</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly microscopic hematuria had an injury requiring surgery [49]. This<br />
rate was 1 out <strong>of</strong> 77 in Fall<strong>on</strong> et al. [50]. Prospective series have c<strong>on</strong>firmed these results [51]. In<br />
a pseudo-r<strong>and</strong>omized study [52], in which the patients received different care depending <strong>on</strong> the<br />
admissi<strong>on</strong> team, Fuhrmann et al. compared 2 different indicati<strong>on</strong>s for a cystogram: They were<br />
either examined for pelvic fracture, gross or microscopic hematuria (n = 134 patients) or the<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> was limited to patients <strong>with</strong> gross hematuria <strong>on</strong>ly (> 200 erythrocytes per field <strong>of</strong><br />
view). All urological injuries in the two groups were correctly identified. Thus, further acute<br />
diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> the kidneys can be dispensed <strong>with</strong> in patients who <strong>on</strong>ly have microscopic<br />
hematuria <strong>with</strong>out additi<strong>on</strong>al injury signs. There are similar results for pediatric trauma <strong>and</strong><br />
multiple injuries [53-56].<br />
An important excepti<strong>on</strong> is the fact that vertical decelerati<strong>on</strong> trauma in particular c<strong>on</strong>tains an<br />
increased risk for kidney injuries [57], which show up as normal in the primary clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>. Biomechanical studies support this argument so that further diagnostic study is<br />
recommended in str<strong>on</strong>g decelerati<strong>on</strong> trauma even <strong>with</strong>out other criteria being present.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Further imaging diagnostic tests should be carried out <strong>on</strong> the efferent urinary<br />
tract if <strong>on</strong>e or more <strong>of</strong> the following criteria apply: hematuria, bleeding from<br />
the urethral meatus or vagina, dysuria, <strong>and</strong> local hematoma.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Numerous studies have shown that bladder ruptures are associated <strong>with</strong> a pelvic fracture in 80-<br />
90% <strong>of</strong> cases [24, 25, 58, 59]. This correlati<strong>on</strong> varies slightly depending <strong>on</strong> what severity grade<br />
the injuries have [11]. Hochberg <strong>and</strong> St<strong>on</strong>e [60] found a direct correlati<strong>on</strong> between the number <strong>of</strong><br />
fractured pubic rami (1, 2 or 3, 4) <strong>and</strong> the frequency <strong>of</strong> bladder ruptures (4%, 12%, 40%). Aihara<br />
et al. [61] also found that the symphysis or the sacroiliac joint had separated in 75% <strong>of</strong> bladder<br />
ruptures after blunt trauma. Nevertheless, a bladder rupture cannot be deduced from the presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> a complex pelvic fracture because <strong>on</strong>ly 20% (positive predictive value) <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
symphysis <strong>and</strong> sacroiliac joint separati<strong>on</strong> had a bladder rupture.<br />
The close correlati<strong>on</strong> between pelvic fracture <strong>and</strong> urethral injury is also well documented.<br />
However, the severity grade <strong>of</strong> injuries again plays a major role [25, 62, 63]. Koraitim et al,<br />
Morgan et al. <strong>and</strong> Aihara et al. showed c<strong>on</strong>sistently that fractures to the pubic rami increase the<br />
risk <strong>of</strong> a urethral injury, but that this risk rises hugely particularly in more complex pelvic<br />
fractures (type C) [61, 64, 65]. Aihara et al. emphasize that fractures <strong>of</strong> the lower pubic rami in<br />
particular indicate a urethral injury [61]. Palmer et al. noticed in a series <strong>of</strong> 200 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
pelvic fracture that 26 out <strong>of</strong> the 27 patients <strong>with</strong> urologic lesi<strong>on</strong>s had a fracture in the anterior<br />
<strong>and</strong> posterior pelvic ring [66]. This associati<strong>on</strong> is less marked in women due to the shorter length<br />
<strong>and</strong> less c<strong>on</strong>nective tissue fusing in the female urethra [67]. Urethra injuries in women are<br />
usually accompanied by bleeding vaginal injuries [68-70].<br />
The classic combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pelvic fracture <strong>and</strong> gross hematuria allows the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
bladder <strong>and</strong>/or urethral injury to be made <strong>with</strong> great certainty [71]. Rehm et al. found that <strong>of</strong> 719<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> blunt pelvic/abdominal injury all 21 cases <strong>with</strong> bladder injury were indicated by the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> hematuria, which showed up in 17 cases also as gross hematuria [72]. Morey et al.<br />
[71] also reported that all their 85 patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fracture had gross hematuria <strong>with</strong><br />
simultaneous bladder rupture. In Palmer et al. this rate was in 10 out <strong>of</strong> 11 patients [66], in Hsieh<br />
et al. in 48 out <strong>of</strong> 51 [73]. A gap in the symphysis <strong>and</strong> separati<strong>on</strong> in the sacroiliac joint doubled<br />
the risk for a bladder injury in the study by Aihara et al [61]. But even <strong>with</strong>out a pelvic fracture<br />
being detectable, patients <strong>with</strong> gross hematuria or blood discharge from the urethral meatus must<br />
be assumed to have an injury to the efferent urinary tract [74].<br />
The difference between hematuria <strong>and</strong> blood at the urethral meatus can be helpful in<br />
differentiating between bladder <strong>and</strong> urethral injuries. Thus, Morey et al. describe how all 53<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> bladder rupture had a hematuria but that the simultaneous presence <strong>of</strong> blood at the<br />
urethral meatus correctly indicated in all 6 cases a c<strong>on</strong>comitant urethral injury [71].<br />
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Studies available internati<strong>on</strong>ally show clearly that the absence <strong>of</strong> hematuria <strong>and</strong> the simultaneous<br />
exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a pelvic fracture definitely exclude a relevant injury to the bladder or urethra. This<br />
assessment is somewhat more difficult if there is positive evidence <strong>of</strong> a pelvic fracture. Hochberg<br />
<strong>and</strong> St<strong>on</strong>e found that a urologic injury is very unlikely here as well provided the pelvic fracture<br />
does not affect the pubic rami [60].<br />
Imaging diagnostic test <strong>of</strong> kidneys <strong>and</strong> ureters<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Computed tomography <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent should be performed in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
suspected kidney injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> computed tomography (CT) in the primary assessment <strong>of</strong> blunt abdominal<br />
trauma is not the subject <strong>of</strong> this text as the diagnostic test focuses <strong>on</strong> all intraabdominal trauma.<br />
Thus, <strong>on</strong>ly the degree <strong>of</strong> accuracy <strong>with</strong> which injuries to the kidney <strong>and</strong> efferent urinary tract can<br />
be detected in the CT will be discussed below. In the literature review, the CT diagnostic test<br />
appears to be the most reliable, comfortable method in assessing blunt abdominal trauma [9, 41,<br />
47, 75-82].<br />
Intravenous pyelography is inferior to CT <strong>with</strong> respect to diagnostic accuracy [44, 76] yet<br />
represents an important opti<strong>on</strong> if CT cannot be performed. This may be the case if the admitting<br />
hospital does not have the necessary equipment available or, more usually, if the patient is<br />
hemodynamically unstable <strong>and</strong> requires immediate emergency surgery [83]. In such cases, i.v.<br />
pyelography makes it possible to carry out the urologic diagnostic study directly during surgery<br />
[9, 41, 44]. The images are available approximately 10 minutes after administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent (2 ml/kg). For 284 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt kidney trauma, Nicolaisen et al. report<br />
perfect sensitivity <strong>of</strong> i.v. pyelography for identifying blunt injuries <strong>and</strong> state that in 87% <strong>of</strong> cases<br />
it was also possible to classify the injury severity grade correctly [29]. Although in 5 cases <strong>of</strong> 60<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> normal excretory urography Halsell et al. found smaller renal lesi<strong>on</strong>s in the<br />
computed tomography [84], these lesi<strong>on</strong>s were clinically less important <strong>and</strong> could be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated.<br />
Various studies report a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> over 90% in detecting renal injuries by ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
[85, 86] but the sensitivity is obviously less if the injury has not resulted in free fluid in the<br />
abdomen [85]. This can occur in about 10-20% <strong>of</strong> cases [87]. Overall, however, ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
is not sufficiently reliable. On average, intraabdominal lesi<strong>on</strong>s will be present in 10-20% <strong>of</strong> cases<br />
despite negative ultras<strong>on</strong>ography [87, 88]. Ultras<strong>on</strong>ography is therefore <strong>on</strong>ly suitable as an<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic test. However, a r<strong>and</strong>omized study showed that primary ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
could reduce the necessity <strong>of</strong> a CT diagnostic test [89] as negative ultras<strong>on</strong>ography was assessed<br />
as adequately reliable in individual patients <strong>with</strong>out evidence <strong>of</strong> abdominal injuries.<br />
Angiographic techniques have much more <strong>of</strong> a therapeutic role than a diagnostic <strong>on</strong>e as<br />
angiography does not really provide any additi<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic informati<strong>on</strong> compared to CT [77,<br />
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90]. In cases where an injury to the renal artery or its lateral branches can be assumed or active<br />
bleeding is detected by computed tomography, it is expedient to use angiography as preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
for an embolizati<strong>on</strong> [91-95]. In vascular injuries to the renal pedicle (e.g., intimal tear), this<br />
enables the patency <strong>of</strong> the renal artery to be restored using an endovascular stent. Moreover, in<br />
relatively severe renal injuries <strong>with</strong> massive bleeding, selective embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the bleeding<br />
vessel should be carried out [9, 41, 42] provided the patient has stable circulati<strong>on</strong>. The number <strong>of</strong><br />
primary operated patients can be minimized through this radiologic interventi<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>, which<br />
leads to a reducti<strong>on</strong> in the nephrectomy rate. The success rate <strong>of</strong> radiologic interventi<strong>on</strong> is about<br />
70-80% [42]. Angiography can also be necessary if CT equipment is not locally available <strong>and</strong><br />
the i.v. pyelography does not show the kidney.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to the methods cited, magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging has been tested by Leppaniemi et<br />
al. [96-98] <strong>and</strong> it can image some details better than CT [96, 99]. Due to the increased time<br />
involved, however, it is seldom advisable to use this procedure in multiply injured patients<br />
during the acute phase. Magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging could be beneficial in rare cases if CT is<br />
unavailable or cannot be used because <strong>of</strong> an allergy to the c<strong>on</strong>trast agent or the CT finding is<br />
unclear.<br />
Detecting a ureter lesi<strong>on</strong> is much more difficult [100-102]. Medina et al. described a sensitivity<br />
<strong>of</strong> 20% although a very wide range <strong>of</strong> diagnostic modalities (CT, intravenous pyelography [IVP],<br />
<strong>and</strong> retrograde pyelogram) was used [15]. In 81 patients <strong>with</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-iatrogenic blunt ureter injury,<br />
Dobrowolski et al. [103] found i.v. <strong>and</strong> retrograde pyelography helpful. Ghali et al. [102]<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>on</strong>ly pyelography to be diagnostically reliable even when compared to intraoperative<br />
inspecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Emergency room – Genitourinary tract 217
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Imaging diagnostic tests <strong>of</strong> the lower urinary tract<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If prioritizing permits, retrograde urethrography <strong>and</strong> a cystogram should be<br />
performed in patients <strong>with</strong> clinical reference points for a urethral lesi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
If prioritizing permits, a retrograde cystogram should be performed in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> clinical reference points for a bladder injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
If there is a suspected urethral <strong>and</strong>/or bladder lesi<strong>on</strong>, retrograde urethrography <strong>and</strong> a cystogram<br />
should be performed [30]. Retrograde urethrography c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> the transurethral administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> approximately 400 ml <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent. Provided the urethra is uninjured, urethrography<br />
enables the bladder to be adequately filled <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent. Thereafter, a radiograph is taken,<br />
ideally <strong>on</strong> 2 planes but <strong>of</strong>ten limited for practical reas<strong>on</strong>s to the anteroposterior plane in multiply<br />
injured patients [72]. However, both planes should be represented so that retrovesicular<br />
extravasates are not missed [23]. The cystogram c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> an image after drainage in additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to the voided image <strong>and</strong> the filling image as otherwise there will be approximately 10% falsenegative<br />
results [104]. In cases where no retrograde bladder filling can be achieved, the bladder<br />
must be filled via a suprapubic catheter as combined injuries to the bladder <strong>and</strong> urethra make up<br />
10-20% <strong>of</strong> all bladder or urethral injuries [61].<br />
In multiply injured patients, due to c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, it is not possible in about 20% <strong>of</strong> cases<br />
to carry out the cystogram <strong>with</strong>in the initial emergency room phase [73]. This may be<br />
unavoidable in individual cases but the diagnostic test must be carried out as so<strong>on</strong> as possible<br />
thereafter so that no injuries are missed. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, Hsieh et al. [73] saw no serious<br />
disadvantages in the cases where the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> a bladder rupture had been delayed until later.<br />
Ultrasound does not play a big role in assessing bladder or urethral injuries but is very helpful in<br />
localizing the bladder for inserting the suprapubic bladder catheter. I.v. pyelography is also<br />
unreliable in assessing uncertain bladder injuries as the bladder resting pressure is too low <strong>and</strong><br />
dilutes the c<strong>on</strong>trast agent too much. Several clinical studies have shown that i.v. pyelography<br />
does not detect 64%-84% <strong>of</strong> bladder injuries [105-108].<br />
Although computed tomography cannot make definite statements <strong>on</strong> urethral injuries, it is still<br />
very valuable in diagnosing bladder ruptures [109]. However, <strong>with</strong>out separate filling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bladder <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent, the CT diagnostic test can <strong>on</strong>ly supply indirect evidence. Although<br />
the absence <strong>of</strong> pelvic fluid collecti<strong>on</strong>s makes bladder ruptures less likely [110], it can never<br />
definitely exclude a relevant injury. Only the CT cystogram is suitable for this, <strong>and</strong> it can also be<br />
performed as an alternative to the normal cystogram. In a series <strong>of</strong> 316 patients, Deck et al.<br />
found evidence <strong>of</strong> a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> 95% <strong>and</strong> 100%, respectively, for the CT<br />
cystogram in identifying bladder ruptures [111, 112]. Even if these values were somewhat worse<br />
for intraperit<strong>on</strong>eal ruptures (78% <strong>and</strong> 99%), the authors still c<strong>on</strong>sider that the CT cystogram<br />
Emergency room – Genitourinary tract 218
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
ranks at least equally <strong>with</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al cystogram. Other groups have reported similar<br />
results [113, 114]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, the CT cystogram can <strong>of</strong>fer time <strong>and</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
advantages particularly in multiply injured patients as the CT diagnostic test is <strong>of</strong>ten indicated<br />
here because <strong>of</strong> other injuries. However, the prerequisite for a definite diagnosis is the sufficient<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent (> 350 ml) to be able to produce <strong>and</strong> detect an extravasate at all<br />
in the presence <strong>of</strong> a rupture through sufficient fill pressure [104, 109, 115].<br />
Emergency room – Genitourinary tract 219
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
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150 Schmidlin F. [Renal trauma. <strong>Treatment</strong> strategies <strong>and</strong><br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s for surgical explorati<strong>on</strong>]. Urologe A 2005:<br />
44(8):863-869.<br />
151 Shekarriz B, Stoller ML. The use <strong>of</strong> fibrin sealant in<br />
urology. J Urol 2002: 167(3):1218-1225.<br />
152 Singh PB, Karmakar D, Gupta RC, Dwivedi US,<br />
Tripathi VN. Result <strong>of</strong> suprapubic cystostomy <strong>on</strong>ly as<br />
primary management <strong>of</strong> posterior urethral rupture<br />
following pelvic fracture. Int Surg 1988: 73(1):59-62.<br />
153 Smith EM, Elder JS, Spirnak JP. Major blunt renal<br />
trauma in the pediatric populati<strong>on</strong>: is a n<strong>on</strong>operative<br />
approach indicated? J Urol 1993: 149(3):546-548.<br />
154 Stein JP, Kaji DM, Eastham J, Freeman JA, Esrig D,<br />
Hardy BE. Blunt renal trauma in the pediatric<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>: indicati<strong>on</strong>s for radiographic evaluati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Urology 1994: 44(3):406-410.<br />
155 Stengel D, Bauwens K, Porzsolt F, Rademacher G,<br />
Mutze S, Ekkernkamp A. [Emergency ultrasound for<br />
blunt abdominal trauma--meta-analysis update 2003].<br />
Zentralbl Chir 2003: 128(12):1027-1037.<br />
156 Stengel D, Bauwens K, Sehouli J, Porzsolt F,<br />
Rademacher G, Mutze S et al. Systematic review <strong>and</strong><br />
meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> emergency ultras<strong>on</strong>ography for blunt<br />
abdominal trauma. Br J Surg 2001: 88(7):901-912.<br />
157 Taylor GA, Eichelberger MR, O'D<strong>on</strong>nell R, Bowman<br />
L. Indicati<strong>on</strong>s for computed tomography in children<br />
<strong>with</strong> blunt abdominal trauma. Ann Surg 1991:<br />
213(3):212-218.<br />
158 Thall EH, St<strong>on</strong>e NN, Cheng DL, Cohen EL, Fine EM,<br />
Leventhal I et al. C<strong>on</strong>servative management <strong>of</strong><br />
penetrating <strong>and</strong> blunt Type III renal injuries. Br J Urol<br />
1996: 77(4):512-517.<br />
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159 Thambi Dorai CR, Boucaut HA, Dewan PA. Urethral<br />
injuries in girls <strong>with</strong> pelvic trauma. Eur Urol 1993:<br />
24(3):371-374.<br />
160 Thomae KR, Kilambi NK, Poole GV. Method <strong>of</strong><br />
urinary diversi<strong>on</strong> in n<strong>on</strong>urethral traumatic bladder<br />
injuries: retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> 70 cases. Am Surg<br />
1998: 64(1):77-80.<br />
161 Thomas<strong>on</strong> RB, Julian JS, Mostellar HC, Pennell TC,<br />
Meredith JW. Microscopic hematuria after blunt<br />
trauma. Is pyelography necessary? Am Surg 1989:<br />
55(3):145-150.<br />
162 Toutouzas KG, Karaiskakis M, Kaminski A,<br />
Velmahos GC. N<strong>on</strong>operative management <strong>of</strong> blunt<br />
renal trauma: a prospective study. Am Surg 2002:<br />
68(12):1097-1103.<br />
163 Uflacker R, Paolini RM, Lima S. Management <strong>of</strong><br />
traumatic hematuria by selective renal artery<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong>. J Urol 1984: 132(4):662-667.<br />
164 Vaccaro JP, Brody JM. CT cystography in the<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> major bladder trauma. Radiographics<br />
2000: 20(5):1373-1381.<br />
165 Venn SN, Greenwell TJ, Mundy AR. Pelvic fracture<br />
injuries <strong>of</strong> the female urethra. BJU Int 1999:<br />
83(6):626-630.<br />
166 Wah TM, Spencer JA. The role <strong>of</strong> CT in the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> adult urinary tract trauma. Clin Radiol<br />
2001: 56(4):268-277.<br />
167 Werkman HA, Jansen C, Klein JP, Ten Duis HJ.<br />
Urinary tract injuries in multiply-injured patients: a<br />
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1991: 22(6):471-474.<br />
168 Wessells H, McAninch JW, Meyer A, Bruce J.<br />
Criteria for n<strong>on</strong>operative treatment <strong>of</strong> significant<br />
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27.<br />
169 Wolk DJ, S<strong>and</strong>ler CM, Corriere JN, Jr.<br />
Extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder rupture <strong>with</strong>out pelvic<br />
fracture. J Urol 1985: 134(6):1199-1201.<br />
170 Yoshii H, Sato M, Yamamoto S, Motegi M, Okusawa<br />
S, Kitano M et al. Usefulness <strong>and</strong> limitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography in the initial evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> blunt<br />
abdominal trauma. J Trauma 1998: 45(1):45-50.<br />
171 Zink RA, Muller-Mattheis V, Oberneder R. [Results<br />
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172 Zwergel T, op den WR, Zwergel U, Schwaiger R,<br />
Muhr G, Ziegler M. [C<strong>on</strong>cept <strong>of</strong> interdisciplinary<br />
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status <strong>of</strong> urology]. Unfallchirurgie 1983: 9(5):244-<br />
248.<br />
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2.9 Spine<br />
A suspected spinal injury exists in principle in patients who are transferred to hospital <strong>with</strong><br />
suspected multiple injuries. In our own hospital populati<strong>on</strong> between the years 2000-2002, 34% <strong>of</strong><br />
the multiply injured patients (245 out <strong>of</strong> 720) had a spinal injury. Other studies have found a rate<br />
<strong>of</strong> 20% [29]. C<strong>on</strong>versely, about 1/3 <strong>of</strong> all spinal injuries are associated <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries<br />
[34, 91]. Overall, the figure for Germany is approximately 10,000 serious spinal injuries per<br />
year, <strong>of</strong> which 1/5 involve the cervical spine <strong>and</strong> 4/5 the thoracic/lumbar spine [31].<br />
Approximately 10% <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients will have a cervical spine injury [33]. At 1-27<br />
injuries/milli<strong>on</strong> children/year in Western Europe/North America, pediatric spinal injury is<br />
relatively rare [9].<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury as part <strong>of</strong> multiple injuries has c<strong>on</strong>siderable c<strong>on</strong>sequences for the<br />
diagnostic study <strong>and</strong> therapeutic course <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong>. Typical c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, e.g., thoracic or<br />
abdominal, must first be excluded. If surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is necessary, a comprehensive preoperative<br />
CT diagnostic work-up is required <strong>of</strong> the injured regi<strong>on</strong>. Intensive care positi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s depend <strong>on</strong> the stability <strong>of</strong> a detected spinal injury. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, it is desirable to assess<br />
the stability <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury if the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient permits this (circulati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
temperature, coagulati<strong>on</strong>, intracranial pressure, etc.) <strong>and</strong> before the trauma patient is transferred<br />
from the emergency room or from the operating room to the intensive care unit.<br />
Medical history<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The medical history has high importance <strong>and</strong> should be taken. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients, the medical history is usually taken from a third party.<br />
The mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury is an important piece <strong>of</strong> informati<strong>on</strong> here <strong>and</strong> should be passed <strong>on</strong> from<br />
the prehospital to the hospital care. <strong>Multiple</strong> injuries as such [4, 39, 49], high energy road traffic<br />
accidents [4, 16, 34, 101, 115, 149], road traffic accidents involving pers<strong>on</strong>s not restrained by<br />
belt or airbag [81, 101], pedestrians who have been run over [16], falls from a great height [14,<br />
39, 49, 128, 132], alcohol or drug influence [138], <strong>and</strong> advanced age [16, 100, 134] represent<br />
predispositi<strong>on</strong>s for a spinal injury. In the unc<strong>on</strong>scious patient, the medical history should also<br />
include active movement <strong>of</strong> the extremities <strong>and</strong> informati<strong>on</strong> about pain before loss <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sciousness or intubati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Traumatic brain injury <strong>and</strong> facial injuries are c<strong>on</strong>sidered risk factors for the presence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cervical spine injury. According to the multivariate analysis by Blackmore et al. [16], patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> a head fracture or c<strong>on</strong>tinued unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness have a markedly higher risk <strong>of</strong> having a<br />
cervical spine injury (odds ratio 8.5) whereas <strong>with</strong> milder injuries such as facial/jaw fracture or<br />
temporary unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness, for example, this is less comm<strong>on</strong> (OR 2.6). Similarly, Hills <strong>and</strong><br />
Deane [73] found that the risk <strong>of</strong> a cervical injury in patients <strong>with</strong> TBI is about 4 times higher<br />
than in patients <strong>with</strong>out TBI. With a GCS below 8, the risk is actually 7 times higher. Other<br />
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studies <strong>on</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> traumatic brain injury [73, 83], loss <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sciousness [46, 77, 79,<br />
131, 149], <strong>and</strong> crani<strong>of</strong>acial fractures [63, 73, 103, 122] c<strong>on</strong>firm the associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> spinal<br />
injuries. Only <strong>on</strong>e study <strong>with</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> patients described a tendentially reduced risk <strong>of</strong><br />
cervical injuries in patients <strong>with</strong> facial or head injuries [165] but where the GCS was significant<br />
as a predictor. It is debatable whether clavicular fractures can also be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a predictor<br />
[165].<br />
Clinical examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> for spinal injuries has a high importance in the<br />
emergency room <strong>and</strong> should be carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Due to its simplicity <strong>and</strong> speed, the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spine is a valuable diagnostic aid<br />
in the emergency room [49]. It comprises the inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> palpati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spine where<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> hematomas are seen <strong>and</strong> displacement or malpositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spinal process <strong>and</strong><br />
indentati<strong>on</strong>s in the segments c<strong>on</strong>cerned can be felt. Informati<strong>on</strong> about pain in the head <strong>and</strong> torso<br />
can indicate a spinal injury. Tenderness, distracti<strong>on</strong> or movement <strong>and</strong> involuntary malpositi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are additi<strong>on</strong>al features <strong>of</strong> spinal injury [25, 128]. Provided the patient is c<strong>on</strong>scious, motor<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> sensitivity should be tested. If there are existing deficits, the neurologic<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> should document a precise, st<strong>and</strong>ardized finding, if possible according to the ASIA-<br />
IMSOP (American Spinal Injury Associati<strong>on</strong> - Internati<strong>on</strong>al Medical Society <strong>of</strong> Paraplegia)<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> sheet [32, 33].<br />
Although there are well-validated clinical decisi<strong>on</strong> rules for m<strong>on</strong>otrauma [11, 74, 150, 151] that<br />
enable a spinal injury to be definitely excluded, in turn saving <strong>on</strong> unnecessary diagnostic<br />
radiology, these decisi<strong>on</strong> rules cannot be transferred to polytrauma because prehospital<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s (particularly intubati<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries (particularly to the head)<br />
generally make it impossible to obtain a reliable medical history <strong>and</strong> carry out an examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
[36, 159]. Thus, Cooper et al. [39] found that pain from a spinal fracture could <strong>on</strong>ly be found in<br />
63% <strong>of</strong> severely injured patients compared to 91% <strong>of</strong> the minor injured, patients <strong>with</strong> a TBI not<br />
being included. Meld<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Moettus reported quite similar figures (58% versus 93%) [105] so<br />
that a clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> was <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>sidered reliable if there was a GCS <strong>of</strong> 15. Mirvis et al.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Barba et al. observed that about 10-20% <strong>of</strong> all apparently severely injured patients were<br />
actually less severely injured <strong>and</strong> thus adequately evaluable to be able to exclude a spinal injury<br />
clinically [12, 108]. This shows that the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients is<br />
heavily dependent <strong>on</strong> the overall injury severity. The radiologic work-up <strong>of</strong> the spine can<br />
perhaps <strong>on</strong>ly be dispensed <strong>with</strong> in those cases where a patient is admitted <strong>with</strong> suspected<br />
multiple injuries but the injury severity then turns out to be less (ISS < 16). This is, however,<br />
outside the focus <strong>of</strong> this guideline. The clinical diagnostic study is not sufficiently reliable in<br />
polytrauma for clearing <strong>with</strong> adequate certainty a suspected spinal injury.<br />
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On the other h<strong>and</strong>, if specific signs <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury are present, the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> can<br />
affirm a suspected diagnosis [16, 59, 149]. Despite low sensitivity but due to its high positive<br />
predictive value (> 66%), the following signs permit the suspected diagnosis <strong>of</strong> spinal injury in<br />
polytrauma [80]: palpable step formati<strong>on</strong> in the median-sagittal plane, pain <strong>on</strong> palpati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
peripheral neurologic deficits or blood effusi<strong>on</strong> around the spine. The papers by Holmes et al.<br />
[79], G<strong>on</strong>zalez et al. [59], <strong>and</strong> Ross et al. 1992 [131] support the valency <strong>of</strong> the clinical finding.<br />
For the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong>, G<strong>on</strong>zalez et al. <strong>and</strong> Holmes et al. report overall a sensitivity<br />
exceeding 90% in the cervical spine <strong>and</strong> up to 100% in the thoracic/lumbar spine but patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> a medical history <strong>of</strong> risk factors (painful or c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries affecting level <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sciousness) were separately distinguished as a clinical risk group. These studies are thus not<br />
transferable to polytrauma.<br />
In unc<strong>on</strong>scious trauma patients, slack muscle t<strong>on</strong>e, particularly also the anal sphincter, lack <strong>of</strong><br />
pain resistance, solely abdominal breathing, <strong>and</strong> priapism indicate a transverse lesi<strong>on</strong>. Thus, the<br />
overall data status is somewhat better than the medical history for rating the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
even if some <strong>of</strong> the studies have been c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>otrauma or mixed patient populati<strong>on</strong>s. In<br />
essence, a spinal injury can be predicted by the presence <strong>of</strong> clinical symptoms. Their absence,<br />
however, does not definitely exclude a spinal injury.<br />
Imaging diagnostic tests<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
After circulatory stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> before transfer to the intensive care unit, a<br />
spinal injury should be cleared by imaging diagnostic tests.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
In principle, the diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> the spine should be c<strong>on</strong>cluded as early as possible because<br />
otherwise the c<strong>on</strong>tinuing immobilizati<strong>on</strong> makes medical <strong>and</strong> nursing procedures more difficult<br />
(e.g., positi<strong>on</strong>ing, central venous access, intubati<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> immobilizati<strong>on</strong> itself can lead to side<br />
effects (e.g., pressure sores, infecti<strong>on</strong>) [110, 161].<br />
The diagnostic work-up <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patient <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> presents a<br />
challenge. Prioritizati<strong>on</strong> is applied here, giving priority to treatment <strong>and</strong> also surgery <strong>of</strong> lifethreatening<br />
injuries (e.g., epidural hematoma, pneumothorax). If this goal is achieved <strong>and</strong> there<br />
are no other c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s (e.g., hypothermia), the spine is cleared by imaging technology as<br />
described above before transfer to the intensive care unit. If this is not advisable because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>, e.g., there is no current c<strong>on</strong>sequence, then the spine is usually cleared by imaging<br />
technology the next day, after stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the overall c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> [160].<br />
In individual cases, other injuries can make it necessary to dispense <strong>with</strong> the primary imaging<br />
diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> the spine [160]. If such be the case, the usual safety precauti<strong>on</strong>s must be<br />
applied until further notice: cervical collar, positi<strong>on</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> turning en bloc, re-positi<strong>on</strong>ing using<br />
a rollboard, vacuum mattress, etc. [56, 136]. “Excluded by imaging” means no dislocati<strong>on</strong> or<br />
unstable spinal fracture in evaluable X-ray images or in a CT scan <strong>of</strong> the spine. The<br />
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immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spine can <strong>on</strong>ly be terminated when the imaging diagnostic study has been<br />
completed or the patient has recovered sufficiently that a spinal injury can be excluded by the<br />
clinical finding. However, a few authors deliberately dispense <strong>with</strong> the primary diagnostic<br />
radiology in patients <strong>with</strong> minor injuries if it is foreseeable that the patient can be clinically<br />
evaluated again <strong>with</strong>in 24 hours so that diagnostic radiology can definitely be circumvented [25].<br />
However, this is rarely the case in polytrauma so that this course <strong>of</strong> acti<strong>on</strong> is not recommended<br />
here.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the facilities <strong>of</strong> the admitting hospital, the spine should be<br />
cleared if circulati<strong>on</strong> is stable during the emergency room diagnosis:<br />
preferably by multi-slice helical CT from head to pelvis or alternatively by<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology <strong>of</strong> the entire spine (a.p. <strong>and</strong> lateral,<br />
od<strong>on</strong>toid view).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Plain diagnostic radiology <strong>with</strong> focused CT work-up is clinically comm<strong>on</strong> in many cases [50,<br />
109]. The radiologic cervical work-up has the highest priority over the rest <strong>of</strong> the spine. This<br />
work-up is possible by means <strong>of</strong> CT <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology (a.p., lateral, <strong>and</strong><br />
od<strong>on</strong>toid view). A lateral-<strong>on</strong>ly view <strong>of</strong> the cervical spine has proved to be inadequate to enable<br />
b<strong>on</strong>y injuries to be adequately excluded [37, 143, 152, 162, 169]. The following requirements<br />
must be met: all 7 cervical vertebrae should be viewed in the lateral plane [55, 111]. An a.p.<br />
projecti<strong>on</strong> should be taken <strong>of</strong> the C2-T1 spinous process; the C1 <strong>and</strong> C2 lateral masses should be<br />
easy to evaluate in the od<strong>on</strong>toid view [48]. The 45 ° oblique views for the C7/T1 alignment,<br />
swimmer’s <strong>and</strong> similar projecti<strong>on</strong>s are <strong>of</strong> subordinate priority as they provide less informative<br />
value, waste time, <strong>and</strong> have a higher radiati<strong>on</strong> dose [52, 102, 125]. If necessary, oblique views<br />
should take priority over swimmer’s views [84]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, other authors have found that<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> inadequate visualizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the C7-T1 juncti<strong>on</strong> in the primary imaging were then<br />
better cleared using oblique views than using computed tomography [88] because the CT<br />
diagnostic study could be avoided in over 10% <strong>of</strong> all cases.<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al views <strong>of</strong> the cervical spine <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients should be held under image<br />
c<strong>on</strong>verters by the physician to exclude ligamentous injuries if there is justified suspici<strong>on</strong> [3, 45,<br />
97, 142]. Their sensitivity is 92%, their specificity 99% in patients <strong>with</strong> maintained<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sciousness [25]. However, as morbid findings are overall <strong>on</strong>ly seldom revealed in the<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al views, the routine <strong>and</strong> also selective use <strong>of</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al views in the primary diagnostic<br />
study is <strong>of</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>able effectiveness [6, 62, 97, 121]. Computed tomography or particularly<br />
magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging provides an alternative (see below).<br />
Missed musculo-skeletal injuries comprise approximately 12% in polytrauma [51]. The cervical<br />
spine is the first priority [5, 30, 133, 155]. The causes are radiology examinati<strong>on</strong>s that are<br />
inappropriate or not carried out, or a required diagnostic test not followed c<strong>on</strong>sistently [55, 104,<br />
106, 133], which is why CT should be used for clearance in unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients <strong>with</strong> lack <strong>of</strong><br />
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visualizati<strong>on</strong> in the C0-C3 <strong>and</strong> C6/7 regi<strong>on</strong>s [25, 157]. Twenty per cent <strong>of</strong> spinal injuries are<br />
missed because the diagnostic study is incomplete [19, 42]. This is c<strong>on</strong>firmed by data <strong>on</strong> 39<br />
multiply injured patients, 9 <strong>of</strong> whom had a cervical spine injury which could be diagnosed using<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiography in <strong>on</strong>ly 6 <strong>of</strong> these patients. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, supplementary examinati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(1x functi<strong>on</strong>al views <strong>and</strong> 2x CT) were necessary in the remaining 3 patients [141].<br />
The diagnosis <strong>of</strong> polytrauma c<strong>on</strong>tains per se a c<strong>on</strong>siderable risk that important injuries will be<br />
missed in the primary survey [129]. Fifty percent <strong>of</strong> missed injuries in polytrauma affect the<br />
whole spine. The result is an extended length <strong>of</strong> hospital stay <strong>and</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al follow-up operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
[133]. It is therefore recommended in polytrauma to clear the whole spine as a matter <strong>of</strong> routine<br />
[44, 116]. Particularly in the case <strong>of</strong> blunt, high energy traumas <strong>and</strong> falls from a great height,<br />
injuries <strong>with</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d fractures at other levels are seen <strong>with</strong> a frequency <strong>of</strong> 10%. For this reas<strong>on</strong>,<br />
thoracic <strong>and</strong> lumbar spine must also be X-rayed in 2 planes [32, 166].<br />
Computed tomography<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Pathologic, suspect <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-evaluable regi<strong>on</strong>s in c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiography<br />
should be further cleared <strong>with</strong> CT.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Due to greater diagnostic accuracy in detecting spinal injuries, preference should be given to the<br />
CT diagnostic test, if available [7]. Another practical advantage <strong>of</strong> the CT diagnostic test is the<br />
markedly faster clearing <strong>of</strong> the spine compared to c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology [68, 71, 72]<br />
because n<strong>on</strong>-evaluable views virtually no l<strong>on</strong>ger occur. The CT diagnostic test is usually<br />
performed <strong>with</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> i.v. c<strong>on</strong>trast agent. The CT diagnostic test is also c<strong>on</strong>sidered to<br />
be advantageous in children even though the radiati<strong>on</strong> dose at approximately 400 mrem<br />
(millirem) is higher than in c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology (150-300 mrem), as shown by a<br />
pseudo-r<strong>and</strong>omized study [2]. Despite the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed problems, it is recommended that<br />
the opti<strong>on</strong>s for clinical findings are exhausted fully in children [65]. Essentially, the procedure<br />
for children in the emergency room is no different from that for adults.<br />
Detected spinal injuries should not be operated <strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out CT [75] as fracture evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>of</strong>ten changed decisively through CT compared to the plain radiograph [68, 70].<br />
The preceding CT visualizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> analysis is necessary particularly for rotati<strong>on</strong>ally unstable<br />
fractures [144]. The helical CT examinati<strong>on</strong> from head to pelvis <strong>with</strong>out c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic<br />
radiology is particularly suitable for clearing the spine in polytrauma because it saves time, has<br />
greater reliability compared to c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology, is associated <strong>with</strong> less<br />
discomfort, <strong>and</strong> costs less [112]. If the spine is visualized normally in the CT, additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiology is superfluous [26, 28, 35, 123, 135] as the negative predictive value<br />
reaches almost 100%. With today’s permanent availability, the CT diagnostic study appears at<br />
present to be the tool <strong>of</strong> choice for detecting spinal injuries in polytrauma in the emergency room<br />
phase [86].<br />
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Cervical spine (C)<br />
Harris et al. (2000) [66] describe the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology in cervical spine injuries<br />
as not satisfactory so that CT or, if applicable, magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging (MRI) is<br />
recommended particularly in polytrauma. CT is markedly more accurate than c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
diagnostic radiology for cervical spine injuries: The cervical spine injury was detected in 38 out<br />
<strong>of</strong> 70 patients using the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al X-ray image <strong>and</strong> 67 out <strong>of</strong> the same 70 patients using CT<br />
[139]. Similar results are provided by a current meta-analysis [78] <strong>and</strong> the reviews by Crim et al.<br />
(2001) [41] <strong>and</strong> Link et al. (1994) [99]: using c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al lateral radiographs, 60-80% <strong>of</strong><br />
cervical spine injuries were identified, <strong>and</strong> 97-100% <strong>with</strong> CT [119] (Table 2). Further studies<br />
show that the layer thickness in computed tomography affects the diagnostic accuracy [70],<br />
which must also be taken into account when assessing older studies <strong>with</strong> CT equipment which is<br />
obsolete by today’s st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the figures in the literature, Blackmore et al. also come to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that the<br />
primary CT diagnostic study has better clinical <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic results compared to c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
radiography in patients <strong>with</strong> average <strong>and</strong> high risk <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury [17].<br />
Thoracic/lumbar spine (T/L)<br />
Table 3 gives a summary <strong>of</strong> important studies <strong>on</strong> the CT diagnostic test in the emergency room<br />
for thoracic/lumbar spine injuries as part <strong>of</strong> polytrauma. This also shows a clearly greater<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the CT diagnostic test compared to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic test. It must be<br />
noted that not all additi<strong>on</strong>al findings such as transverse process avulsi<strong>on</strong>s were clinically relevant<br />
in the CT but could easily refer to other relevant injuries (abdominal injuries). In additi<strong>on</strong>, there<br />
are advantages <strong>with</strong> regard to time <strong>and</strong> planning <strong>of</strong> surgery. According to Hauser et al. (2003)<br />
[68], the time for sufficient clearing <strong>of</strong> the spine was 3 hours for c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic<br />
radiology, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e hour for CT. Moreover, the rate <strong>of</strong> false fracture classificati<strong>on</strong>s in CT was<br />
1.4% <strong>and</strong> in radiography 12.6%.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries in head/thorax/abdomen<br />
To clear the spine <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries in polytrauma, a st<strong>and</strong>ard CT from head to pelvis is<br />
recommended initially in polytrauma, which takes approximately 20 minutes [96]. Computed<br />
tomography is indicated <strong>on</strong> the day <strong>of</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> particularly for cervical spine injuries combined<br />
<strong>with</strong> TBI [141]. For thoracic spine fractures, the emergency CT examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the thorax is<br />
indicated because <strong>of</strong> the high risk <strong>of</strong> complex thoracic-pulm<strong>on</strong>ary injuries [58]. The c<strong>on</strong>stellati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> lumbar spine injuries <strong>and</strong> abdominal trauma in the form <strong>of</strong> bleeding into the abdominal wall<br />
after a belt injury also supports the clearing <strong>of</strong> the spinal injury by CT in order to enable a<br />
simultaneous evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the abdomen [13]. Miller et al. (2000) [107] <strong>and</strong> Patten et al. (2000)<br />
[117] also refer to the importance <strong>of</strong> transverse process fractures in the lumbar spine as important<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>comitant abdominal injury, which is why CT is recommended. Moreover,<br />
clearing the thoracic-lumbar spine by CT is also recommended for acetabular <strong>and</strong> pelvic<br />
fractures [8, 70]. In c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology, significant spinal fractures are missed in<br />
11% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> transverse process fractures. These are <strong>on</strong>ly picked up by CT, which is why it is<br />
stated that CT is necessary for clearing these fractures [92].<br />
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Magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging (MRI)<br />
Magnetic res<strong>on</strong>ance imaging examinati<strong>on</strong>s play a quantitatively subordinate role overall in<br />
polytrauma during the emergency room phase [148]. For logistic reas<strong>on</strong>s (access, metal objects,<br />
time, availability), an MRI examinati<strong>on</strong> in the acute phase is usually not expedient for<br />
polytrauma. The main indicati<strong>on</strong> for MRI is in clearing unclear neurologic deficits. In particular,<br />
lesi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the spinal cord, the invertebral disc, <strong>and</strong> ligaments can be visualized [41, 57, 89].<br />
However, in view <strong>of</strong> the rarity <strong>of</strong> this injury, Patt<strong>on</strong> et al. [118] c<strong>on</strong>sidered a search for<br />
ligamentous injuries using MRI to be superfluous. There are no studies <strong>on</strong> the direct comparis<strong>on</strong><br />
between c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al functi<strong>on</strong>al views <strong>and</strong> MRI imaging so that both opti<strong>on</strong>s appear to be<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>. With a sensitivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 12% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 97%, MRI is<br />
little suited to the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fractures [90].<br />
MRI examinati<strong>on</strong>s are indicated for neurologic symptoms during the further course <strong>and</strong> have<br />
partially replaced the functi<strong>on</strong>al views for defined research questi<strong>on</strong>s such as in the case <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hangman fracture, for example [87]. In general, there is no need to worry about false-negative<br />
results but specificity is low [25]. If a neurologic deficit <strong>with</strong>out morphologic correlati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
present in the CT, the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding spinal segment must be examined by MRI as a matter <strong>of</strong><br />
urgency. Additi<strong>on</strong>al indicati<strong>on</strong>s arise occasi<strong>on</strong>ally in the early post-operative or post-traumatic<br />
course to be able to evaluate, e.g., intraspinal epidural hematomas, prevertebral bleeding or<br />
invertebral disc injuries [43, 147, 163].<br />
Emergency procedures such as reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
In the excepti<strong>on</strong>al case <strong>of</strong> a closed emergency reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spine, this<br />
should <strong>on</strong>ly be carried out after sufficient CT diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> the injury.<br />
Administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> methyl prednisol<strong>on</strong>e (“NASCIS scheme”) is no l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard practice but can be introduced <strong>with</strong>in 8 hours after the accident if<br />
there is neurologic deficit <strong>and</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
A precise analysis <strong>of</strong> the spinal injury must be made before each reducti<strong>on</strong>, i.e. preceded by a<br />
careful analysis <strong>of</strong> the imaging (CT). Despite the poor quality <strong>of</strong> evidence, the recommendati<strong>on</strong><br />
has been upgraded because <strong>of</strong> the risk <strong>of</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>. Generally, reducti<strong>on</strong> is directly carried<br />
out preoperatively in the operating room or open during surgery, followed by surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the reduced injury. Care must be taken in closed reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> or invertebral disc removal as it can herniate dorsally during reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> have a<br />
detrimental effect <strong>on</strong> the neurology [60].<br />
A Cochrane Review [21] found <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> 3 r<strong>and</strong>omized studies [22, 114, 120] that,<br />
compared to a placebo, methyl prednisol<strong>on</strong>e improves the neurologic outcome <strong>on</strong>e year after the<br />
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accident if it is given <strong>with</strong>in 8 hours after the accident. The recommended dose (“NASCIS<br />
scheme”) is methyl prednisol<strong>on</strong>e 30 mg/kg body weight i.v. over 15 minutes in the first 8 hours<br />
after the accident, thereafter 5.4 mg/kg BW each hour for 23 hours. In the NASCIS-3 study,<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> methyl prednisol<strong>on</strong>e over 48 hours proved at best to have a trend towards<br />
improvement [23] <strong>and</strong> was recommended <strong>on</strong>ly for patients who could be started <strong>on</strong> the treatment<br />
after 3 or more hours.<br />
If there is evidence <strong>of</strong> neurologic symptoms or they can be assumed, <strong>with</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding CT<br />
morphologic evidence <strong>of</strong> narrowing <strong>of</strong> the spinal canal, a NASCIS (Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acute Spinal Cord<br />
Injury Study) scheme can be started early [10]. The rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> time can thus be shortened.<br />
However, other analyses show no effect from cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment [145, 146] or do not<br />
recommend cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment because the positive effect was not seen [82]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
validity <strong>of</strong> the NASCIS-2 study has been questi<strong>on</strong>ed [38]. The more recent results <strong>on</strong><br />
administering corticosteroids for TBI [40] also cast a shadow <strong>on</strong> the efficacy <strong>of</strong> steroids for<br />
spinal cord trauma.<br />
Although, overall, the high-dose steroid administrati<strong>on</strong> to surgical/traumatologic patients can be<br />
seen as safe <strong>and</strong> to some extent even as advantageous [130, 137, 154], the possible side effects<br />
are an important argument against administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> steroids according to the NASCIS protocol<br />
[94, 153]. Known complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> steroid treatment in patients <strong>with</strong> spinal cord injury are:<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>s [53, 54], pancreatitis [69], myopathies [124], psychologic problems [158], <strong>and</strong> severe<br />
lactic acidosis when combined <strong>with</strong> the high dose <strong>of</strong> methyl prednisol<strong>on</strong>e <strong>with</strong> i.v. adrenaline<br />
supply [67].<br />
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2.10 Extremities<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Even if there are no scientific studies <strong>on</strong> the importance <strong>and</strong> the necessary scope <strong>of</strong> the physical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> in the emergency room examinati<strong>on</strong>, it is still an indispensable requirement in<br />
identifying symptoms <strong>and</strong> in making (suspected) diagnoses. The systematic examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
extremities <strong>of</strong> the undressed patient “in craniocaudal sequence” serves primarily to detect<br />
relevant, partially threatening injuries which can lead to a radiologic diagnostic study, immediate<br />
specific treatment <strong>and</strong>, in many cases, also a logistic decisi<strong>on</strong> taken while still in the emergency<br />
room [2, 14]. Its intended use is to estimate the overall injury severity.<br />
The examinati<strong>on</strong> in the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extremities c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> the detailed inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> manual<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extremities for any type <strong>of</strong> external injury signs such as swelling, hematoma<br />
or wounds. Any closed or open s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage present is also classified. Definite fracture<br />
signs should be noted down. The systematic examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extremities allows fractures,<br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures to be clinically detected or at least delimited. The stability<br />
test should be carried out <strong>on</strong> the large <strong>and</strong> small joints.<br />
The purport <strong>of</strong> the primary survey is also to distinguish a disorder in circulati<strong>on</strong>, motor functi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<strong>and</strong> sensitivity. The possibility <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome should be excluded. The neurologic<br />
finding for all extremities can <strong>on</strong>ly be collected from alert patients; otherwise, the reflex status<br />
must be checked as a minimum. It is essential for the treatment <strong>of</strong> extremity injuries to<br />
distinguish again between neurologic disorders in the central nervous system <strong>and</strong> those from<br />
peripheral causes.<br />
Missed injuries are also found retrospectively in the extremities regi<strong>on</strong>, particularly in<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>scious <strong>and</strong> multiply injured patients. These injuries <strong>of</strong>ten require surgical management [3].<br />
The incidence <strong>of</strong> missed injuries is independent from any interrupti<strong>on</strong> in emergency room<br />
diagnosis due to emergency surgery.<br />
The examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extremities is sometimes neglected in an unstable patient <strong>and</strong> injuries are<br />
missed [4, 5]. Another source <strong>of</strong> error is the examiner-dependent evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> radiographs,<br />
which can be subject to a false interpretati<strong>on</strong> [6, 7, 8].<br />
In this c<strong>on</strong>text, process optimizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itored training [9], <strong>and</strong> the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
guidelines lead to an improvement in patient care [10]. However, missed injuries to the<br />
extremities are rarely life-threatening <strong>and</strong>, after the multiply injured have been stabilized, can<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten be diagnosed in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary survey <strong>and</strong> surgically managed [32].<br />
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Diagnostic equipment<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If there are c<strong>on</strong>firmed or unc<strong>on</strong>firmed fracture signs, extremity findings<br />
should be assessed depending <strong>on</strong> the patient’s c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> using a suitable<br />
radiologic procedure (plain radiograph in 2 planes or CT).<br />
The radiologic diagnostic study should be performed at the earliest possible<br />
opportunity.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
The length <strong>of</strong> stay in the emergency room affects the treatment results <strong>and</strong> the morbidity/case<br />
fatality rate <strong>of</strong> a severely injured patient [10]. There is no absolute value to adhere to such as the<br />
“golden hour”, for example [11].<br />
In certain regi<strong>on</strong>s, the scope <strong>of</strong> diagnostic radiology can be limited by the c<strong>on</strong>firmed clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>. For example, <strong>with</strong>out weight-bearing pain, effusi<strong>on</strong> or hematoma, a fracture has<br />
been excluded in knee injuries (as m<strong>on</strong>otrauma) [12].<br />
A lateral radiograph is sufficient for specific screening <strong>of</strong> a knee fracture. It is 100% sensitive<br />
[13].<br />
If a b<strong>on</strong>y extremity injury is clinically suspected in stable patients, a radiograph should be taken<br />
in at least 2 planes. Deliberately dispensing <strong>with</strong> the radiologic visualizati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly justifiable if<br />
the emergency room diagnostic tests are interrupted due to emergency surgery [14].<br />
Studies <strong>on</strong> length <strong>of</strong> stay in the emergency room <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> treatment results specifically <strong>on</strong><br />
extremity injuries are not known. There are also no studies <strong>on</strong> the issue <strong>of</strong> whether a deliberate<br />
postp<strong>on</strong>ement <strong>of</strong> diagnostic radiology <strong>on</strong> extremity injuries to shorten the emergency room phase<br />
affects the treatment results <strong>of</strong> the injured.<br />
There are several scientific studies <strong>with</strong> a poor outcome <strong>on</strong> the delayed management <strong>of</strong> injuries<br />
to the extremities. However, they are not c<strong>on</strong>sidered in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a postp<strong>on</strong>ement in the<br />
emergency room diagnostic tests.<br />
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Diagnostic study/<strong>Treatment</strong><br />
Should obvious malpositi<strong>on</strong>s in the extremities be reduced?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Malpositi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s in the extremities should be reduced <strong>and</strong><br />
stabilized.<br />
GoR B<br />
The reducti<strong>on</strong> outcome should not be altered through other interventi<strong>on</strong>s. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
An injured extremity that has been correctly immobilized by the emergency services should be<br />
left al<strong>on</strong>e in the emergency room until definitive care. Any alterati<strong>on</strong> in immobilizati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
actual injury area can potentially lead to a worsening in s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage <strong>and</strong> pain reacti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
particularly in b<strong>on</strong>y unstable c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s [15]. A reliable interface <strong>with</strong> the emergency services<br />
avoids unnecessary repositi<strong>on</strong>ing. To date, there have been no scientific studies <strong>on</strong> whether<br />
repositi<strong>on</strong>ing measures in the emergency room affect the extremity injury.<br />
With the prehospital care <strong>of</strong> the injured by an emergency services system, it can be assumed that<br />
extremity injuries are immobilized in the neutral positi<strong>on</strong>. If this immobilizati<strong>on</strong> is correctly<br />
performed, repositi<strong>on</strong>ing measures <strong>of</strong> the whole patient have virtually no effect <strong>on</strong> the individual<br />
injury to the extremities. If immobilizati<strong>on</strong> is correctly performed, removing/altering the<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an extremity is unnecessary until in the operating room.<br />
Lack <strong>of</strong> pulse after a prehospital fracture reducti<strong>on</strong> has not been described in the literature up till<br />
now.<br />
Open fractures<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If sufficiently reliable informati<strong>on</strong> has been provided by the emergency<br />
services, a sterile emergency dressing should be left in place until entry to the<br />
operating room.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
In the emergency room, open fractures should be managed according to the basic principles <strong>of</strong><br />
aseptic wound management. In principle, open fractures are a surgical emergency, requiring<br />
immediate surgery. The decisive factors for a possible infecti<strong>on</strong> lie outside the emergency room:<br />
for infectiologic reas<strong>on</strong>s, do not repeatedly open. This is because resistant hospital germs are<br />
more dangerous than the germs collected at the accident scene. A direct correlati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
frequency <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> exposure could not be proven by Merritt [35, 36].<br />
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Pulseless extremity<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If there is no peripheral pulse (Doppler/palpati<strong>on</strong>) in an extremity, further<br />
diagnostic tests should be carried out.<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the finding <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient, c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al arterial<br />
digital subtracti<strong>on</strong> angiography (DSA), duplex ultras<strong>on</strong>ography or angio-CT<br />
(CTA) should be performed.<br />
Intraoperative angiography should be given priority in vascular injuries to the<br />
extremities that were not diagnosed in the emergency room in order to shorten<br />
the period <strong>of</strong> ischemia.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Compared to the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the other diagnostic equipment, the duplex ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> is at least equivalent to invasive arteriography [19]. Good results from<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography are to a large extent dependent <strong>on</strong> the examiner [20. 21].<br />
The period <strong>of</strong> ischemia is crucial for the prognosis <strong>of</strong> the extremity as well as the whole body. A<br />
quick diagnosis <strong>with</strong> localizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> potential injuries is essential to then enable rapid surgical<br />
management.<br />
The diagnosis <strong>of</strong> a vascular lesi<strong>on</strong> cannot be made solely <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Vascular injuries require a rapid, definite emergency room diagnostic study. Depending <strong>on</strong> the<br />
examiner, the duplex ultrasound examinati<strong>on</strong> best fulfills the above requirements. If there is<br />
already a clear clinical indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery, preference should be given to intraoperative<br />
angiography over the emergency room diagnostic tests. Here, as in the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed studies<br />
<strong>on</strong> ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, the hospital structure plays a c<strong>on</strong>siderable role so that a generally valid<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> can <strong>on</strong>ly be made <strong>with</strong> reservati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
More recent papers show that preference should be given to CT angiography over c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
arterial digital subtracti<strong>on</strong> angiography (DSA) in appropriately stable patients. The procedure <strong>of</strong><br />
computed tomography angiography (CTA) takes up markedly less time <strong>and</strong> is also cheaper [31].<br />
It is less invasive than DSA <strong>and</strong> the rapid development in technology now permits visualizati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> all arteries in a short time. However, its value is limited by the large quantity <strong>of</strong> iodinated<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent <strong>and</strong> the high radiati<strong>on</strong> exposure. Calcified plaques also compromise the detailed<br />
visualizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> medium <strong>and</strong> small arteries (33, 34). The extent <strong>of</strong> ischemia in peripheral<br />
extremities depends <strong>on</strong> the localizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> the vascular obstructi<strong>on</strong> as well as <strong>on</strong> the<br />
possible presence <strong>of</strong> developed collaterals. In a healthy vascular system, even a short length <strong>of</strong><br />
obstructi<strong>on</strong> or an isolated break in an extremity artery can lead to necrosis <strong>of</strong> the dependent<br />
musculature.<br />
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The tolerated ischemia period is shorter the healthier the vascular system.<br />
In polytrauma, there is the added difficulty that the injury to the extremity triggers arterial<br />
vascular spasms, which themselves entail a marked decrease in blood flow to the extremity [22].<br />
If there is insufficient blood flow to the peripheral muscle tissue after 3 hours, the risk <strong>of</strong><br />
compartment syndrome following revascularizati<strong>on</strong> must be taken in to account. Very<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounced direct s<strong>of</strong>t tissue trauma can worsen the prognosis <strong>of</strong> revascularizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Compartment syndrome<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If there is suspected compartment syndrome, the invasive compartment<br />
pressure measurement can be used in the emergency room.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
Compartment syndrome is a time-dependent noxious agent <strong>and</strong> can develop dynamically. It<br />
arises from an increase in intrafascial pressure in the compartments. It can affect all regi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
the extremities, primarily the ankle. Burns <strong>and</strong> positi<strong>on</strong>ing damage as well as injuries are also<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the etiology. In the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong>, there are many compartment signs which are<br />
nevertheless not all evidentiary: pain, intensified through passive exerti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the muscle part<br />
involved, swelling <strong>of</strong> the muscle part involved, sensitivity disorders in the muscle dermatome.<br />
In a suspected diagnosis, based <strong>on</strong> the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed clinical signs, the intrafascial pressure is<br />
measured objectively <strong>with</strong>out delay, if applicable as the baseline value in the emergency room. It<br />
is advantageous to carry out c<strong>on</strong>tinuous pressure measurements. A diastolic blood pressure in<br />
mmHg minus the compartment measurement value in mmHg less than 30 mmHg is given as the<br />
pathologic value [23, 24].<br />
Particularly in polytrauma, the <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome must be taken into account in<br />
massive infusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>. The possibility <strong>of</strong> clinically assessing a threatening or<br />
manifest compartment syndrome is <strong>of</strong>ten inadequate in anesthetized patients so that <strong>on</strong>ly the<br />
blood measurement <strong>of</strong> the intrafascial pressure permits an indicatory statement. It must be noted<br />
here that the accuracy <strong>of</strong> the compartment pressure measurement depends <strong>on</strong> the examiner <strong>and</strong><br />
can be false-positive/negative.<br />
Amputati<strong>on</strong> injuries<br />
In the multiply injured, the meaningfulness <strong>of</strong> attempting to salvage the extremity needs to be<br />
discussed for s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage grade 3 <strong>of</strong> closed <strong>and</strong> grade 4 <strong>of</strong> open fractures. Particularly in<br />
the multiply injured patient, it must be taken into account that a protracted salvage attempt <strong>with</strong><br />
l<strong>on</strong>g surgery times can endanger the patient’s vital functi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
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The decisi<strong>on</strong> to attempt to salvage an injured extremity is advisable <strong>on</strong>ly after the primary survey<br />
according to ATLS ® <strong>and</strong> ETC has been completed. Only then can the complete injury pattern be<br />
evaluated <strong>with</strong> regard to a stable patient for extended surgical management.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, from experience, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for attempting to salvage an extremity should<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be made by a competent surge<strong>on</strong> after a detailed inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the injured s<strong>of</strong>t tissue. This<br />
can <strong>on</strong>ly be d<strong>on</strong>e in the operating room.<br />
Thus, emergency completi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a subtotal amputati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> an unstable patient in the emergency<br />
room remains an unresolved issue. These are case-by-case decisi<strong>on</strong>s, which depend more <strong>on</strong> the<br />
remainder <strong>of</strong> the injury pattern <strong>and</strong> less <strong>on</strong> the extremity finding. There are many case histories<br />
to be found <strong>on</strong> this topic in the literature, such as successful rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s or replantati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
extremities. It is not possible to c<strong>on</strong>clude recommendati<strong>on</strong>s. It appears unrealistic to c<strong>on</strong>duct a<br />
study.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> open extremity injuries, a decisi<strong>on</strong> should be taken in the emergency room <strong>on</strong> the<br />
operability in relati<strong>on</strong> to the expected operating time to salvage the extremity in the multiply<br />
injured patient.<br />
An emergency completi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an amputati<strong>on</strong> in the emergency room remains subject to the<br />
unstable patient <strong>and</strong> requires an individual decisi<strong>on</strong> from the trauma surgery team leader.<br />
CT diagnostic test<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> computed tomography (CT) in emergency room diagnostic tests primarily c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
torso injuries including pelvic fractures. Ultimately, the CT diagnostic test in emergency room<br />
management is being increasingly preferred over c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology <strong>of</strong> the<br />
extremities because <strong>of</strong> structural measures <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>going s<strong>of</strong>tware development.<br />
Whether this allows c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology to be dispensed <strong>with</strong> can <strong>on</strong>ly be decided<br />
<strong>on</strong> a case-by-case basis at present. A generally valid recommendati<strong>on</strong> is not possible. In a<br />
retrospective study, Wurmb et al showed that, in a comparative patient collective <strong>of</strong> a first group<br />
<strong>of</strong> 82 patients who received a complete CT work-up <strong>of</strong> their injuries <strong>and</strong> a sec<strong>on</strong>d group <strong>of</strong> 79<br />
patients who first received c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>servative diagnostic radiology <strong>and</strong> then a focused<br />
CT scan, there was a time saving <strong>of</strong> 23 minutes versus 70 minutes in the sec<strong>on</strong>d group [27].<br />
However, Ruchholtz et al. in their study highlight missed injuries in the CT as well <strong>and</strong> also cite<br />
the increased radiati<strong>on</strong> exposure [28].<br />
A CT diagnostic test can be performed after c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic radiology in the emergency<br />
room <strong>on</strong> a stable patient <strong>with</strong> a suspected talus or scaphoid fracture in order to plan surgery <strong>and</strong><br />
so as not to miss fractures in this regi<strong>on</strong> [29, 30].<br />
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References<br />
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to practice <strong>and</strong> teach EBM. 1997, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Churchill<br />
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3. Enders<strong>on</strong> BL, Reath DB, Meadors J, Dallas W,<br />
DeBoo JM, Maull KI. The tertiary trauma survey: a<br />
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4. McLaren CA, Roberts<strong>on</strong> C, Little K. Missed<br />
orthopaedic injuries in the resuscitati<strong>on</strong> room. J R<br />
Coll Surg Edinb. 1983 28(6):399-401<br />
5. Born CT, Ross SE, Iannac<strong>on</strong>e WM, Schwab CW,<br />
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6. Laas<strong>on</strong>en EM, Kivioja A. Delayed diagnosis <strong>of</strong><br />
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7. Metak G, Scherer MA, Dannöhl C. Missed injuries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the musculoskeletal system in multiple trauma--a<br />
retrospective study Zentralbl Chir. 1994 119(2):88-94<br />
[LoE 3b]<br />
8. Kremli MK Missed musculoskeletal injuries in a<br />
University Hospital in Riyadh: types <strong>of</strong> missed<br />
injuries <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sible factors.Injury. 1996<br />
27(7):503-6 [LoE 3b]<br />
9. Hoyt DB, Shackford SR, Fridl<strong>and</strong> PH, Mackersie RC,<br />
Hansbrough JF, Wachtel TL, Fortune JB Video<br />
recording trauma resuscitati<strong>on</strong>s: an effective teaching<br />
technique. J Trauma. 1988 28(4):435-40 [LoE 3b]<br />
10. Ruchholtz S, Zintl B, Nast-Kolb D, Waydhas C,<br />
Schwender D, Pfeifer KJ, Schweiberer L. Quality<br />
management in early clinical polytrauma<br />
management. II. Optimizing therapy by treatment<br />
guidelines Unfallchirurg. 1997 100(11):859-66<br />
[Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
11. Lerner EB, Moscati RM The golden hour: scientific<br />
fact or medical "urban legend"? Acad Emerg Med<br />
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12. Bauer SJ, Holl<strong>and</strong>er JE, Fuchs SH, Thode HC A<br />
clinical decisi<strong>on</strong> rule in the evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> acute knee<br />
injuries. The Journal <strong>of</strong> Emerg. Med. 1995 13/5:611-<br />
615 [LoE 1b]<br />
13. Verma A, Su A, Golin AM, O`Marrah B, Amorosa JK<br />
(2001) The Lateral View. Acad Radiol 8:392-397<br />
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14. American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s Advanced Trauma<br />
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15. Beck A, Gebhard F, Kinzl L, Strecker W. Principles<br />
<strong>and</strong> techniques <strong>of</strong> primary trauma surgery<br />
management at the site Unfallchirurg. 2001<br />
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16. Willett KM, Dorrell H, Kelly P ABC <strong>of</strong> major trauma.<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> limb injuries BMJ. 1990<br />
28;301(6745):229-33 [LoE 3b]<br />
17. Schlickewei W, Kuner EH, Mullaji AB, Gotze B<br />
Upper <strong>and</strong> lower limb fractures <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant<br />
arterial injury. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Br 1992 74(2): 181-8<br />
[LoE 3b]<br />
18. Vollmar J B<strong>on</strong>e fracture <strong>and</strong> vascular lesi<strong>on</strong> (author's<br />
transl) Langenbecks Arch Chir. 1975 339:473-7 [LoE<br />
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19. Ruppert, V., M. Sadeghi-Az<strong>and</strong>aryani, et al..Vascular<br />
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20. Panetta TF, Hunt JP, Buechter KJ, Pottmeyer A, Batti<br />
JS (1992) Duplex Ultras<strong>on</strong>ography versus<br />
arteriography in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> arterial injury: an<br />
experimental study. J Trauma 33:627-636 [LoE 1b]<br />
21. Kuzniec S, Kauffmann P, Molnár LJ, Aun R, Puech-<br />
Leão P Diagnosis <strong>of</strong> limbs <strong>and</strong> neck arterial trauma<br />
using duplex ultras<strong>on</strong>ography. Cardiovascular Surgery<br />
1998 6/4:358-366 [LoE 3b]<br />
22. Glass GE, Pearse MF, Nanchahal J. Improving lower<br />
limb salvage following fractures <strong>with</strong> vascular injury:<br />
a systematic review <strong>and</strong> new management algorithm. J<br />
Plast Rec<strong>on</strong>str Aesthet Surg. 2009 62(5):571-9 [LoE<br />
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23. Elliott KGB, Johnst<strong>on</strong>e AJ Diagnosting acute<br />
compartment syndrome. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg 2003 85-<br />
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24. Kosir R, Moore FA, Selby JH, Cocanour CS, Kozar<br />
RA, G<strong>on</strong>zalez EA, Todd SR Acute lower extremity<br />
compartment syndrome (ALECS) screening protocol<br />
in critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma. 2007<br />
63(2):268-75 [LoE 3b]<br />
25. Aufmkolk M, Dominguez E, Letsch R, Neudeck F,<br />
Niebel W. Results <strong>of</strong> peripheral arterial vascular<br />
injury in polytraumatized patients Unfallchirurg 1996.<br />
99(8):555-60 [LoE 4]<br />
26. Leidner B, Adiels M, Aspelin P, Gullstr<strong>and</strong> P, Wallen<br />
S St<strong>and</strong>ardized CT examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
multitraumatized patient. Eur Radiol 1998; 8(9):<br />
1630-8 [LoE 3b]<br />
27. Wurmb, T. E., P. Fruhwald, et al.Whole-body<br />
multislice computed tomography as the first line<br />
diagnostic tool in patients <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries: the<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> time. J Trauma 2009 66(3): 658-65 [LoE 3b]<br />
28. Ruchholtz S, Waydhas C, Schroeder T, Piepenbrink<br />
K, Kuhl H, Nast-Kolb D The value <strong>of</strong> computed<br />
tomography in the early treatment <strong>of</strong> seriously injured<br />
patients. Chirurg 2002; 73(10): 1005-12 [LoE 3b]<br />
29. Blum, A., B. Sauer, et al. The diagnosis <strong>of</strong> recent<br />
scaphoid fractures: review <strong>of</strong> the literature. J Radiol<br />
2007 88(5 Pt 2): 741-59 [LoE 3a]<br />
30. Boack, D. H., S. Manegold, et al.<strong>Treatment</strong> strategy<br />
for talus fractures. Unfallchirurg 2004 107(6): 499-<br />
514 [LoE 3a]<br />
31. Seam<strong>on</strong> MJ, Smoger D, et al. A prospective validati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> a current practice: the detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> extremity<br />
vascular injury <strong>with</strong> CT angiography. J Trauma. 2009<br />
67(2):238-43 [LoE 2b]<br />
32. Pehle B, Kuehne CA, et. al. The significance <strong>of</strong><br />
delayed diagnosis <strong>of</strong> lesi<strong>on</strong>s in multiply traumatised<br />
patients. A study <strong>of</strong> 1,187 shock room patients.<br />
Unfallchirurg. 2006 109(11):964-74<br />
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33. Jakobs TE, Wintersperger BJ, Becker CR: MDCTimaging<br />
<strong>of</strong> peripheral arterial disease. Semin<br />
Ultrasound CT MR 2004 25(2):145-155<br />
34. Ota H, Takase K, Igrashi K, Chiba Y, Haga K, Saito<br />
H et al: MDCT compared <strong>with</strong> digital subtracti<strong>on</strong><br />
angiography for assessment <strong>of</strong> lower extremity arterial<br />
occlusive disease: importaance <strong>of</strong> reviewing crosssecti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
images. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004 182<br />
(1):201-209<br />
35. Merritt K: Factors increasing the Risk <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> open fractures. J Trauma 1988 28:823-<br />
827<br />
36. Rojczyk M: Keimbesiedlung und Keimverhalten bei<br />
<strong>of</strong>fenen Frakturen. Unfallheilkunde 1981 84: 458-462<br />
37. Barnes CJ, Pietrob<strong>on</strong> R, Higgins LD: Does the pulse<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic knee<br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong> predict a surgical aterial injury? A metaanalysis.<br />
J Trauma 2002 53: 1109-1114<br />
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2.11 H<strong>and</strong><br />
There are no studies above a Level <strong>of</strong> Evidence 4 <strong>on</strong> the diagnostic tests <strong>and</strong> surgical treatment<br />
for h<strong>and</strong> injuries, particularly in polytrauma. The available literature describes <strong>on</strong>ly injury<br />
frequencies <strong>and</strong> combinati<strong>on</strong>s. Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> diagnosis <strong>and</strong> treatment methods exist <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
in the form <strong>of</strong> expert opini<strong>on</strong>s. The following evidence-based recommendati<strong>on</strong>s must therefore<br />
be based <strong>on</strong> studies in which m<strong>on</strong>otrauma in the h<strong>and</strong> have been studied.<br />
H<strong>and</strong> injuries, especially fractures, can occur in up to 25% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients<br />
[1, 12, 15, 18]. The most comm<strong>on</strong> injury here involves fractures <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> skelet<strong>on</strong> including<br />
the distal radius; the latter occurs in 2-16% <strong>of</strong> all multiply injured patients [1, 4, 10, 13, 19].<br />
Tend<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> nerve injuries are less comm<strong>on</strong> at 2-11% <strong>and</strong> 1.5%, respectively [15]. Amputati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to the h<strong>and</strong> occur in <strong>on</strong>ly 0.2-3% <strong>of</strong> polytrauma cases [3, 11]. <strong>Severe</strong> combinati<strong>on</strong> h<strong>and</strong> injuries<br />
are also seldom found in polytrauma [17].<br />
Primary diagnosis<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The clinical evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>s should be carried out during the basic<br />
diagnostic work-up as it is crucial for establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong> for carrying<br />
out further examinati<strong>on</strong>s requiring the use <strong>of</strong> equipment.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The probability <strong>of</strong> the occurrence <strong>of</strong> a h<strong>and</strong> injury does not depend <strong>on</strong> the severity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
polytrauma. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it cannot be assumed that the probability for missing a h<strong>and</strong> injury<br />
increases <strong>with</strong> the injury severity [15]. However, primary missed <strong>and</strong> untreated h<strong>and</strong> injuries can<br />
later lead to c<strong>on</strong>siderable functi<strong>on</strong> impairments [8]. During the emergency diagnostic study,<br />
closed tend<strong>on</strong> injuries (tractus intermedius, distal extensor tend<strong>on</strong>, avulsi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> deep flexor<br />
tend<strong>on</strong>), carpal fractures, <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s are frequently missed [6, 9, 16]. The clinical basic<br />
diagnostic work-up should comprise the examinati<strong>on</strong> for skin damage, swelling, hematoma,<br />
abnormal positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> mobility, <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring perfusi<strong>on</strong> (radial <strong>and</strong> ulnar arteries, capillary<br />
refill in finger pads) [17].<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If there is clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a h<strong>and</strong> injury, basic radiologic work-up should<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sist <strong>of</strong> a radiographic examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wrist <strong>on</strong> 2 st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
planes for each.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Radiographs <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wrist should be taken <strong>on</strong> 2 planes in unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients <strong>with</strong><br />
clinical evidence <strong>of</strong> a h<strong>and</strong> injury (see above). Special attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid to the possible<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> carpal fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s. If there is clinical evidence <strong>of</strong> phalangeal fractures<br />
<strong>and</strong> if radiographs <strong>of</strong> the full h<strong>and</strong> cannot definitely exclude these or define them in a clear<br />
morphologic way, particularly in the case <strong>of</strong> a series fracture <strong>of</strong> several digits, it is advisable to<br />
radiograph the injured digit in isolati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> 2 planes at the earliest possible opportunity [16, 17].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If there is clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an arterial vascular injury, Doppler or duplex<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography should be performed.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
If there is clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an arterial vascular injury, a rapid, accurate diagnosis can be<br />
made by Doppler or duplex examinati<strong>on</strong> [5, 7, 14]. In the remaining unclear cases <strong>with</strong> urgent<br />
clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an arterial injury, angiography is <strong>on</strong>ly indicated if the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the patient forbids surgical explorati<strong>on</strong> [7] or the localizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the lesi<strong>on</strong> is uncertain [2]. The<br />
Allen test permits definite c<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patency <strong>of</strong> the arterial radio-ulnar link <strong>and</strong> the two<br />
forearm arteries [5].<br />
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References<br />
1. Aldrian, S., T. Nau, et al. (2005) [H<strong>and</strong> injury in<br />
polytrauma] Wien Med Wochenschr 155(9-10): 227-<br />
32 [LoE 4]<br />
2. B<strong>on</strong>gard FS, White GH, Klein SR. (1989)<br />
Management strategy <strong>of</strong> complex extremity injuries.<br />
Am J Surg. Aug;158(2):151-5 [LoE 4]<br />
3. Brenner P, Reichert B, Berger A. (1995)<br />
Replantati<strong>on</strong> bei Mehrfachverletzungen ? H<strong>and</strong>chir<br />
Mikrochir Plast Chir. Jan;27(1):12-6 [LoE 4]<br />
4. Dittel KK, Weller S. (1981) Zur Problematik des<br />
polytraumatisierten Patienten. Akt Traumatol 11: 35-<br />
42 [LoE 4]<br />
5. Gelberman RH, Men<strong>on</strong> J, Fr<strong>on</strong>ek A. (1980) The<br />
peripheral pulse following arterial injury. J Trauma.<br />
Nov;20(11):948-51 [LoE 4]<br />
6. Herzberg G, Comtet JJ, Linscheid RL, Amadio PC,<br />
Co<strong>on</strong>ey WP, Stalder J. (1993) Perilunate dislocati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> fracture-dislocati<strong>on</strong>s: a multicenter study. J H<strong>and</strong><br />
Surg [Am]. Sep;18(5):768-79 [LoE 2b]<br />
7. Koman LA, Ruch DS, Smith BP, Smith TL (1999)<br />
Vascular disorders. In Green DP, Hotchkiss RN,<br />
Peders<strong>on</strong> WC (Hrsg.): Operative H<strong>and</strong> Surgery.<br />
Churchill Livingst<strong>on</strong>e, New York, Edinburgh,<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, Melbourne, Tokyo [LoE 2a]<br />
8. Mark G. (1989) Das Schicksal des polytraumatisierten<br />
Patienten mit einer "Bagatellverletzung" an der H<strong>and</strong>.<br />
H<strong>and</strong>chir Mikrochir Plast Chir. Jan;21(1):51-4 [LoE<br />
5]<br />
9. Moore MN (1988) Orthopedic pitfalls in emergency<br />
medicine. South Med J; 81(3): 371-8 [LoE 5]<br />
10. Nast-Kolb D, Keßler S, Duswald KH, Betz A,<br />
Schweiberer L (1986) Extremtitätenverletzungen<br />
polytraumatisierter Patienten: stufengerechte<br />
Beh<strong>and</strong>lung. Unfallchirurg 89 (1986), 149-154 [LoE<br />
4]<br />
11. Partingt<strong>on</strong> MT, Lineaweaver WC, O'Hara M,<br />
Kitzmiller J, Valauri FA, Oliva A, Buncke GM,<br />
Alpert BS, Siko PP, Buncke HJ (1993) Unrecognized<br />
injuries in patients referred for emergency<br />
microsurgery. J Trauma 34 238-241 [LoE 4]<br />
12. Regel G, Seekamp A, Takacs J, Bauch S, Sturm JA,<br />
Tscherne H. (1993) Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> und Reintregrati<strong>on</strong><br />
polytraumatisierter Patienten. Unfallchirurg 96 341-<br />
349 [LoE 4]<br />
13. Reynolds BM, Balsano NA, Reynolds FX. Fall from<br />
heights: A surgical experience <strong>of</strong> 200 c<strong>on</strong>secutive<br />
cases. Ann Surg 174 (1971), 304-308 [LoE 4]<br />
14. Rothkopf DM, Chu B, G<strong>on</strong>zalez F, Borah G,<br />
Ashmead D 4th, Dunn R. (1993) Radial <strong>and</strong> ulnar<br />
artery repairs: assessing patency rates <strong>with</strong> color<br />
Doppler ultras<strong>on</strong>ographic imaging. J H<strong>and</strong> Surg.<br />
18(4):626-8 [LoE 4]<br />
15. Schaller P, Geldmacher J (1994) Die H<strong>and</strong>verletzung<br />
beim Polytrauma. Eine retrospektive Studie an 728<br />
Fällen. H<strong>and</strong>chir Mikrochir Plast Chir 26 307-312<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
16. Skroudies B, Wening VJ, Jungbluth KH (1989)<br />
Perilunäre Luxati<strong>on</strong>en und Luxati<strong>on</strong>sfrakturen beim<br />
Polytraumatisierten – Diagnostik und Therapie.<br />
Unfallchirurgie 15 236-242 [LoE 4]<br />
17. Spier W. (1971) Die H<strong>and</strong>verletzung bei<br />
Mehrfachverletzten. Med Welt 22, 169-172 [LoE 5]<br />
18. Vossoughi, F., B. Krantz, et al. (2007). H<strong>and</strong> injuries<br />
as an indicator <strong>of</strong> other associated severe injuries. Am<br />
Surg 73(7): 706-8 [LoE 4]<br />
19. Welkerling H, Wening JV, Langendorff HU, Jungbluth<br />
KH. (1991) Computergestützte Datenanalyse v<strong>on</strong><br />
Verletzten des knöchernen Bewegungsapparates beim<br />
polytraumatisierten Patienten. Zbl Chir 116 1263-<br />
1272 [LoE 4]<br />
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2.12 Foot<br />
Diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> foot injuries<br />
In the unc<strong>on</strong>scious multiply injured patient, foot injuries can be excluded by repeated clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>s. Foot injuries are initially missed <strong>with</strong> an above average frequency in multiply<br />
injured patients. The reas<strong>on</strong>s for this are more eye-catching <strong>and</strong> life-threatening injuries,<br />
deficient radiography technique in the emergency situati<strong>on</strong>, extremely variable clinical<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards, lack <strong>of</strong> experience <strong>on</strong> the part <strong>of</strong> the examiner <strong>with</strong> to some extent low case numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> different foot injuries, <strong>and</strong> breakdown in communicati<strong>on</strong> in the treatment <strong>of</strong> the multiply<br />
injured by several teams [4–6, 9, 11, 16]. In the unc<strong>on</strong>scious patient, repeated clinical<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>s are thus necessary in the case <strong>of</strong> partially subtle injury signs in order not to miss<br />
foot injuries <strong>with</strong> potentially serious late complicati<strong>on</strong>s [6, 17]. In a retrospective analysis, Metak<br />
et al. [9] found that 50% <strong>of</strong> all missed injuries to the lower extremities related to the foot <strong>and</strong><br />
recommended a thorough clinical examinati<strong>on</strong> every 24 hours. If foot injuries are clinically<br />
suspected, radiography follow-up in the st<strong>and</strong>ardized settings (see below) is initially indicated<br />
<strong>and</strong>, if this does not provide adequate clarificati<strong>on</strong>, then stress views <strong>and</strong> a foot CT.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard projecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the foot (review in [16, 17]):<br />
� Pil<strong>on</strong>, ankle joint ankle joint ┴<br />
� Talus ankle joint ┴, foot dorsoplantar (beam tilted 30 ° in craniocaudal<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
� Calcaneus calcaneus lateral, axial, foot dorsoplantar (beam tilted 30 ° in<br />
craniocaudal directi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
� Chopart/Lisfranc foot true lateral, foot dorsoplantar (beams for Chopart tilted 30 °,<br />
for Lisfranc tilted 20 ° in caudocranial directi<strong>on</strong>), 45 ° oblique view<br />
midfoot<br />
� Midfoot/toes mid/forefoot a. p., 45 ° oblique views, true lateral<br />
The occurrence <strong>of</strong> tensi<strong>on</strong> blisters <strong>on</strong> the foot must also be taken as an indicator for ischemic<br />
damage to the skin [10]. Besides clinical criteria, Doppler ultras<strong>on</strong>ography is recommended for<br />
the initial assessment <strong>of</strong> the vascular status <strong>of</strong> the foot [2, 12]. C<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounds routine<br />
angiography where there is no Doppler signal [13] but it is indicated if the goal is for more<br />
complex rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s [7]. An important indicator for skin nutriti<strong>on</strong> is the ankle brachial<br />
index. If the Doppler flow detects at least 50% <strong>of</strong> the brachial artery value, the wound healing<br />
rate is 90% [14]. The same was c<strong>on</strong>firmed for transcutaneously measured oxygen tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
exceeding 30 mmHg [15]. Poorer healing rates after surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>s can be expected in<br />
elderly pers<strong>on</strong>s (peripheral arterial obstructive disease [pAOD]), in diabetics, <strong>and</strong> in smokers [1,<br />
3, 8].<br />
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References<br />
1. Abidi, NA et al. (1998) Wound-healing risk<br />
factors after open reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> internal fixati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> calcaneal fractures. Foot Ankle Int, 19: 856-<br />
61 [LoE 4]<br />
2. Attinger C (1995) The use <strong>of</strong> skin grafts in the<br />
foot. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 85: 49-56 [LoE 4]<br />
3. Folk JW, Starr AJ, Early JS (1999) Early wound<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> operative treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
calcaneus fractures: analysis <strong>of</strong> 190 fractures. J<br />
Orthop Trauma 13: 369-372 [LoE 4]<br />
4. Haapamaki V, Kiuru M, Koskinen S (2004)<br />
Lisfranc fracture-dislocati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong><br />
multiple trauma: diagnosis <strong>with</strong> multidetector<br />
computed tomography. Foot Ankle Int 25: 614-<br />
619 [LoE 4]<br />
5. Kremli MK (1996) Missed musculoskeletal<br />
injuries in a University Hospital in Riyadh: types<br />
<strong>of</strong> missed injuries <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sible factors. Injury<br />
27: 503-506 [LoE 4]<br />
6. Kotter A, Wieberneit J, Braun W, Ruter A<br />
(1997) Die Chopart-Luxati<strong>on</strong>. Eine häufig<br />
unterschätzte Verletzung und ihre Folgen. Eine<br />
klinische Studie. Unfallchirurg 100: 737-741<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
7. Levin LS, Nunley JA (1993) The management<br />
<strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue problems associated <strong>with</strong> calcaneal<br />
fractures. Clin Orthop 290: 151-160 [LoE 4]<br />
8. McCormack RG, Leith JM (1998) Ankle<br />
fractures in diabetics. Complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> surgical<br />
management. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Br 80: 689-692<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
9. Metak G, Scherer MA, Dannohl C (1994)<br />
Übersehene Verletzungen des Stütz- und<br />
Bewegungsapparates beim Polytrauma – eine<br />
retrospective Studie. Zentralbl Chir 119: 88-94<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
10. Peters<strong>on</strong> WC, S<strong>and</strong>ers WE (1996) Principles <strong>of</strong><br />
fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s. In: Rockwood CA,<br />
Green DP, Bucholz RW eds) Fractures in<br />
adults. J B Lippincott, Philadelphia, 365-368<br />
[LoE 5]<br />
11. Rammelt S, Biewener A, Grass R, Zwipp H<br />
(2005) Verletzungen des Fußes beim<br />
polytraumatisierten Patienten. Unfallchirurg<br />
108: 858-865 [LoE 5]<br />
12. S<strong>and</strong>ers LJ (1987) Amputati<strong>on</strong>s in the diabetic<br />
foot. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 4: 481-501 [LoE 4]<br />
13. Shah DM, Cors<strong>on</strong> JD, Karmody AM, Fortune<br />
JB, Leather RP (1988) Optimal management <strong>of</strong><br />
tibial arterial trauma. J Trauma 28: 228-234<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
14. Wagner FW (1979) Transcutaneous Doppler<br />
ultrasound in the predicti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> healing <strong>and</strong> the<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> surgical level for dysvascular lesi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>of</strong> the toes <strong>and</strong> forefoot. Clin Orthop: 110-114<br />
[LoE 3]<br />
15. Wyss CR, Harringt<strong>on</strong> RM, Burgess EM, Matsen<br />
FA, 3rd (1988) Transcutaneous oxygen tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
as a predictor <strong>of</strong> success after an amputati<strong>on</strong>. J<br />
B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Am 70: 203-207 [LoE 3]<br />
16. Zwipp H (1994) Chirurgie des Fußes. Springer-<br />
Verlag, Wien - New York [LoE 5]<br />
17. Zwipp H, Rammelt S (2002) Frakturen und<br />
Luxati<strong>on</strong>en. In: Wirth CJ, Zichner, L. (Hrsg.):<br />
Orthopädie und Orthopädische Chirurgie. Vol. 8.<br />
Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, New York,<br />
531-618 [LoE 5]<br />
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2.13 M<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface<br />
The frequency <strong>of</strong> injuries to the m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface in multiply injured patients is about 18%<br />
[2, 19].<br />
The most comm<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries in crani<strong>of</strong>acial fractures are cerebral hematomas at over<br />
40% followed by pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>s at over 30% [1].<br />
Examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> esthetic injuries should be excluded in the clinical examinati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the head-neck regi<strong>on</strong> in multiply injured patients.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Calling <strong>on</strong> qualified specialists (maxill<strong>of</strong>acial specialists/otorhinolaryngologists, depending <strong>on</strong><br />
availability or in-house arrangement) is c<strong>on</strong>sidered advisable for all patients <strong>with</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial injuries, even if this naturally depends <strong>on</strong> the qualificati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the<br />
physicians involved <strong>and</strong> the physical <strong>and</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s [12, 15, 22].<br />
The examinati<strong>on</strong> should comprise a thorough inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> palpati<strong>on</strong> [3, 7]. It serves inter alia<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>firm external <strong>and</strong> internal injuries (e.g., bruising, hematomas, abrasi<strong>on</strong>s, s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
injuries, bleeding, tooth injuries, eye injuries, cerebrospinal fluid leak, intracranial leak, <strong>and</strong><br />
m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures).<br />
Diagnostic study<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If there is clinical evidence <strong>of</strong> m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial injuries, further<br />
diagnostic interventi<strong>on</strong>s should be carried out to provide a complete<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiography <strong>and</strong>/or computed tomography are used for the diagnostic tests [13]. In<br />
order to visualize corresp<strong>on</strong>ding regi<strong>on</strong>s, a panoramic slice view (orthopantomogram), paranasal<br />
sinuses view, specific dental X-rays, <strong>and</strong> a Clementschitsch p.a. view <strong>of</strong> the skull or a lateral<br />
view <strong>of</strong> the skull are taken. Using computed tomography, progressive intracranial pressure signs,<br />
asymmetries, fractures, <strong>and</strong> larger maxill<strong>of</strong>acial defects as well as the degree <strong>of</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong> can<br />
be visualized [9, 11, 23, 24]. Axial, sagittal, <strong>and</strong> cor<strong>on</strong>al slices can be calculated [9, 18] (EL 3,<br />
EL 4). Preoperative planning can be carried out in more detail using computed tomography [4,<br />
9]. This entails a reducti<strong>on</strong> in operating time <strong>and</strong> higher quality [9, 21].<br />
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For small deformities, preference can be given to radiographic visualizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> 2 planes <strong>with</strong><br />
lower radiati<strong>on</strong> exposure [17]. Pages et al. point out that, especially in children who are more<br />
sensitive than adults to the effects <strong>of</strong> i<strong>on</strong>izing rays by a factor <strong>of</strong> 3, particular attenti<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
paid because <strong>of</strong> the danger to eyes [14].<br />
The methods <strong>of</strong> the imaging diagnostic test (radiography or CT) are usually determined by the<br />
type <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries <strong>and</strong> the local availability <strong>of</strong> equipment.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> orbita involvement, some authors recommend visually evoked potentials (VEP) or<br />
electroretinograms (ERG) to evaluate the optic nerves [5, 6, 8]. Particularly in the cases where<br />
the clinical functi<strong>on</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> the optic path is not possible or uncertain (as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
unc<strong>on</strong>sciousness, morphine doses, massive swelling), this can serve to objectify the optic path<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> thus enable an early interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
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2. Cannell H, Silvester Kc, O'regan Mb (1993) Early<br />
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surgery. J Craniomaxill<strong>of</strong>ac Surg 26:11-<br />
16 [LoE 3]<br />
22. Schierle Hp, Hausamen Je (1997) [Modern principles<br />
in treatment <strong>of</strong> complex injuries <strong>of</strong> the facial b<strong>on</strong>es].<br />
Unfallchirurg 100:330-337 [LoE 5]<br />
23. Thai Kn, Hummel Rp, 3rd, Kitzmiller Wj et al. (1997)<br />
The role <strong>of</strong> computed tomographic scanning in the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> facial trauma. J Trauma 43:214-217;<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> 217-218 [LoE 4]<br />
24. Treil J, Faure J, Braga J et al. (2002) [Threedimensi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
imaging <strong>and</strong> cephalometry <strong>of</strong> crani<strong>of</strong>acial<br />
asymmetry]. Orthod Fr 73:179-197 [LoE 4]<br />
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2.14 Neck<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Securing the airway must take priority when treating injuries to the neck. GoR A<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> tracheal tears, avulsi<strong>on</strong>s or open tracheal injuries, surgical<br />
explorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a tracheostoma or direct rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> should<br />
be carried out.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> all neck injuries, intubati<strong>on</strong> or, if not possible, inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
tracheostoma should be given early c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the injury pattern, intubati<strong>on</strong> must be given early c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>. This can be d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
transorally, transnasally, transvulnar or via tracheostomy. Even in the case <strong>of</strong> complete rupture<br />
<strong>of</strong> the trachea, distal secti<strong>on</strong>s can be intubated <strong>with</strong> defect bridging via endoscopic intubati<strong>on</strong>. If<br />
oral or transnasal intubati<strong>on</strong> is not possible, a tracheotomy must be c<strong>on</strong>sidered [2].<br />
A tracheostomy is always an elective operati<strong>on</strong>; in the acute emergency, access should be made<br />
via a c<strong>on</strong>iotomy as an emergency tracheotomy [13]. In the case <strong>of</strong> tracheal tears, avulsi<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
open tracheal injuries, surgical explorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a tracheostoma or direct<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> is recommended. In the case <strong>of</strong> injuries <strong>of</strong> short length not involving all layers,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment can be attempted [6]. The same applies to trauma in the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
larynx [2, 3, 14].<br />
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Diagnostic study<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
To c<strong>on</strong>firm the type <strong>and</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> the injury, computed tomography <strong>of</strong> the<br />
neck s<strong>of</strong>t tissues should be performed <strong>on</strong> hemodynamically stable patients.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> clinically or CT suspected neck injury, an endoscopic<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out <strong>on</strong> the traumatized regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
In order not to generate any additi<strong>on</strong>al trauma through diagnostic or therapeutic measures, a<br />
search should first be made for injuries to the cervical spine or these should be minimized as<br />
much as possible through immobilizati<strong>on</strong> techniques [10, 12, 14]. Although the resulting injury<br />
sequelae from tracheal tears or avulsi<strong>on</strong>s can be visualized by means <strong>of</strong> imaging diagnostic tests<br />
(CT/MRI/c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al radiography), part <strong>of</strong> the actual lesi<strong>on</strong> is <strong>of</strong>ten difficult to see. Skin<br />
emphysema after tracheal injury is given as an example, whereby the actual lesi<strong>on</strong> can <strong>of</strong>ten not<br />
be identified in the imaging or cannot be visualized in c<strong>on</strong>servative imaging if there is a<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounced hematoma <strong>on</strong> the neck <strong>with</strong>out detectable source <strong>of</strong> bleeding. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
endoscopic examinati<strong>on</strong>s are recommended in the diagnostic evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> cervical injuries [1].<br />
If there are suspected vascular injuries, an alternative diagnostic procedure is duplex<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, which is a n<strong>on</strong>-invasive examinati<strong>on</strong> procedure <strong>and</strong> equivalent to angiography<br />
[7, 8]; both thus represent the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard for injuries to the neck vessels. This applies<br />
especially to the neck z<strong>on</strong>es I <strong>and</strong> III according to Ro<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Christensen [12]. Surgical<br />
explorati<strong>on</strong> is additi<strong>on</strong>ally recommended for z<strong>on</strong>e II. Although this is hotly debated in the<br />
literature, it is not in dispute that 100% <strong>of</strong> defects can be identified <strong>and</strong> if necessary treated in<br />
this way [7, 12].<br />
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<strong>Treatment</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Open neck trauma <strong>with</strong> acute bleeding should be compressed initially <strong>and</strong><br />
then managed by surgical explorati<strong>on</strong> thereafter.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> closed neck trauma, an assessment <strong>of</strong> the vascular status should<br />
be carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
The angiography or alternatively duplex ultras<strong>on</strong>ography represent the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard for injuries<br />
to the neck vessels, especially in z<strong>on</strong>es I <strong>and</strong> III according to Ro<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Christensen [12].<br />
Surgical explorati<strong>on</strong> is additi<strong>on</strong>ally recommended for z<strong>on</strong>e II.<br />
The first-line choice for functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> trauma diagnostic tests is Doppler ultras<strong>on</strong>ography, being<br />
the least invasive, rapid, <strong>and</strong> not cost-intensive examinati<strong>on</strong> method. This is at least equal in<br />
diagnostic evidence to angiography <strong>and</strong> computed tomography, <strong>and</strong> even superior due to its<br />
lesser invasiveness <strong>and</strong> lower costs <strong>and</strong> higher speed [7, 8, 12].<br />
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References<br />
1. Demetriades D, Velmahos GG, Asensio JA. Cervical<br />
pharyngoesophageal <strong>and</strong> laryngotracheal injuries.<br />
World J Surg. 2001 Aug;25(8):1044-8 [LoE 2b]<br />
2. Dienemann H, H<strong>of</strong>fmann H (2001). Tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial<br />
injuries <strong>and</strong> fistulas. Chirurg 72(10):1131-6 [LoE 3a]<br />
3 D<strong>on</strong>ald, Paul J. Trachealchirurgie: Kopf – und Hals<br />
Chirurgie (H.H. Naumann et al) 1998 Georg Thieme<br />
Verlag (S. 243 - 57)<br />
4. Erhart J, Mousavi M, Vecsei V. Penetrating injuries <strong>of</strong><br />
the neck, injury pattern <strong>and</strong> diagnostic algorithm.<br />
Chirurg. 2000 Sep;71(9):1138-43<br />
5. Etl S, Hafer G, Mundinger A. Cervical vascular<br />
penetrating trauma. Unfallchirurg. 2000<br />
Jan;103(1):64-7. German<br />
6. Gabor S, Renner H, Pinter H, Sankin O, Maier A,<br />
Tomaselli F, Smolle Juttner FM (2001). Indicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for surgery in tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial ruptures. Eur J<br />
Cardiothorac Surg 20(2):399-404 [LoE 4]<br />
7. Ginzburg E, M<strong>on</strong>talvo B, LeBlang S, Nunez D,<br />
Martin L. The use <strong>of</strong> duplex ultras<strong>on</strong>ography in<br />
penetrating neck trauma. Arch Surg. 1996<br />
Jul;131(7):691-3 [LoE 1a]<br />
8. LeBlang SD, Nunez DB Jr. N<strong>on</strong>invasive imaging <strong>of</strong><br />
cervical vascular injuries. AJR Am J Roentgenol.<br />
2000 May;174(5):1269-78 [LoE 4]<br />
9. Munera F, Soto JA, Palacio D, Velez SM, Medina E.<br />
Diagnosis <strong>of</strong> arterial injuries caused by penetrating<br />
trauma to the neck: comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> helical CT<br />
angiography <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al angiography.<br />
Radiology. 2000 Aug;216(2):356-62<br />
10. Oestreicher E, Koch O, Brucher B. Impalement injury<br />
<strong>of</strong> the neck. HNO 2003 Oct;51(10):829-32 [LoE 4]<br />
11. Pitcock, J. Traumatologie der Halsweichteile:Kopf –<br />
und Hals Chirurgie (H.H. Naumann et al) 1998 Georg<br />
Thieme Verlag (S. 459 - 75)<br />
12. Ro<strong>on</strong> AJ, Christensen N. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
penetrating cervical injuries. J Trauma. 1979<br />
Jun;19(6):391-7 [LoE 2a]<br />
13. Walz MK. Tracheostomy: indicati<strong>on</strong>s, methods,<br />
risks.Chirurg. 2001 Oct;72(10):1101-10 [LoE 2a]<br />
14. Welkoborsky, H. – J. Verletzungen der Halsregi<strong>on</strong><br />
und der Halswirbelsäule: Praxis der HNO –<br />
Heilkunde, Kopf- und Halschirurgie (J. Strutz, W.<br />
Mann) 2001 Georg Thieme Verlag (S. 843-6) [LoE 4]<br />
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2.15 Resuscitati<strong>on</strong><br />
Criteria for cardiac arrest<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> definitive cardiac arrest, uncertainties in detecting a pulse or<br />
other clinical signs that make cardiac arrest likely, resuscitati<strong>on</strong> must be<br />
started immediately.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
A cardiac cause accounts for around 70-90% <strong>of</strong> patients affected by cardiac arrest. A posttraumatic<br />
cause accounts for <strong>on</strong>ly 3.1% <strong>of</strong> cases [1] <strong>and</strong> these patients have a markedly worse<br />
prognosis. Based <strong>on</strong> retrospective analyses <strong>of</strong> patient collectives, mainly from the 1980s to<br />
1990s, an average survival rate <strong>of</strong> about 2% <strong>and</strong>, in the absence <strong>of</strong> serious neurologic deficits,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 0.8% is given in the “ERC <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> 2005”, <strong>with</strong> slightly better survival<br />
for penetrating injuries than for blunt trauma [2]. Somewhat better prognoses have been<br />
published in more recent studies [3-5]. In an analysis <strong>of</strong> the DGU Trauma Registry <strong>of</strong> 10,359<br />
patients from the period 1993-2004, 17.2% <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patients were successfully<br />
resuscitated after traumatic cardiac arrest, 9.7% <strong>of</strong> whom <strong>with</strong> a moderate to good neurologic<br />
outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale [GOS] ≥ 4, Table 12). Seventy-seven (10%) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
resuscitated patients received an emergency thoracotomy <strong>with</strong> a survival rate <strong>of</strong> 13% [6]. In<br />
some studies, survival after traumatic <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-traumatic cardiac arrest was even comparable [7].<br />
Table 12: Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) [8]:<br />
Classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> course after traumatic brain injury <strong>with</strong> intracranial lesi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> neur<strong>on</strong>al<br />
damage (point scale 1-5):<br />
1. Died as a result <strong>of</strong> acute brain damage<br />
2. Apallic, permanent vegetative c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
3. <strong>Severe</strong>ly disabled (mentally <strong>and</strong>/or physically), requiring permanent care, no earning<br />
capacity<br />
4. Moderately disabled, mostly independent but marked neurologic <strong>and</strong>/or psychiatric<br />
disorders, c<strong>on</strong>siderable restricti<strong>on</strong> in earning capacity<br />
5. Not/mildly disabled, normal life despite possible minor deficits, <strong>on</strong>ly slight or no<br />
restricti<strong>on</strong> in earning capacity<br />
The criteria for detecting cardiac arrest in trauma patients do not differ from the criteria in n<strong>on</strong>traumatic<br />
cardiac arrest. The diagnosis to resuscitate the trauma patient must be made according<br />
to the guidelines <strong>of</strong> the European Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> Council <strong>and</strong>, when indicated, must be started or<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued [37]. The main criteri<strong>on</strong> in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest in a traumatized patient in<br />
the emergency room is also apnea in combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> pulse <strong>with</strong>/<strong>with</strong>out electrical<br />
activity <strong>of</strong> the heart. In earlier resuscitati<strong>on</strong> guidelines, the c<strong>on</strong>scious state, breathing, <strong>and</strong><br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> were checked first [8, 9]. However, studies have meanwhile shown that both<br />
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checking for the absence <strong>of</strong> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous breathing [10, 11] <strong>and</strong> particularly checking for absence<br />
<strong>of</strong> pulse [11, 12] is beset <strong>with</strong> a high error rate even by trained pers<strong>on</strong>nel. Low specificity in<br />
particular could lead to a delay in resuscitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Medical pers<strong>on</strong>nel in the emergency room should search for a maximum <strong>of</strong> 10 sec<strong>on</strong>ds for the<br />
presence or absence <strong>of</strong> a central pulse. In case <strong>of</strong> doubt or if there are other clinical signs that<br />
make cardiac arrest likely, resuscitati<strong>on</strong> should be started immediately [13].<br />
An allegedly normal ECG does not exclude cardiac arrest in terms <strong>of</strong> an electromechanical<br />
decoupling (pulseless electrical activity) any more than a pathologic or even possibly artificially<br />
altered ECG provides evidence <strong>of</strong> blood circulati<strong>on</strong> [13]. Nevertheless, an immediate ECG<br />
recording is an essential comp<strong>on</strong>ent in m<strong>on</strong>itoring in the emergency room <strong>and</strong> is always included<br />
in the evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the cardiovascular situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
If there is suspici<strong>on</strong> or evidence <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest, the ECG <strong>and</strong> its changes also determine the use<br />
<strong>and</strong> timing <strong>of</strong> defibrillati<strong>on</strong> treatment [13]. Pulse oxymetry <strong>and</strong> particularly also capnography are<br />
essential comp<strong>on</strong>ents in m<strong>on</strong>itoring a multiply injured patient. Both procedures are able to<br />
indicate cardiac arrest (absent pulse wave in pulse oxymetry, rapidly falling etCO2 in<br />
capnography). However, the limitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> pulse oxymetry in shock, centralizati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
hypothermia should be noted.<br />
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Are there special features to note when resuscitating trauma patients?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
During resuscitati<strong>on</strong>, trauma-specific reversible causes <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest (e.g.,<br />
airway obstructi<strong>on</strong>, esophageal intubati<strong>on</strong>, hypovolemia, tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
pneumothorax or pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade) should be diagnosed <strong>and</strong> treated.<br />
An intraarterial catheter should be inserted for invasive c<strong>on</strong>tinuous blood<br />
pressure measurement.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
In principle, establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong> for resuscitati<strong>on</strong> even in the trauma patient must be d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
according to the guidelines <strong>of</strong> the ERC [2, 13]. More recent analyses <strong>on</strong> trauma-associated<br />
cardiac arrest show much better survival [3-6]. This is chiefly due to more advanced emergency<br />
systems <strong>and</strong> more c<strong>on</strong>sistent applicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> resuscitati<strong>on</strong> guidelines (see Figure 4) as well as to<br />
adherence to emergency room algorithms. The survival rates correlate above all <strong>with</strong> the<br />
prehospital rescue time <strong>and</strong> the period <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> [2, 14–17].<br />
The main causes <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest after a trauma are severe traumatic brain injury <strong>and</strong> massive<br />
bleeding [2, 18, 19]. The success <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly ensured if the cause <strong>of</strong><br />
cardiac arrest can be treated. To ascertain the trauma-specific reversible causes <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest,<br />
the tube placement should be m<strong>on</strong>itored by auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> capnometry/capnography,<br />
ultras<strong>on</strong>ography <strong>of</strong> the abdomen, pleural space, cardiac ventricles, <strong>and</strong> pericardium (st<strong>and</strong>ardized<br />
procedure if possible, e.g., FAST), <strong>and</strong> the hemoglobin value in the BGA measured during<br />
<strong>on</strong>going cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Current studies in the Federal Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany have detected a frequency <strong>of</strong> esophageal<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong>s in up to 7% <strong>of</strong> cases, <strong>and</strong> so immediate m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> the correct placement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tracheal tube by auscultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> capnometry/capnography is indispensable immediately after<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> both by the emergency physician <strong>and</strong> after the patient has arrived in the emergency<br />
room [20].<br />
With emergency ultras<strong>on</strong>ography (e.g., FAST) [21, 22] <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> recording the hemoglobin value<br />
in the (arterial or venous) blood gas analysis, etiologic abdominal or thoracic massive bleeding<br />
should be recorded during resuscitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> appropriate aggressive volume replacement <strong>and</strong><br />
specific surgical treatment carried out. With pr<strong>on</strong>ounced hypovolemia, the use <strong>of</strong> hyperosmolar<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> dispensing <strong>with</strong> PEEP ventilati<strong>on</strong> can be expedient to improve preload <strong>and</strong> cardiac<br />
fill rapidly. If hypovolemia is the cause <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest, the success rate <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> can be increased <strong>with</strong> these measures [19, 23].<br />
Retrospective analyses showed that the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> chest drains could be valued as a positive<br />
predictor for survival after post-traumatic cardiac arrest, which could be explained by the<br />
removal or preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax [6, 24–26].<br />
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According to expert opini<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the guideline project group, the early inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an intraarterial<br />
catheter into the femoral artery for invasive c<strong>on</strong>tinuous blood pressure measurement can<br />
objectify the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest <strong>and</strong> the efficiency <strong>of</strong> resuscitati<strong>on</strong> efforts in the<br />
emergency room. In so doing, there must be no interrupti<strong>on</strong> or delay in cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> due to the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the intraarterial catheter.<br />
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Figure 4: CPR algorithm according to the ERC <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s [36]<br />
Shock indicated<br />
Ventricular fibrillati<strong>on</strong>/<br />
pulseless ventricular tachycardia<br />
1 shock<br />
Immediately resume:<br />
CPR for 2 min<br />
Minimize interrupti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Advance Life Support for Adults (ALS):<br />
© by European Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> Council (ERC) 2010<br />
During CPR<br />
• ensure highly qualified CPR: rate, depth, decompressi<strong>on</strong><br />
• plan acti<strong>on</strong>s prior to CPR interrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
• give oxygen<br />
• airway management; c<strong>on</strong>sider capnography<br />
• cardiac massage <strong>with</strong>out interrupti<strong>on</strong> if airway secured<br />
• vascular access: intravenous, intraossary<br />
• inject adrenalin every 3-5 min<br />
• treat reversible causes<br />
Unresp<strong>on</strong>sive?<br />
Respiratory arrest or <strong>on</strong>ly gasping breaths<br />
Cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong><br />
(CPR) 30 : 2<br />
Attach defibrillator/ECG m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
Minimize interrupti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Assess<br />
ECG rhythm<br />
Circulati<strong>on</strong><br />
re-starts<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneously<br />
Immediate treatment<br />
• use ABCDE algorithm<br />
• give oxygen + ventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
• 12-lead ECG<br />
• treat trigger factors<br />
• temperature c<strong>on</strong>trol/<br />
therapeutic hypothermia<br />
Immediately resume:<br />
CPR for 2 min<br />
Minimize interrupti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Emergency room - Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> 264<br />
X<br />
Notify resuscitati<strong>on</strong> team/<br />
emergency services<br />
Shock not indicated<br />
(PEA/asystole)<br />
Reversible causes<br />
• Hypoxia<br />
• Hypovolemia<br />
• Hypo-/hyperkalemia/metabolic<br />
• Hypothermia<br />
• Pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade<br />
• Intoxicati<strong>on</strong><br />
• Thrombosis (AMI, LAE)<br />
• Tensi<strong>on</strong> pneumothorax
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Failure <strong>and</strong> disc<strong>on</strong>tinuati<strong>on</strong> criteria<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If resuscitati<strong>on</strong> is unsuccessful after eliminating possible trauma-specific<br />
causes <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest, cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> must be stopped.<br />
If there are definite signs <strong>of</strong> death or injuries that are not compatible <strong>with</strong> life,<br />
cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> must not be started.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
Most multiply injured patients die in the early phase from the c<strong>on</strong>sequences <strong>of</strong> severe traumatic<br />
brain injuries <strong>and</strong> massive bleeding [2, 18, 19]. Injuries not compatible <strong>with</strong> life may be present<br />
(e.g., injuries to the great vessels). The success <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> firstly depends<br />
<strong>on</strong> the time since cardiac arrest occurred <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dly <strong>on</strong> the possibility <strong>of</strong> eliminating traumaspecific<br />
causes <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest during resuscitati<strong>on</strong>. Despite implementati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the aforementi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
therapeutic measures (e.g., inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest drain) to eliminate trauma-specific<br />
causes <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest, cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> can be unsuccessful. If no causes can be<br />
established during cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> or if the eliminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> possible traumaspecific<br />
causes does not lead to a return <strong>of</strong> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous circulati<strong>on</strong> [ROSC]), resuscitati<strong>on</strong> must<br />
be disc<strong>on</strong>tinued. The recognized definite signs <strong>of</strong> death signal an irreversible cell death <strong>of</strong> organs<br />
essential for life <strong>and</strong> are therefore indicators for failure <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong>. If there<br />
are definite signs <strong>of</strong> death or injuries that are not compatible <strong>with</strong> life, cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> must not be started. The decisi<strong>on</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>tinue or disc<strong>on</strong>tinue cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> is the resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <strong>of</strong> the treating physicians <strong>and</strong> must be made in c<strong>on</strong>sensus. A<br />
time limit for unsuccessful resuscitati<strong>on</strong> cannot be given.<br />
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What importance does the emergency thoracotomy have in post-traumatic cardiac arrest<br />
in the emergency room?<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Emergency thoracotomy should be performed in the case <strong>of</strong> penetrating<br />
injuries, particularly if the <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> cardiac arrest is recent <strong>and</strong> vital signs are<br />
initially present.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Performing an emergency thoracotomy is described as being relatively straightforward [27, 28]<br />
but requires, according to the ATLS ® criteria <strong>of</strong> the American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s [29], a<br />
trained, experienced surge<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>, according to the DGU guidelines [30], the availability <strong>of</strong> a<br />
thoracotomy set in the emergency room.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> a meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 42 studies <strong>with</strong> a total <strong>of</strong> 7,035 documented “emergency department<br />
thoracotomies”, the American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s has published a guideline <strong>on</strong> the indicati<strong>on</strong><br />
for <strong>and</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> an emergency room thoracotomy under cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong><br />
[31]. The resulting statements are based chiefly <strong>on</strong> the finding that, <strong>with</strong> an overall survival rate<br />
<strong>of</strong> 7.8%, <strong>on</strong>ly 1.6% <strong>of</strong> patients survived after blunt trauma but 11.2% after penetrating trauma.<br />
An emergency room resuscitative thoracotomy can improve the prognosis particularly in the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> penetrating trauma <strong>and</strong> appears to be particularly expedient if vital signs are initially present<br />
[31-33]. Appropriate logistic equipment is m<strong>and</strong>atory [34]. In blunt trauma, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, an<br />
emergency thoracotomy should be carried out more reluctantly. If an emergency thoracotomy is<br />
performed <strong>and</strong> there is simultaneously intraabdominal massive bleeding, a laparotomy to arrest<br />
the bleeding should be performed parallel to the thoracotomy. Appropriate logistic equipment is<br />
m<strong>and</strong>atory [35].<br />
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14. Fult<strong>on</strong> RL, Voigt WJ, Hilakos AS. C<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong><br />
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15. Gervin AS, Fischer RP. The importance <strong>of</strong> prompt<br />
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16. Durham III LA, Richards<strong>on</strong> RJ, Wall Jr MJ, Pepe PE,<br />
Mattox KL. Emergency center thoracotomy: impact <strong>of</strong><br />
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17. Powell DW, Moore EE, Cothren CC, et al. Is<br />
emergency department resuscitative thoracotomy<br />
futile care for the critically injured patient requiring<br />
prehospital cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong>? J Am Coll<br />
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18. Søreide K, Krüger AJ, Vårdal AL, et al. Epidemiology<br />
<strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>temporary Patterns <strong>of</strong> Trauma Deaths:<br />
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19. Bansal V, Fortlage D, Lee JG, et al. Hemorrhage is<br />
More Prevalent than Brain Injury in Early Trauma<br />
Deaths: The Golden Six Hours. Eur J Trauma Emerg<br />
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20. Timmermann A, Russo SG, Eich C, et al. The out-<strong>of</strong>hospital<br />
esophageal <strong>and</strong> endobr<strong>on</strong>chial intubati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
performed by emergency physicians. Anesth Analg<br />
2007;104:619-623<br />
21. Geeraedts LM Jr, Kaasjager HA, van Vugt AB, Frölke<br />
JP. Exsanguinati<strong>on</strong> in trauma: A review <strong>of</strong> diagnostics<br />
<strong>and</strong> treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s. Injury 2009 40:11-20 [LoE 1b]<br />
22. Ollert<strong>on</strong> JE, Sugrue M, Balogh Z, et al. Prospective<br />
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patient management. J Trauma 2006;60:785-791 [LoE<br />
1b]<br />
23. Herff H, Paal P, v<strong>on</strong> Goedecke A, et. al. Ventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies in the obstructed airway in a bench model<br />
simulating a n<strong>on</strong>intubated respiratory arrest patient.<br />
Anesth Analg 2009 ;108:1585-1588<br />
24. Deakin CD, Davies G, Wils<strong>on</strong> A. Simple<br />
thoracostomy avoids chest drain inserti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
prehospital trauma. J Trauma 1995;39:373-374 [LoE<br />
2a]<br />
25. Mistry N, Bleetman A, Roberts KJ. Chest<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong> during the resuscitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients in<br />
prehospital traumatic cardiac arrest. Emerg Med J<br />
2009;26:738-740 [LoE 2a]<br />
26. Bushby N, Fitzgerald M, Camer<strong>on</strong> P et al. Prehospital<br />
intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> chest decompressi<strong>on</strong> is associated <strong>with</strong><br />
unexpected survival in major thoracic blunt trauma.<br />
Emerg Med Australas 2005;17:443-449 [LoE 2a]<br />
27. Wise D, Davies G, Coats T, et al. Emergency<br />
thoracotomy: ‘‘how to do it’’. Emerg Med J<br />
2005;22:22-24<br />
28. Voiglio EJ, Coats TJ, Baudoin YP, Davies GD,<br />
Wils<strong>on</strong> AW. Resuscitative transverse thoracotomy.<br />
Ann Chir 2003;128:728-733<br />
29. American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s – Committee <strong>on</strong><br />
Trauma (2008) ATLS ® : Advanced Trauma Life<br />
Support for Doctors, 8th ed. American College <strong>of</strong><br />
Surge<strong>on</strong>s, Chicago [LoE 5]<br />
30. Arbeitsgruppe Unfallchirurgische Leitlinien der<br />
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Zusammenarbeit mit der Arbeitsgemeinschaft<br />
Polytrauma der Deutschen Gesellschaft für<br />
Unfallchirurgie e.V. (2002) Polytrauma:<br />
http://www.uniduesseldorf.de/WWW/<strong>AWMF</strong>/awmffrs.htm<br />
[LoE 5]<br />
31. Working Group, Ad Hoc Subcommittee <strong>on</strong> Outcomes,<br />
American College <strong>of</strong> Surge<strong>on</strong>s-Committee <strong>on</strong><br />
Trauma. Practice management guidelines for<br />
emergency department thoracotomy. J Am Coll Surg<br />
2001;193:303-309 [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
32. Karmy-J<strong>on</strong>es R, Nathens A, Jurkovich GJ, et al.<br />
Urgent <strong>and</strong> emergent thoracotomy for penetrating<br />
chest trauma. J Trauma 2004;56:664-668; discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
668-9 [LoE 2c]<br />
33. Powell DW, Moore EE, Cothren CC, et al. Is<br />
emergency department resuscitative thoracotomy<br />
futile care for the critically injured patient requiring<br />
prehospital cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong>? J Am Coll<br />
Surg 2004;199:211-215 [LoE 2c]<br />
34. Seam<strong>on</strong> MJ, Fisher CA, Gaughan JP, et al.<br />
Emergency department thoracotomy: survival <strong>of</strong> the<br />
least expected. World J Surg 2008;32: 604-612<br />
35. Fialka C, Sebok C, Kernetzh<strong>of</strong>er P, et al. Open-chest<br />
cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary resuscitati<strong>on</strong> after cardiac arrest in<br />
cases <strong>of</strong> blunt chest or abdominal trauma: a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>secutive series <strong>of</strong> 38 cases. J Trauma 2004;57:809-<br />
814<br />
36. Deakin CD, Nolan JP et al. Erweiterte Reanimati<strong>on</strong>smaßnahmen<br />
für Erwachsene („advanced life<br />
support“). Notfall&Rettungsmedizin 2010; 13(7):<br />
p. 559-620<br />
37. Nolan JP, Deakin CD, Soar J et al. (2005) European<br />
Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> Council <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for Resuscitati<strong>on</strong><br />
2005. Secti<strong>on</strong> 4. Adult advanced life support.<br />
Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> 67(1): S39-S86<br />
Emergency room - Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> 268
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2.16 Coagulati<strong>on</strong> system<br />
The term “polytrauma” refers to a very heterogeneous patient group. Perioperative coagulati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapy, particularly in this patient populati<strong>on</strong>, was carried out for decades according to gut<br />
instinct. The attempt to find a broader basis for medical management led to expert<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, which were based <strong>on</strong> physiologic c<strong>on</strong>cepts as well as pharmacologic <strong>and</strong><br />
pharmacodynamic c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. Increasingly, there are experimental <strong>and</strong> clinical studies <strong>on</strong><br />
individual research questi<strong>on</strong>s. Even if the pathophysiologic correlati<strong>on</strong>s between the therapy<br />
choices described <strong>and</strong> the impaired coagulati<strong>on</strong> can be presented c<strong>on</strong>clusively <strong>and</strong> coherently,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong> through r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials is still awaited for virtually all<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s. As <strong>with</strong> the 4th editi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the “Cross-Secti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Therapy using<br />
Blood Comp<strong>on</strong>ents <strong>and</strong> Plasma Derivatives” by the German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> (BÄK), the<br />
following recommendati<strong>on</strong>s are largely based <strong>on</strong> case observati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> not r<strong>and</strong>omized studies.<br />
Thus, the majority <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s can <strong>on</strong>ly be awarded a grade <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong> [GoR] 0. For<br />
this reas<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> also because <strong>of</strong> the partly c<strong>on</strong>siderable costs <strong>of</strong> the replacements described, it<br />
must be emphasized that the listed threshold values should in no way be seen as a cue for simply<br />
improving laboratory measurements. Rather, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for replacement using the cited drugs<br />
is <strong>on</strong>ly given in the event <strong>of</strong> massive, life-threatening bleeding [70].<br />
Trauma-induced coagulopathy<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Trauma-induced coagulopathy is an aut<strong>on</strong>omous clinical picture <strong>with</strong> clear<br />
influences <strong>on</strong> survival. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, coagulati<strong>on</strong> diagnostic tests <strong>and</strong><br />
therapy must be started immediately in the emergency room.<br />
Thrombelastography <strong>and</strong> thrombelastometry can be carried out to guide the<br />
coagulati<strong>on</strong> diagnostic test <strong>and</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> replacement.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR 0<br />
The early trauma-induced mortality is usually a c<strong>on</strong>sequence <strong>of</strong> traumatic brain injury (40-50%<br />
<strong>of</strong> deaths) or <strong>of</strong> massive bleeding (20-40%). Bleeding is greatly increased by additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
coagulopathy [102]. A coagulati<strong>on</strong> disorder in multiply injured patients (trauma-induced<br />
coagulopathy [TIC]) has been known for over 20 years [61]. This coagulopathy was originally<br />
seen as a sec<strong>on</strong>dary occurrence, i.e. caused by loss/diluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> intensified by acidosis <strong>and</strong><br />
hypothermia (“lethal triad”, “bloody vicious circle”) [55]. However, evidence <strong>of</strong> the existence <strong>of</strong><br />
an aut<strong>on</strong>omous, multifactorial, primary disease, which is intensified by the sec<strong>on</strong>dary factors<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, loss, diluti<strong>on</strong>al coagulopathy), has been found in the present literature [9, 95],<br />
even in the Federal Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany [76]. TIC significantly influences the survival <strong>of</strong><br />
multiply injured patients [72, 74]. It is independently correlated <strong>with</strong> a 4 to 8 times increased allcause<br />
case fatality rate [72] <strong>and</strong> 8 times increased case fatality rate <strong>with</strong>in 24 hours [76]. <strong>Patients</strong><br />
who are coagulopathic <strong>on</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> to the emergency room remain l<strong>on</strong>ger in the intensive care<br />
Emergency room – Coagulati<strong>on</strong> system 269
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unit <strong>and</strong> in hospital, have a higher risk <strong>of</strong> renal insufficiency <strong>and</strong> multi-organ failure, have to be<br />
ventilated for l<strong>on</strong>ger, <strong>and</strong> exhibit a trend towards increased lung failure [8, 76]. An<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ally valid, uniform term for this clinical picture is still lacking; suggesti<strong>on</strong>s are “acute<br />
traumatic coagulopathy” [10], “coagulopathy <strong>of</strong> trauma” [47], <strong>and</strong> “acute coagulopathy <strong>of</strong><br />
trauma shock” [46]. The hypoperfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> hyperfibrinolysis induced by the tissue injury <strong>and</strong><br />
the shock are the triggers <strong>of</strong> TIC [9, 46]. The extent <strong>of</strong> hyperfibrinolysis appears to be correlated<br />
to the injury severity [67]. In a retrospective analysis, Schöchl et al. [102] found evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
hyperfibrinolysis <strong>with</strong> an ISS > 25 in almost 15% <strong>of</strong> cases. TIC is already present <strong>on</strong> arrival in<br />
the emergency room in about 30% <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured <strong>and</strong> leads to an increased case fatality<br />
rate [10, 72, 74, 76, 95]. As there is no intravasal coagulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> thrombosis in the early phase<br />
<strong>of</strong> a trauma, this clinical picture does not involve disseminated intravasal coagulopathy (DIC)<br />
[34, 47].<br />
The definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> massive bleeding c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> a blood loss <strong>of</strong> ≥ 100% <strong>of</strong> blood volume <strong>with</strong>in 24<br />
hours, <strong>of</strong> ≥ 50% <strong>with</strong>in 3 hours, <strong>and</strong> 150 ml/min or 1.5 ml/kg BW/min over 20 minutes [114].<br />
Diagnostic test: While the clinical picture <strong>of</strong> TIC is characterized by n<strong>on</strong>-surgical, diffuse<br />
bleeding from mucous membrane, serous membrane, <strong>and</strong> wound areas, occurrence <strong>of</strong> bleeding<br />
from puncture sites <strong>of</strong> intravasal catheters <strong>and</strong> bleeding from indwelling bladder catheters or<br />
abdominal tubes, there is a gross lack <strong>of</strong> suitable laboratory parameters [70]. The prothrombin<br />
time/Quick test/INR <strong>and</strong> the partial thromboplastin time are poor determinants <strong>of</strong> a reduced level<br />
<strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> factors <strong>and</strong> weak predictors for bleeding tendency in critically ill patients [15, 66].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, these parameters <strong>on</strong>ly measure the time to the start <strong>of</strong> clot formati<strong>on</strong>. A c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> the clotting strength <strong>and</strong> quality, its fibrinolytic activity or platelet functi<strong>on</strong> is not possible [7].<br />
A prompt diagnostic test <strong>on</strong> the patient is also not possible.<br />
The “classic” laboratory parameters are measured at 37 °C, buffered, <strong>with</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> calcium in<br />
serum <strong>and</strong> plasma. Thus, acidosis, hypothermia, hypocalcemia, <strong>and</strong> anemia are not included [36,<br />
71] although these factors can have a c<strong>on</strong>siderable effect [71]. However, due to the<br />
epidemiologically increasing number <strong>of</strong> elderly patients, anticoagulati<strong>on</strong> must be assumed in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> trauma in this clientele. An INR > 1.5 in the over-50s is thus correlated <strong>with</strong> a<br />
significantly increased case fatality rate; this applies particularly to traumatic brain injuries<br />
[134]. Data from trauma registries showed that a prol<strong>on</strong>ged prothrombin time in traumatized<br />
patients is a predictor for mortality [10, 72, 94]. Hess et al. [48] were able to c<strong>on</strong>firm that<br />
pathologic “classic” laboratory parameters occurred <strong>with</strong> increasing frequency <strong>with</strong> increasing<br />
injury severity. These pathologic values, particularly the Quick test/INR, were associated <strong>with</strong> an<br />
increased case fatality rate.<br />
Thrombelastography: (Rotati<strong>on</strong>al) thrombelastography (TEG) <strong>and</strong> (rotati<strong>on</strong>al)<br />
thrombelastometry (RoTEM) are being increasingly studied for the m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> multiply<br />
injured patients. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the st<strong>and</strong>ard coagulati<strong>on</strong> test, this allows not <strong>on</strong>ly the time until<br />
<strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> but also the speed <strong>of</strong> clot formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the maximum clotting firmness to<br />
be recorded. This test procedure can be carried out <strong>with</strong>out delay in the emergency room. Thus,<br />
treatment decisi<strong>on</strong>s can be made so<strong>on</strong>er [92, 95]. Several TEG/RoTEM-based algorithms for<br />
trauma management have already been published (e.g., [36, 59, 64]).<br />
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In the pig model for massive bleeding, Martini et al. [80] found a better correlati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
thrombelastographic parameters compared to the Quick test, to PTT (partial thromboplastin<br />
time) or to INR. In a prospective observati<strong>on</strong> study, Rugeri et al. [95] showed in 88 patients that<br />
different RoTEM parameters <strong>with</strong> a sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity between 74 <strong>and</strong> 100% are suitable<br />
for visualizing in vivo the changes in coagulati<strong>on</strong>. The results from Levrat et al. [67] <strong>on</strong> 87<br />
trauma patients lay in the same range for sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specificity. The trauma-induced<br />
hyperfibrinolysis in particular could be effectively c<strong>on</strong>firmed. In 44 soldiers <strong>with</strong> penetrating<br />
injuries, Plotkin et al. [92] noted the TEG as a more precise indicator than the Quick test, PTT or<br />
INR for the need for blood products. Schöchl et al. [101] measured mortality-predicting<br />
hyperfibrinolysis using ROTEM in 33 critically injured patients: The time <strong>of</strong> fibrinolysis <strong>with</strong>in<br />
30 minutes after the start <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong>, after 30-60 minutes, <strong>and</strong> after more than 60 minutes<br />
correlated <strong>with</strong> the mortality rate (100%, 91%, 73%), late fibrinolysis allowing the best<br />
prognosis (p = 0.0031). The results were available <strong>with</strong>in 10-20 minutes <strong>and</strong> showed an<br />
increasing number <strong>of</strong> hyperfibrinolyses <strong>with</strong> increasing injury severity.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> thrombelastography <strong>and</strong> thrombelastometry in traumatized patients is very promising<br />
for guiding the coagulati<strong>on</strong> diagnostic tests <strong>and</strong> replacement, particularly in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
hyperfibrinolyses [11], but requires further prospective evaluati<strong>on</strong> [70, 111].<br />
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Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol resuscitati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
In patients who are actively bleeding, the goal can be set at permissive<br />
hypotensi<strong>on</strong> (mean arterial pressure ~ 65 mmHg, systolic arterial pressure<br />
~ 90 mmHg) until surgical hemostasis. This strategy is c<strong>on</strong>traindicated in<br />
injuries <strong>of</strong> the central nervous system.<br />
Suitable measures should be taken <strong>and</strong> treatment given to avoid the patient<br />
cooling down.<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR B<br />
Acidemia should be avoided <strong>and</strong> treated by suitable shock treatment. GoR B<br />
Hypocalcemia < 0.9 mmol/l should be avoided <strong>and</strong> can be treated. GoR 0<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Similar to damage c<strong>on</strong>trol surgery, where definitive anatomic management is temporarily<br />
deferred in favor <strong>of</strong> stabilizing the vital physiologic signs, the c<strong>on</strong>cept <strong>of</strong> damage c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
resuscitati<strong>on</strong> was developed to prevent trauma-induced coagulopathy [2]. Permissive<br />
hypotensi<strong>on</strong>, the preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> acidemia, hypocalcemia <strong>and</strong> hypothermia, <strong>and</strong> the administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong>-promoting products are part <strong>of</strong> this procedure [111]. The prerequisite for<br />
determining these parameters is c<strong>on</strong>sistent, invasive hemodynamic m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>and</strong> the possibility<br />
for prompt, repetitive blood gas analyses.<br />
Permissive hypotensi<strong>on</strong>: The term describes 2 approaches: firstly, to tolerate a lower than normal<br />
blood pressure <strong>and</strong> even to aim towards that in order to support thrombus formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>,<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dly, to infuse <strong>on</strong>ly a small amount <strong>of</strong> fluid in order to prevent iatrogenic diluti<strong>on</strong> while still<br />
ensuring adequate perfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the end organs. The correlati<strong>on</strong> between “normal” blood pressure<br />
<strong>and</strong> bleeding tendency in trauma was already known by the end <strong>of</strong> the First World War [12]. The<br />
idea evolved in the military envir<strong>on</strong>ment <strong>of</strong> tolerating low blood pressure values <strong>with</strong> a radial<br />
pulse that could still be felt as l<strong>on</strong>g as no surgical hemostasis is warranted [2].<br />
The basis for the clinical applicati<strong>on</strong> is a study by Bickell et al. [3] from 1994 <strong>of</strong> penetrating<br />
injuries in which patients <strong>with</strong> prehospital replacement therapy had an increased case fatality<br />
rate. The accompanying editorial [57] <strong>and</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> readers’ letters menti<strong>on</strong>ed the<br />
deficiencies in study design, c<strong>on</strong>duct, <strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong>. Using the data from the German trauma<br />
registry, Maegele et al. [76] were able to show that an increasing frequency in coagulopathy<br />
occurred <strong>with</strong> increasing prehospital fluid therapy. In a r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial <strong>with</strong><br />
paramedics, Turner et al. [127] found no evidence in trauma patients <strong>of</strong> either advantage or<br />
disadvantage in prehospital fluid therapy (odds ratio [OR] for death from volume administrati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
1.07 <strong>with</strong> 95% CI: 0.73-1.54; <strong>with</strong> exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> ambiguous patient data: OR 1.04; 95% CI: 0.70–<br />
1.53). Dutt<strong>on</strong> et al. [28] noted no change in the durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> active bleeding in each <strong>of</strong> 55<br />
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traumatized patients (51% penetrating injury), whose volume replacement was titrated to a<br />
systolic blood pressure <strong>of</strong> > 100 mmHg or 70 mmHg. However, the authors showed that a<br />
sudden reducti<strong>on</strong> in fluid requirement <strong>with</strong> increasing blood pressure is a sign <strong>of</strong> arrested<br />
bleeding [26]. A Cochrane Review from 2003 [65] also found no evidence for or against early,<br />
greater volume therapy for unc<strong>on</strong>trolled bleeding.<br />
Due to pathophysiologic c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s, a target blood pressure <strong>of</strong> 65 mmHg as mean pressure or<br />
90 mmHg as systolic value is recommended in current review papers for patients <strong>with</strong> massive<br />
bleeding despite a lack <strong>of</strong> evidence-based pro<strong>of</strong>s. As adequate perfusi<strong>on</strong> pressure is necessary if<br />
there is damage to the central nervous system, this recommendati<strong>on</strong> does not apply to patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> a traumatic brain injury [53, 74, 106, 123].<br />
Warming up: Hypothermia ≤ 34 °C has a major effect <strong>on</strong> platelet functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the activity <strong>of</strong><br />
coagulati<strong>on</strong> factors [71]. For the cooling down <strong>of</strong> the patient to be kept to a minimum, the initial<br />
fluid therapy must be provided exclusively by warmed infusi<strong>on</strong>s [2, 124] <strong>and</strong>, from the<br />
emergency room <strong>on</strong>wards, any volume therapy must be administered <strong>on</strong>ly via infusi<strong>on</strong> warming<br />
devices <strong>with</strong> an infusi<strong>on</strong> temperature <strong>of</strong> 40–42 °C [97, 124]. Both passive (e.g., foil space<br />
blankets, blankets, removal <strong>of</strong> wet clothing) <strong>and</strong> active measures (e.g., replacing<br />
infusi<strong>on</strong>s brought in <strong>with</strong> warmed infusi<strong>on</strong>s, c<strong>on</strong>stant use <strong>of</strong> heating pads, radiant heaters, hot air<br />
fans) are helpful. Both during the diagnostic study <strong>and</strong> later in the operating room, the room<br />
temperature should be as high as possible - in the therm<strong>on</strong>eutral z<strong>on</strong>e if possible, i.e. 28–29 °C<br />
[97, 106, 126].<br />
In the pig model, hypothermia reduces thrombin formati<strong>on</strong> in the initial phase <strong>and</strong> impairs<br />
fibrinogen formati<strong>on</strong> [79]. The hypothermia-induced platelet dysfuncti<strong>on</strong> can be partially<br />
corrected in vitro <strong>with</strong> an infusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> desmopressin (DDAVP) in the typical dose <strong>of</strong> 0.3 µg/kg<br />
[135]. In a thrombelastography study, Rundgren et al. [96] found evidence <strong>of</strong> an increasing effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> decreasing temperature in a temperature range <strong>of</strong> 25 to 40 °C. There are no<br />
r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials <strong>on</strong> trauma patients.<br />
Acidosis balance: Acidosis ≤ 7.2 has a marked negative effect <strong>on</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> [11, 71]. As the<br />
main cause <strong>of</strong> acidemia is hypoperfusi<strong>on</strong>, acidosis will persist until adequate tissue perfusi<strong>on</strong> is<br />
restored. Interventi<strong>on</strong>s that can intensify acidosis such as hypoventilati<strong>on</strong> or NaCl infusi<strong>on</strong>, for<br />
example, should be avoided [2]. The base excess (BE) also impairs coagulati<strong>on</strong> [71] <strong>and</strong> can be<br />
used as prognostic evidence <strong>of</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> death [106]. Using data from Meng et al. [84],<br />
Z<strong>and</strong>er et al. [137] showed that <strong>with</strong> a BE <strong>of</strong> - 15 the activity <strong>of</strong> various coagulati<strong>on</strong> factors is<br />
halved. Critical values for the BE start in a range from - 6 to - 10 [106, 136].<br />
In the pig model, Martini et al. [81] could not achieve any improvement in coagulopathy through<br />
buffering. As a single measure, buffering to pH values <strong>of</strong> ≥ 7.2 thus apparently leads to no<br />
improvement in coagulopathy [7] <strong>and</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly meaningful from a hemostaseologic viewpoint in<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> products. Even a massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
stored PRBC can str<strong>on</strong>gly increase acidosis [107]. The BE <strong>of</strong> fresh PRBC is - 20 mmol/l but<br />
after 6 weeks - 50 mmol/l [71]. Acidosis reduces thrombin formati<strong>on</strong> in the propagati<strong>on</strong> phase<br />
<strong>and</strong> accelerates fibrinogenolysis [79]. In the pig model, Martini et al. [82] proved that sodium<br />
bicarb<strong>on</strong>ate balances pH <strong>and</strong> BE but cannot normalize either the fibrinogen level or the impaired<br />
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thrombin formati<strong>on</strong>. Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (TRIS, THAM) also did not impair the<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in fibrinogen but stabilized the kinetics <strong>of</strong> thrombin generati<strong>on</strong> in pigs. At present, it<br />
cannot be c<strong>on</strong>cluded which <strong>of</strong> the two substances is better suited for buffering for<br />
hemostaseologic reas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Calcium replacement: The reducti<strong>on</strong> in i<strong>on</strong>ized calcium (Ca ++ ) after transfusi<strong>on</strong>s depends <strong>on</strong> the<br />
citrate used as anticoagulant in the banked blood <strong>and</strong> is particularly marked in fresh frozen<br />
plasma (FFP). The reducti<strong>on</strong> is more marked the quicker the banked blood is transfused,<br />
particularly at a transfusi<strong>on</strong> speed > 50 ml/min [11]. The calcium m<strong>on</strong>oproducts available in<br />
Germany for intravenous use c<strong>on</strong>tain very variable amounts <strong>of</strong> calcium i<strong>on</strong>s [69]. This must be<br />
taken into account during replacement. A marked impairment <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> must be assumed<br />
below an i<strong>on</strong>ized Ca ++ c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 0.9 mmol/l [11].<br />
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Replacement <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong>-promoting products<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A specific massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> protocol should be introduced <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued. GoR B<br />
In an actively bleeding patient, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for transfusi<strong>on</strong> can be made at<br />
hemoglobin levels below 10 g/dl or 6.2 mmol/l, <strong>and</strong> the hematocrit value<br />
maintained at 30%.<br />
If coagulati<strong>on</strong> therapy in massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s is carried out by administering<br />
FFP, the FFP:PRBC target ratio should be in the range <strong>of</strong> 1:2 <strong>and</strong> 1:1.<br />
Replacement <strong>of</strong> fibrinogen should be carried out if levels are at < 1.5 g/l<br />
(150 mg/dl).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Packed red blood cells (PRBC): An increasing number <strong>of</strong> publicati<strong>on</strong>s in the fields <strong>of</strong> trauma <strong>and</strong><br />
intensive care point out the negative effect <strong>of</strong> PRBC administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> survival (see, for<br />
example, review in [2] or [125]). Mal<strong>on</strong>e et al. [77] noted in 15,534 trauma patients that a blood<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong> was a str<strong>on</strong>g, independent predictor for mortality (OR 2.83; 95% CI: 1.82–4.40;<br />
p < 0.001). PRBC supplies aged > 14 days result in a significant worsening in survival both for<br />
mildly injured [131] as well as severely injured [130] trauma patients [110].<br />
However, the involvement <strong>of</strong> red blood corpuscles in coagulati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>firmed (see, for example,<br />
review in [43] or [71]). In a TIC, a restrictive transfusi<strong>on</strong> trigger can be unfavorable [83] as<br />
significant impairments to coagulati<strong>on</strong> develop clearly before oxygenati<strong>on</strong> has an effect [43].<br />
While there are no r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled data <strong>on</strong> hemostaseologically optimum hemoglobin <strong>and</strong><br />
hematocrit values in polytrauma, target hemoglobin c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s until arrest <strong>of</strong> bleeding<br />
should be in the range <strong>of</strong> 10 g/dl (6.2 mmol/l, hematocrit 30%) according to the German Medical<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>, due to the favorable effects <strong>of</strong> higher hematocrit values <strong>on</strong> primary hemostasis in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> massive, n<strong>on</strong>-arrested hemorrhage [11]. The German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> bases this<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the review paper by Hardy et al. [42], which states that in bleeding patients<br />
experimental data indicate that hematocrit values <strong>of</strong> up to 35% are necessary to maintain<br />
hemostasis.<br />
Frozen fresh plasma (FFP): In a systematic review <strong>of</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials, Stanworth et<br />
al. [116] found no evidence <strong>of</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> FFP transfusi<strong>on</strong> either in the group <strong>of</strong> massive<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong>s or in a wide variety <strong>of</strong> other indicati<strong>on</strong>s but frequently found problems in study<br />
design. Chowdhury et al. [15] studied the efficacy <strong>of</strong> FFP administrati<strong>on</strong> in a cohort study <strong>of</strong> 22<br />
intensive patients. The <strong>of</strong>ten recommended volume <strong>of</strong> 10-15 ml/kg/BW did not lead to an<br />
adequate increase in factor c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>. This was <strong>on</strong>ly achieved <strong>with</strong> 30 ml/kg/BW, for which<br />
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the patients required a median volume <strong>of</strong> 2.5 l FFP. A r<strong>and</strong>omized double-blind trial <strong>of</strong> 90<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> severe, closed traumatic brain injury (GCS ≤ 8) was carried out by Etemadrezaie et<br />
al. [29]. One group received a slow transfusi<strong>on</strong> 10–15 ml/kg BW FFP while the c<strong>on</strong>trol group<br />
received the same amount <strong>of</strong> comm<strong>on</strong> salt. In the FFP group, a new intracerebral hematoma<br />
developed more frequently (p = 0.012), <strong>and</strong> the patients had a significantly elevated mortality<br />
rate (63% versus 35%, p = 0.006). Hedim et al. [44] achieved a plasma diluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 21% for 2.9<br />
hours <strong>with</strong> an infusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 10 ml/kg BW FFP.<br />
The transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> FFP also c<strong>on</strong>tains a series <strong>of</strong> risks: Dara et al. [20] noted a more frequent<br />
occurrence <strong>of</strong> acute lung injuries (ALI; 18% versus 4%, p = 0.021) after FFP transfusi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
patients in the medical intensive care unit. Sperry et al. [109] found prospectively in 415 patients<br />
approximately double the TRALI (transfusi<strong>on</strong>-associated acute lung insufficiency) risk <strong>with</strong> a<br />
ratio <strong>of</strong> FFP:PRBC > 1:1.5 (47.1% versus 24.0%, p = 0.001). Sarani et al. [99] showed after FFP<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong> in n<strong>on</strong>-traumatized patients in the surgical intensive care unit a relative risk for the<br />
occurrence <strong>of</strong> an infecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 2.99, severe, ventilator-associated pneum<strong>on</strong>ia <strong>of</strong> 5.42, severe<br />
bacteriemia <strong>of</strong> 3.35, <strong>and</strong> sepsis <strong>of</strong> 3.2 (each p < 001). There was a cumulative risk <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
~ 4% per FFP. Chaiwat et al. [14] identified the transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> FFP in trauma as an independent<br />
predictor for ARDS in 14,070 trauma patients: relative risk after transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 1-5 FFP <strong>of</strong> 1.66<br />
(95% CI: 0.88–3.15) <strong>and</strong> at > 5 FFP <strong>of</strong> 2.55 (95% CI: 1.17–5.55).<br />
The German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> regards the preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> microvascular<br />
bleeding as an indicati<strong>on</strong> for FFP but described the treatment <strong>of</strong> coagulopathy <strong>with</strong> FFP al<strong>on</strong>e as<br />
<strong>of</strong> little efficacy (increased rate, volume loading) [11]. It recommends rapid transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
initially 20 ml/kg BW but emphasizes that higher volumes may be necessary. There are no<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies to determine effective plasma doses [11].<br />
FFP ratio to PRBC: The military field provided the first evidence that the replacement <strong>of</strong> lost<br />
blood volume by “full blood” can provide a survival advantage in critically injured patients <strong>with</strong><br />
massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s (> 10 PRBC/24 h) [93]. However, full blood is not available in the Federal<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany.<br />
Hirshberg et al. [51] showed the necessity <strong>of</strong> early FFP replacement <strong>on</strong> a computer model <strong>and</strong><br />
they recommended an FFP:PRBC <strong>of</strong> 1:1.5 or the transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 2 FFP <strong>with</strong> the first PRBC. Ho et<br />
al. [52] calculated <strong>on</strong> a mathematical model that a bleeding-induced heavy loss <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong><br />
factors can <strong>on</strong>ly be remedied <strong>with</strong> a transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 1-1.5 FFP per PRBC; if the FFP<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> starts before the factor c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> has dropped below 50%, then a 1:1 ratio is<br />
sufficient. Borgmann et al. [6] showed the advantage <strong>of</strong> a 1:1 replacement <strong>of</strong> FFP <strong>and</strong> PRBC in<br />
military pers<strong>on</strong>nel. A retrospective study was carried out <strong>on</strong> the survival <strong>of</strong> 246 soldiers who had<br />
received replacement in a ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:8, 1:2.5 or 1:1.4. The hemorrhage-induced case fatality rates<br />
were 92.5%, 78%, <strong>and</strong> 37% (p < 0001). In the regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis, the FFP:PRBC ratio was<br />
linked independently <strong>with</strong> survival <strong>and</strong> discharge from hospital (OR 8.6; 95% CI: 2.1–35.2).<br />
Dente et al. [21] prospectively compared 73 civil patients after introducing a massive transfusi<strong>on</strong><br />
protocol c<strong>on</strong>taining PRBC, FPP, <strong>and</strong> platelets in the ratio 1:1:1 <strong>with</strong> 84 patients before<br />
introducing the protocol. The results showed a drastic reducti<strong>on</strong> in early coagulopathy (p<br />
= 0.023), 24-hour case fatality rate (17% versus 36%, p = 0.008), <strong>and</strong> 30-day case fatality rate<br />
for blunt trauma (34% versus 55%, p = 0.04). In 135 patients, Duchesne et al. [24] proved a<br />
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significant survival advantage <strong>with</strong> an FFP-PRBC ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:1 compared to 1:4 (26% versus<br />
87.5%, p = 0.0001). G<strong>on</strong>zalez et al. [39] compared the results <strong>of</strong> their massive transfusi<strong>on</strong><br />
protocol <strong>on</strong> 97 patients for the emergency room (PRBC:FFP > 2:1) <strong>with</strong> those <strong>of</strong> the ICU<br />
protocol (PRBC:FFP = 1:1). A TIC present <strong>on</strong> arrival in the emergency room could not be<br />
remedied until in the ICU, <strong>and</strong> the TIC at ICU admissi<strong>on</strong> correlated <strong>with</strong> the mortality rate (p<br />
= 0.02). A significantly reduced 30-day mortality was noted by Gunter et al. [41] for patients<br />
who received FFP <strong>and</strong> PRBC in a ratio ≥ 2:3 (41% versus 62%, p = 0.008). In a multicenter<br />
study <strong>of</strong> 466 patients, Holcomb et al. [54] showed that an FFP-PRBC ratio ≥ 1:2 compared to<br />
< 1:2 permitted better 30-day survival (40.4% versus 59.9%, p < 001). The combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
high FFP-PRBC <strong>and</strong> a high platelet-PRBC ratio increased the 6-hour, 24-hour, <strong>and</strong> 30-day<br />
survival (p < 005). Kashuk et al. [60] showed the advantage <strong>of</strong> a 1:2 FFP-PRBC ratio (survivors:<br />
median 1:2, n<strong>on</strong>-survivors: median 1:4, p < 0001) in 133 civil patients who received a massive<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in 6 hours. The authors nevertheless found a U-shaped curve: patients who<br />
received FFP <strong>and</strong> PRBC in the ratio 1:2 to 1:3 had the highest survival rate whereas the predicted<br />
mortality probability increased again <strong>with</strong> a ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:1. The authors thus recommended a ratio<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1:2 to 1:3. In 713 patients in the German trauma registry who required ≥ 10 PRBC until ICU<br />
admissi<strong>on</strong>, Maegele et al. [75] detected a survival advantage in relati<strong>on</strong> to the PRBC-FFP ratio <strong>of</strong><br />
> 1:1, 1:1 or < 1:1 (6 hours: 24.6% versus 9.6% versus 3.5%, p < 00001; 24 hours: 32.6% versus<br />
16.7% versus 11.3%, p < 00001; 30 days: 45.5% versus 35.1% versus 24.3%, p < 0001). The<br />
ratio < 1:1 led to a l<strong>on</strong>ger ventilati<strong>on</strong> dependency <strong>and</strong> a l<strong>on</strong>ger stay in ICU (p < 00005). In 415<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> an FFP-PRBC ratio <strong>of</strong> > 1:1.5, Sperry et al. [109] found prospectively a significant<br />
24-hour survival advantage (3.9% versus 12.8%, p = 0.012) <strong>with</strong> increased TRALI risk (47.1%<br />
versus 24.0%, p = 0.001). Scalea et al. [100] prospectively studied 250 patients. No survival<br />
advantage <strong>with</strong> a PRBC-FFP ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:1 was registered either in the total populati<strong>on</strong> or in the 81<br />
massively transfused patients. With a total mortality <strong>with</strong>in 24 hours <strong>of</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 4% (6% <strong>with</strong><br />
massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s), the authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded that other (less severely injured) patients had been<br />
studied than in the majority <strong>of</strong> other studies. In 383 trauma patients (exclusi<strong>on</strong>: severe TBI),<br />
Teixeira et al. [121] showed a linear increase in survival <strong>with</strong> increasing FFP-PRBC ratio up to a<br />
ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:3. After the admissi<strong>on</strong> GCS, the FFP-PRBC ratio was the sec<strong>on</strong>d most important<br />
predictor for survival. Snyder et al. [105] retrospectively carried out an outcome study <strong>on</strong> 134<br />
patients who required transfusi<strong>on</strong> ≥ 10 PRBC/24 h. They noted a significantly reduced 24-hour<br />
mortality <strong>of</strong> 40% when FFP <strong>and</strong> PRBC were administered in a ratio ≥ 1:2 (median 1:1.3)<br />
compared to 58% at < 1:2 (median 1:3.7) (relative risk [RR] 0.37, 95% CI: 0.22–0.64). However,<br />
the significance could no l<strong>on</strong>ger be c<strong>on</strong>firmed if the exact time <strong>of</strong> FFP transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in the first<br />
24 hours was taken into account (RR 0.84, 95% CI: 0.47–1.50). The authors justified this <strong>with</strong> a<br />
potential “survival bias”: the patients did not die because they received less FFP but received less<br />
FFP because they died. In a r<strong>and</strong>omized multicenter study, by means <strong>of</strong> a high FFP-PRBC ratio,<br />
Zink et al. [138] significantly improved survival in massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong>in 6 hours (37.3%<br />
at < 1:4 versus 15.2% at 1:4 to 1:1 versus 2.0% at ≥ 1:1; p < 0001) <strong>and</strong> lowered the total number<br />
<strong>of</strong> required PRBC (18 PRBC in the first 24 hours at < 1:1 versus 13 PRBC at > 1:1, p < 0001).<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> studies available indicate that patients who (will) require massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
have a life-threatening shock gain from a high FFP-PRBC ratio [111].<br />
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Massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> protocol: The term “massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>” mostly implies the transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
≥ 10 PRBC per 24 hours [111]; but as the highest mortality <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients occurs<br />
<strong>with</strong>in the first 6 hours, some authors also recommend ≥ 10 PRBC per 6 hours [60]. In Cott<strong>on</strong> et<br />
al. [19], the introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> protocol <strong>with</strong> an FFP-PRBC ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:1.5 led<br />
to a 74% fall in mortality probability (p = 0.001) <strong>and</strong> to a higher 30-day survival rate (56.8%<br />
versus 37.6%, p < 0001) [18] <strong>with</strong> shorter stay (12 days versus 16 days, p = 0.049) <strong>and</strong> fewer<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> days (5.7 days versus 8.2 days, p = 0.017). The authors attributed the improved<br />
survival to the earlier <strong>and</strong> faster infusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the increased FFP-PRBC ratio. After introducing a<br />
massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> protocol, Dente et al. [21] found evidence <strong>of</strong> an improved 24-hour survival<br />
(previously 36% versus 14%, p = 0.008) <strong>and</strong> 30-day survival (previously 55% versus 34%, p<br />
= 0.04) <strong>and</strong> a lower early mortality due to the coagulopathy (previously 21/31 versus 4/13, p<br />
= 0.023).<br />
The Trauma Associated <strong>Severe</strong> Hemorrhage (TASH) Score <strong>of</strong> the German DGU Trauma<br />
Registry [136] can be used in the civil arena for predicting a massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>. It comprises<br />
the factors systolic blood pressure, hemoglobin (Hb), BE, heart rate, free intraabdominal fluid,<br />
pelvic <strong>and</strong> femoral fracture, <strong>and</strong> male sex (0-28 points). An increasing TASH score could be<br />
attributed <strong>with</strong> good accuracy <strong>and</strong> discriminati<strong>on</strong> to an increasing probability for a massive<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong> (area under the curve [AUC] 0.89). Nunez et al. [88] developed a predicti<strong>on</strong> system<br />
for massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s [assessment <strong>of</strong> blood c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> (ABC)] <strong>with</strong> the parameters<br />
penetrating injury, positive finding from focused trauma s<strong>on</strong>ography (FAST), systolic blood<br />
pressure <strong>on</strong> arrival ≤ 90 mmHg <strong>and</strong> heart rate ≥ 120/min. For a value ≥ 2, they could attribute a<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> 75% <strong>and</strong> a specificity <strong>of</strong> 86% to this score.<br />
Platelet c<strong>on</strong>centrates (PC): In the case <strong>of</strong> acute loss, platelets are initially increasingly released<br />
from b<strong>on</strong>e marrow <strong>and</strong> spleen, which is why there is quite a delay before the platelet count falls<br />
after bleeding starts. After transfusi<strong>on</strong>, the transferred vital platelets are distributed in the blood<br />
<strong>and</strong> the spleen so that the recovery rate in the peripheral blood is <strong>on</strong>ly about 60-70% <strong>and</strong> even<br />
lower <strong>with</strong> DIC [11].<br />
In their retrospective multicenter study <strong>of</strong> civil trauma patients, Holcomb et al. [54] showed an<br />
improved 30-day survival <strong>with</strong> a PC-PRBC ratio <strong>of</strong> ≥ 1:2 (40.1% versus 59.9%, p < 001). The<br />
PC:PRBC ratio was an independent predictor for mortality. Perkins et al. [90] studied the effect<br />
<strong>on</strong> 694 soldiers who received massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> apharesis platelet c<strong>on</strong>centrate (aPC) in<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> to PRBC in 3 groups (aPC:PRBC 1:16, 1:18 to < 1:8 <strong>and</strong> > 1:8). The transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> aPC<br />
<strong>and</strong> PRBC in a ratio > 1:8 was characterized by a significantly higher 24-hour (64% versus 87%<br />
versus 95%, p < 0001) <strong>and</strong> 30-day survival (43% versus 60% versus 75%, p < 0001). In the<br />
multivariate analysis, the aPC-PRBC ratio was independently linked <strong>with</strong> the 24-hour <strong>and</strong> 30day<br />
survival. In a PRBC-FFP platelet ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:1:1, Dente et al. [21] noted a drastic reducti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
early coagulopathy (p = 0.023), 24-hour case fatality rate (17% versus 36%, p = 0.008) <strong>and</strong> 30day<br />
case fatality rate in blunt trauma (34% versus 55%, p = 0.04). The r<strong>and</strong>omized multicenter<br />
study by Zink et al. [138] <strong>with</strong> massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in 6 hours yielded significantly better<br />
values for the high ratio (6-hour survival: 22.8% versus 19% versus 3.2%, p < 0002; hospital<br />
survival: 43.7% versus 46.8% versus 27.4%, p < 003) for the 3 groups <strong>with</strong> a PC-PRBC ratio <strong>of</strong><br />
< 1:4, 1:4 to 1:1 <strong>and</strong> ≥ 1:1.<br />
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If the patient is in acute danger due to a massive blood loss or due to the locati<strong>on</strong> (intracerebral<br />
bleeding), the German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> recommends platelet replacement if the value falls<br />
below 100,000/µl [11]. If there are resulting platelet dysfuncti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> tendency to bleed, a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>comitant therapy <strong>with</strong> antifibrinolytics or desmopressin can be indicated [11].<br />
Fibrinogen: As the substrate <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong>, factor I (= fibrinogen) is essential not <strong>on</strong>ly for the<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the fibrin network but is also a lig<strong>and</strong> for the GPIIb-IIIa receptor at the platelet<br />
surface <strong>and</strong> thus resp<strong>on</strong>sible for platelet aggregati<strong>on</strong>. During diluti<strong>on</strong> or severe bleeding,<br />
fibrinogen appears to be the most vulnerable <strong>of</strong> all coagulati<strong>on</strong> factors <strong>and</strong> is the first to reach its<br />
critical c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> [11, 50]. As early as 1995, Hiippala [50] had c<strong>on</strong>firmed in patients who<br />
received a colloid transfusi<strong>on</strong> that the measurement <strong>of</strong> derived fibrinogen (measured using the<br />
Quick test) as well as fibrinogen measured using the method according to Clauss produces<br />
significantly higher values than corresp<strong>on</strong>d to the actual fibrinogen levels. According to the<br />
German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong>, the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 3 g fibrinogen in a volume <strong>of</strong> 3 liters <strong>of</strong><br />
plasma elevates the measured fibrinogen c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> by approximately 1 g/l; initial doses <strong>of</strong><br />
(2–) 4 (–6) g are thus necessary in adults [11].<br />
Singbartl et al. [104] illustrated in a mathematical model that the maximum permissible blood<br />
loss until the critical fibrinogen value has been reached is dependent <strong>on</strong> the baseline value.<br />
However, this is generally not known in the initial management during emergency admissi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Fries et al. [35] showed in an in vitro study that diluti<strong>on</strong> occurs through infusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> crystalloid or<br />
colloid soluti<strong>on</strong>s, inter alia also through 6% HES 130/0.4. Giving fibrinogen in a c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong><br />
which when c<strong>on</strong>verted was roughly equivalent to 3 g/70 kg BW was sufficient to achieve an<br />
improvement in the RoTEM parameters. The cause <strong>of</strong> this effect is regarded as an effect <strong>of</strong> the<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> between thrombin, factor XIII, <strong>and</strong> fibrinogen; this particularly applies for a diluti<strong>on</strong><br />
through HES [86]. Madjdpour et al. [73] proved in the pig that, <strong>with</strong> varying molecular weight<br />
(900, 500, 130) <strong>and</strong> the same degree <strong>of</strong> replacement (0.42), HES impairs coagulati<strong>on</strong> in a similar<br />
way. In thrombocytopenia induced in the pig model, Velik-Salchner et al. [128] normalized the<br />
impaired coagulati<strong>on</strong> parameters in the TEG by administering fibrinogen. Mittermayr et al. [85]<br />
proved in 61 r<strong>and</strong>omized patients <strong>with</strong> major spinal interventi<strong>on</strong>s that colloids reduce the speed<br />
<strong>and</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> clot formati<strong>on</strong> through impaired fibrin polymerizati<strong>on</strong>. Stinger et al. [119] showed<br />
a highly significant correlati<strong>on</strong> between the amount <strong>of</strong> fibrinogen administered <strong>and</strong> survival in<br />
252 patients who had been injured during the fighting in the Iraq war. Injured patients who<br />
received less than 1 g <strong>of</strong> fibrinogen per 5 PRBC showed a case fatality rate <strong>of</strong> 52% compared to<br />
24% if more than 1 g/5 PRBC was given. In establishing a c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> < 2 g/l as indicati<strong>on</strong><br />
for fibrinogen replacement (average 2 g, range 1-5 g), Fenger-Eriksen et al. [31] found evidence<br />
in 35 severely bleeding patients <strong>of</strong> a significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in the required PRBC (p < 00001), FFP<br />
(p < 00001) <strong>and</strong> PC (p < 0001) <strong>and</strong> blood loss (p < 005). In 30 massively bleeding patients <strong>with</strong><br />
hyp<strong>of</strong>ibrinogenemia <strong>of</strong> varying genesis, Weinkove et al. [132] raised the level <strong>of</strong> 0.65 to 2.01 g/l<br />
by giving 4 g <strong>of</strong> fibrinogen (median, range 2-14 g) (measurement according to Clauss). Farriols<br />
Danes et al. [30] showed that patients <strong>with</strong> acute, bleeding-induced hyp<strong>of</strong>ibrinogenemia<br />
(compared to chr<strong>on</strong>ic deficiency) reacted to fibrinogen replacement <strong>with</strong> a more marked increase<br />
<strong>and</strong> a significantly better 7-day survival rate (p = 0.014).<br />
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The widely used optical coagulati<strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring devices measure false elevated fibrinogen values<br />
when plasma is displaced by colloids [49]. Determining the derived fibrinogen is not sufficient<br />
for deciding whether there is an indicati<strong>on</strong> for replacement in massive bleeding [11]. The<br />
German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> recommends that in massive bleeding the fibrinogen c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong><br />
is measured using the Clauss method <strong>and</strong> that target values are set at ≥1.5 g/l (150 mg/dl) <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>with</strong> prior colloid exposure ≥2 g/l (200 mg/dl) [11]. If hyperfibrinolysis is suspected, an<br />
antifibrinolytic drug should be given beforeh<strong>and</strong> (e.g., 2 g tranexamic acid) [11].<br />
Prothrombin c<strong>on</strong>centrates (PPSB): The mixtures <strong>of</strong> vitamin K-dependent factors prothrombin =<br />
FII, proc<strong>on</strong>vertin = FVII, Stuart factor = FX, <strong>and</strong> antihemophilic factor B = FIX, <strong>and</strong> protein C,<br />
protein S, <strong>and</strong> protein Z c<strong>on</strong>tain neither fibrinogen nor FV or FVIII [98] <strong>and</strong> are <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ardized <strong>with</strong> regard to the factor IX c<strong>on</strong>tent [11]. Activated coagulati<strong>on</strong> factors <strong>and</strong><br />
activated protein C or plasmin are virtually no l<strong>on</strong>ger c<strong>on</strong>tained in the PPSB products available<br />
now so that undesirable effects such as thromboembolic events, disseminated intravasal<br />
coagulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or hyperfibrinolytic bleeding are very unlikely even when larger quantities are<br />
administered [11]. The thromboembolisms described in the past were thought to be caused by a<br />
marked surplus in prothrombin in some PPSB c<strong>on</strong>centrates no l<strong>on</strong>ger commercially available<br />
[40]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, it is no l<strong>on</strong>ger essential to replace antithrombin [11]. PPSB administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
for DIC is <strong>on</strong>ly indicated if manifest bleeding exists which is partly caused by a lack <strong>of</strong><br />
prothrombin complex factors <strong>and</strong> the cause <strong>of</strong> DIC is treated [11].<br />
The rati<strong>on</strong>ale for the use <strong>of</strong> PPSB compared to FFP is the absence <strong>of</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> transfusi<strong>on</strong>-induced<br />
(lung) injuries <strong>and</strong> viral safety. The main indicati<strong>on</strong> for PPSB is the eliminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the effect <strong>of</strong><br />
vitamin K antag<strong>on</strong>ists. This indicati<strong>on</strong> is proven by many studies <strong>and</strong>, in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
marcumarized patients, the German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> [11] recommends the preoperative<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> PPSB as a prophylaxis for bleeding. In the case <strong>of</strong> trauma-induced,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, loss or diluti<strong>on</strong>al coagulopathy, the deficiency in the prothrombin complex can be<br />
so pr<strong>on</strong>ounced that, despite transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> FFP, replacement <strong>with</strong> PPSB is also necessary [11,<br />
98]. Fries et al. [33] carried out diluti<strong>on</strong>al coagulopathy <strong>with</strong> 6% HES 130/0.4 in the pig model.<br />
Fibrinogen <strong>and</strong> PPSB replacement after a st<strong>and</strong>ardized liver lacerati<strong>on</strong> led to a significantly<br />
lower blood loss (240 ml, range 50-830 versus 1,800 ml, range 1,500-2,500, p < 00001) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
survival <strong>of</strong> all animals whereas 80% <strong>of</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>trol group died (p < 00001). Also in the pig,<br />
Dickneite et al. [22] showed a significant shortening in the time to hemostasis (median 35 versus<br />
82.5 min; p < 00001) <strong>and</strong> a trend towards reduced blood loss (mean value 275 versus 589 ml)<br />
through the sole administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> PPSB after arterial bleeding (spleen incisi<strong>on</strong>) <strong>with</strong> diluti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
coagulopathy. After venous bleeding (b<strong>on</strong>e fracture), there were significant reducti<strong>on</strong>s both in<br />
the time to hemostasis (median 27 versus 97 min; p < 00011) <strong>and</strong> in the blood loss (mean value<br />
71 versus 589 ml, p < 00017). The same working group [23] studied the efficacy <strong>of</strong> PPSB<br />
compared to FFP administrati<strong>on</strong> (15 <strong>and</strong> 40 ml/kg BW) in pigs <strong>with</strong> HES-induced diluti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
coagulopathy. In this instance as well, PPSB reduced the time to hemostasis (venous b<strong>on</strong>e<br />
trauma p = 0.001; arterial spleen trauma p = 0.028) <strong>and</strong> blood loss (venous b<strong>on</strong>e trauma p<br />
= 0.001; arterial spleen trauma p = 0.015).<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> severe bleeding, the German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> recommends initial bolus doses<br />
<strong>of</strong> 20-25 IU/kg BW; marked individual fluctuati<strong>on</strong>s in efficacy must be taken into account [11].<br />
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Antifibrinolytic drugs: Hyperfibrinolysis now appears to be more frequently assumed than before<br />
in multiply injured patients (~ 15% in [102]) <strong>and</strong> the extent correlates <strong>with</strong> the injury severity<br />
[67]. Hyperfibrinolysis is most comm<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> chest trauma, blunt abdominal trauma,<br />
pelvic trauma, <strong>and</strong> traumatic brain injury [58]. A prompt diagnosis <strong>of</strong> hyperfibrinolysis <strong>and</strong> also<br />
<strong>of</strong> the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> antifibrinolytic treatment is <strong>on</strong>ly possible by means <strong>of</strong><br />
thrombelastography [67, 101]. The administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the antifibrinolytic drug must be part <strong>of</strong> an<br />
overall therapeutic plan for the treatment <strong>of</strong> coagulopathies because hyperfibrinolysis can <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
involve heavy c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fibrinogen or even complete defibrinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient [58]. This<br />
fibrinogen deficiency must then be appropriately balanced after the manifestati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
hyperfibrinolysis [58], i.e. the antifibrinolytic drug should be administered before the fibrinogen<br />
if hyperfibrinolysis is suspected [11]. Tranexamic acid is a synthetic lysine analogue, which<br />
inhibits the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> plasminogen into plasmin by blocking the plasminogen from binding<br />
to the fibrin molecule. The <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> tranexamic acid is delayed compared to aprotinin as<br />
free plasmin c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be active [102]. With a lack <strong>of</strong> evidence for multiply injured patients, it<br />
is recommended that initially 2–4 g (10–30 mg/kg BW [36, 58] is administered or a bolus dose<br />
<strong>of</strong> 10–15 mg/kg BW followed by 1–5 mg/kg BW/h [106].<br />
Due to a lack <strong>of</strong> evidence-based data, a Cochrane Review from 2004 [17] could neither c<strong>on</strong>firm<br />
nor refute the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antifibrinolytics in trauma patients. Another Cochrane Review<br />
from 2007 <strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> reducing perioperative blood transfusi<strong>on</strong>s through antifibrinolytic<br />
drugs [45] established for tranexamic acid a relative risk for PRBC administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 0.61 (95%<br />
CI: 0.54-0.70) <strong>and</strong> a trend towards fewer re-operati<strong>on</strong>s. Tranexamic acid reduced the necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
a blood transfusi<strong>on</strong> relatively by 43% (RR 0.57; 95% CI: 0.49–0.66). A cumulative occurrence<br />
<strong>of</strong> serious side effects was not noted. A study published in The Lancet in 2010 (CRASH<br />
[Clinical R<strong>and</strong>omizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Antifibrinolytics in Significant Hemorrhage]-2 Study) [16] supports<br />
this c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>: 1 g <strong>of</strong> tranexamic acid in 10 minutes + 1 g over 8 hours led to a significant<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in all-cause mortality <strong>and</strong> in bleeding-induced mortality <strong>with</strong>out an increased rate in<br />
thromboembolisms.<br />
Desmopressin (DDAVP): Desmopressin (1-deamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin) is a synthetic<br />
vasopressin analogue. Desmopressin (e.g., Minirin®) effectuates n<strong>on</strong>specific platelet activati<strong>on</strong><br />
(increased expressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the platelet GpIb receptor [89]), releases the v<strong>on</strong> Willebr<strong>and</strong> factor <strong>and</strong><br />
FVIII from the endothelium <strong>of</strong> the hepatic sinusoids, <strong>and</strong> thus improves primary hemostasis [32].<br />
The main indicati<strong>on</strong> lies in perioperative treatment <strong>of</strong> v<strong>on</strong> Willebr<strong>and</strong> syndrome. DDAVP also<br />
shows good efficacy in patients after heparin administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> restricted platelet functi<strong>on</strong><br />
due to taking aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid) or ADP receptor antag<strong>on</strong>ists/thienopyridine<br />
derivatives <strong>with</strong> uremia <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> liver disease or thrombocytopenia [32]. The maximum effect<br />
after i.v. administrati<strong>on</strong> occurs <strong>on</strong>ly after about 90 minutes [68]. With repeated administrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) can be released, thereby possibly leading to<br />
hyperfibrinolysis. Thus, <strong>with</strong> repeated administrati<strong>on</strong>, some authors recommend simultaneous<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> tranexamic acid [68]. In cardio-surgical patients, a not significantly increased<br />
rate in heart attacks was c<strong>on</strong>firmed after DDAVP (OR 2.07; 95% CI: 0.74–5.85; p = 0.19) [68].<br />
Ying et al. [135] corrected in vitro the hypothermia-induced dysfuncti<strong>on</strong>s in hemostasis at least<br />
partially through DDAVP. Whereas the Cochrane Review <strong>of</strong> 18 studies <strong>with</strong> 1,295 patients by<br />
Carless et al. [13] could not c<strong>on</strong>firm any efficacy for the prophylactic administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
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desmopressin, Zotz et al. [139] searched the same available data for the subgroup <strong>of</strong> patients who<br />
had either > 1 l blood loss or a history <strong>of</strong> taking aspirin. For the therapeutic use <strong>of</strong> DDAVP, there<br />
was thus a significantly reduced blood loss (weighted mean difference [WMD] = - 386 ml; 95%<br />
CI: - 542- - 231 ml per patient; p = 0.0001) <strong>and</strong> a likewise significantly reduced, transfused<br />
blood volume (WMD = - 340 ml, 95% CI = - 547- - 134 ml per patient; p = 0.0001). There are<br />
currently no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>of</strong> trauma patients.<br />
From a pathophysiologic viewpoint, a treatment attempt <strong>with</strong> DDAVP can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered in a<br />
dose <strong>of</strong> 0.3 µg/kg BW over 30 minutes in diffusely bleeding patients <strong>with</strong> suspected<br />
thrombocytopathy.<br />
Factor XIII: In the presence <strong>of</strong> calcium i<strong>on</strong>s, FXIII effectuates the covalent crosslinking <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fibrin. A three-dimensi<strong>on</strong>al fibrin network is thus formed which effectuates definitive wound<br />
healing [11]. Factor XIII is not recorded by the Quick <strong>and</strong> aPTT (activated partial thromboplastin<br />
time) coagulati<strong>on</strong> screening tests as these tests <strong>on</strong>ly measure the time fibrin formati<strong>on</strong> starts but<br />
not fibrin crosslinking [11].<br />
An acquired deficiency is not rare <strong>and</strong> can arise <strong>with</strong> a TIC as a result <strong>of</strong> increased rate<br />
(increased blood loss, hyperfibrinolysis, DIC) <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> (in major surgery). In patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> existing coagulati<strong>on</strong> activati<strong>on</strong>, e.g., through having a tumor, a severe FXIII deficiency <strong>and</strong><br />
subsequent massive bleeding can result from a trauma or intraoperatively [62]. A lower FXIII<br />
level has been shown as a risk factor for bleeding in intracranial [37] <strong>and</strong> cardio-surgical [4, 38]<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s as well. In elective patients <strong>with</strong> unexpected intraoperative bleeding, Wettstein et<br />
al. [133] established a significantly higher blood loss (1,350 ml versus 450 ml; p < 0001) <strong>and</strong> a<br />
markedly more rapid c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fibrinogen <strong>and</strong> FXIII (p < 0001) compared <strong>with</strong> a n<strong>on</strong>bleeding<br />
collective. Korte et al. [63] found evidence in a prospective, r<strong>and</strong>omized, double-blind<br />
pilot study <strong>of</strong> 22 patients who were to receive surgery for col<strong>on</strong> cancer <strong>and</strong> had activated<br />
coagulati<strong>on</strong> (elevated preoperative fibrin m<strong>on</strong>omers) <strong>of</strong> a significantly smaller reducti<strong>on</strong> in clot<br />
firmness) <strong>and</strong> a trend towards less blood loss <strong>with</strong> a single dose <strong>of</strong> 30 IU/kg FXIII. There are no<br />
r<strong>and</strong>omized studies <strong>on</strong> trauma patients.<br />
If testing for FXIII cannot be d<strong>on</strong>e promptly, blind administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> FXIII should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered,<br />
especially in severe, acute bleeding [11]. Initially, 15-20 IU/kg BW is recommended as a<br />
possible dose until hemostasis. As the c<strong>on</strong>centrate is produced from human plasma, a residual<br />
risk <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong> cannot be excluded.<br />
Recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa): The approval <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa is restricted to bleeding in<br />
antibody hemophilia (antibodies to factors VIII or IX), Glanzmann thrombasthenia (inherited<br />
dysfuncti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the platelet GPIIb-IIIa receptor), <strong>and</strong> inherited FVII deficiency. In a<br />
supraphysiologic dose, rFVIIa binds to the activated platelets <strong>and</strong> there effectuates a “thrombin<br />
burst”, which leads to the formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an extremely stable fibrin clot [34]. On activated<br />
platelets, rFVIIa can also enable tissue factor-independent thrombin generati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Off-label use has been described in a large number <strong>of</strong> case histories. Adverse side effects in the<br />
form <strong>of</strong> thromboembolic events in the arterial <strong>and</strong> venous vascular system <strong>and</strong> in perioperatively<br />
or traumatically damaged vessels have been reported particularly in <strong>of</strong>f-label use [11]. Perkins et<br />
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al. [91] showed in soldiers from the Iraq war that early administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa could lower<br />
PRBC c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> by 20%. Of 365 massive transfused patients, 117 received rFVIIa. Likewise,<br />
in patients in the military who received massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s, Spinella et al. [113] noted a<br />
reduced 24-hour (14% versus 35%, p = 0.01) <strong>and</strong> 30-day mortality rate (31% versus 51%,<br />
p = 0.03) in early (median 2 hours after admissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> 2.5 hours after trauma) administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
rFVIIa. However, the logistic opti<strong>on</strong>s for preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong>, for example, blood comp<strong>on</strong>ents under<br />
war c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s cannot be compared <strong>with</strong> those <strong>of</strong> a European hospital. In the study in 2005 by<br />
B<strong>of</strong>fard et al. [5], the efficacy <strong>of</strong> 400 µg/kg BW rFVIIa (after the 8th PRBC initially 200<br />
µg/kg BW, then 100 µg/kg BW each after 1 <strong>and</strong> 3 hours) as adjunctive therapy was tested<br />
compared to placebo in 143 blunt <strong>and</strong> 134 penetrating trauma injuries. In blunt trauma, there was<br />
a significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in the number <strong>of</strong> transfused PRBCs (calculated reducti<strong>on</strong> by 2.6 PRBC, p<br />
= 0.02) <strong>and</strong> in the necessity for a transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> ≥ 20 PRBC (14% versus 33%; p = 0.03). In<br />
penetrating injuries, there was a trend in this directi<strong>on</strong> for both parameters. Neither a lowering in<br />
the mortality rate nor an accumulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> thromboembolic side effects was observed. In 2009,<br />
Stein et al. [117] posed the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> costs. With the same rate <strong>of</strong> mortality <strong>and</strong> side effects, the<br />
authors could establish no significant difference in the costs (mean value US$63,403<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally versus US$66,086 in rFVIIa) in 179 patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain injury. For the<br />
110 patients who were placed in the intensive care unit, there was even a significant cost<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> through rFVIIa (mean value US$108,900 c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally versus US$77,907 in rFVIIa).<br />
However, really low doses were used in this study (5.9–115 µg/kg BW; mean value<br />
41.9 ± 35.5 µg/kg BW, median 25.1 µg/kg BW). Several meta-analyses <strong>of</strong> RCTs have studied<br />
the efficacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>f-label use: Stanworth et al. [115] found 13 placebo-c<strong>on</strong>trolled, double-blind<br />
RCTs <strong>on</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa in patients who were not hemophiliac. In prophylactic use (n = 724,<br />
379 received rFVIIa), there was a trend towards reduced transfusi<strong>on</strong> frequency (pooled RR 0.85;<br />
95% CI: 0.72-1.01), which c<strong>on</strong>tradicts a trend towards increased thromboembolisms (pooled RR<br />
1.25; 95% CI: 0.76–2.07). In therapeutic use (n = 1,214; 687 received rFVIIa), there was a trend<br />
towards reduced mortality (pooled RR 0.82; 95% CI: 0.64-1.04) <strong>and</strong> again a trend towards<br />
increased thromboembolisms (RR 1.50; 95% CI: 0.86–2.62). In 2008, Hsia et al. [56] published<br />
the results <strong>of</strong> 22 RCTs <strong>on</strong> bleeding <strong>of</strong> different genesis in 3,184 n<strong>on</strong>-hemophiliac patients (<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
the study by B<strong>of</strong>fard et al. [5] c<strong>on</strong>tains 301 trauma patients). The result was a reduced need for<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong> (OR 0.54; 95% CI: 0.34–0.86), a trend towards reduced case fatality rate (OR 0.88;<br />
95% CI: 0.71–1.09) <strong>and</strong> no change in venous but a trend towards cumulative arterial<br />
thromboembolisms (OR 1.50; 95% CI: 0.93–2.41). In 2008, Duchesne et al. [25] examined 19<br />
studies <strong>of</strong> trauma patients: Based <strong>on</strong> B<strong>of</strong>fard et al. [5], the authors gave a Level 1<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> for the use <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa in blunt trauma. A Level 2 recommendati<strong>on</strong> was given for<br />
trauma-associated hemorrhaging <strong>with</strong> 400 µg/kg BW (lower dose could also be effective) if<br />
other treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s failed. Early use was assessed as Level 3. In 2009, Nishijima et al. [87]<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly found the above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed study by B<strong>of</strong>fard [5] <strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa use in the<br />
emergency room. A large internati<strong>on</strong>al phase III study <strong>on</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa in trauma patients<br />
was recently disc<strong>on</strong>tinued as the planned lowering in mortality could not be achieved [111].<br />
The effectiveness <strong>of</strong> rFVIIa <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the coagulati<strong>on</strong> sequences thus indicated is linked to a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> “framework c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s”, which should be attained before administrati<strong>on</strong>: fibrinogen value<br />
≥ 1 g/dl, Hb ≥ 7 g/dl, platelet count ≥ 50,000 (preferably ≥ 100,000)/µl), i<strong>on</strong>ized calcium<br />
≥ 0.9 mmol/l, core temperature ≥ 34 °C, pH value ≥ 7.2, <strong>and</strong> the exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hyperfibrinolysis<br />
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or a heparin effect [11, 34, 106, 120]. A widely-used “st<strong>and</strong>ard dose” for <strong>of</strong>f-label use is<br />
90 µg/kg BW [27, 56, 129]. However, the necessary dose remains ambiguous [106]; a very high<br />
total dose <strong>of</strong> 400 µg/kg BW is used in the <strong>on</strong>ly class 1 study by B<strong>of</strong>fard et al. [5]. Due to the very<br />
short half-life, a repeat dose can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered after 2 hours [108] even if the need for a repeat<br />
dose is more likely to indicate a lack <strong>of</strong> effectiveness according to the review by Dutt<strong>on</strong> et al.<br />
[27].<br />
The German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> refers in its guidelines to the review article by Mannucci et al.<br />
[78]. Its c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> states that rFVIIa is no w<strong>on</strong>der substance but possesses efficacy in patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> trauma <strong>and</strong> excessive bleeding who do not resp<strong>on</strong>d to other treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s. Its use, but<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly after c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al treatments have not been successful, is also propagated in current<br />
reviews [25, 27, 56]. The current summary <strong>of</strong> product characteristics from NovoNordisc (May<br />
2009) recommends that rFVIIa is not used <strong>of</strong>f-label due to the risk <strong>of</strong> arterial thrombotic events<br />
in the range <strong>of</strong> ≥ 1/100 to < 1/10.<br />
Antithrombin: There are no prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized studies <strong>on</strong> multiply injured patients.<br />
However, <strong>with</strong> persistent massive bleeding, administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antithrombin (formerly ATIII) will<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly intensify it <strong>and</strong> cannot therefore be recommended [74, 106]. In their meta-analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials <strong>of</strong> critically ill intensive care patients (AT: n = 1,447, c<strong>on</strong>trol: n<br />
= 1,482), Afshari et al. [1] recorded a significant increase in the risk <strong>of</strong> bleeding through the<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antithrombin (RR 1.52, 95% CI: 1.30–1.78, I2 = 0.3%). Even if this could not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firm any lowering in the case fatality rate, the German Medical Associati<strong>on</strong> recommends an<br />
<strong>of</strong>f-label use <strong>of</strong> ATIII <strong>on</strong>ly in c<strong>on</strong>firmed DIC <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed ATIII deficiency [11].<br />
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Summary table<br />
The above-described drug treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s can be summarized as follows (modified according<br />
to [70, 118]):<br />
Table 13: Drug opti<strong>on</strong>s for coagulati<strong>on</strong> therapy<br />
1. Stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> framework<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (prophylaxis <strong>and</strong> therapy)<br />
Core temperature ≥ 34 °C<br />
pH value ≥ 7.2<br />
i<strong>on</strong>ized Ca ++ c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> ≥ 0.9 mmol/l<br />
2. Replacement <strong>of</strong> oxygen carriers PRBC administrati<strong>on</strong> (functi<strong>on</strong>al goal: Hb 6 [–8] g/dl<br />
but hemostaseologic goal in massive bleeding:<br />
Hct ≥ 30% <strong>and</strong> Hb ~10 g/dl [6.2 mmol/l])<br />
3. Inhibiting potential<br />
(hyper)fibrinolysis<br />
(always BEFORE administering<br />
fibrinogen!)<br />
4. Replacement <strong>of</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> factors<br />
(in the case <strong>of</strong> sustained tendency for<br />
severe bleeding)<br />
<strong>and</strong> (if suspected thrombocytopathy)<br />
n<strong>on</strong>specific platelet activati<strong>on</strong> +<br />
release <strong>of</strong> the “v<strong>on</strong> Willebr<strong>and</strong> factor”<br />
<strong>and</strong> FVIII from the endothelium<br />
5. Replacement <strong>of</strong> platelets for<br />
primary hemostasis<br />
6. If necessary, thrombin burst <strong>with</strong><br />
platelet <strong>and</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong> activati<strong>on</strong><br />
(please note requirements!!)<br />
if active bleeding no antithrombin<br />
Tranexamic acid initially 2 g (15–30 mg/kg BW) or<br />
1 g as saturati<strong>on</strong> over 10 minutes + 1 g over 8 h<br />
FFP ≥ 20 (more likely 30) ml/kg BW<br />
If coagulati<strong>on</strong> therapy in massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>s is<br />
carried out by administering FFP, the FFP:PRBC ratio<br />
should be in the target range <strong>of</strong> 1:2 <strong>and</strong> 1:1.<br />
<strong>and</strong> fibrinogen (2–) 4 (–8) g (30–60 mg/kg BW;<br />
goal: ≥ 150 mg/dl <strong>and</strong> ≥ 1.5 g/l)<br />
<strong>and</strong> if necessary PPSB initially 1,000–2,500 IU<br />
(25 IU/kg BW)<br />
if necessary 1–2x FXIII 1,250 IU (15–20 IU/kg BW)<br />
if necessary DDAVP = desmopressin 0.3 µg/kg BW<br />
over 30 minutes (“1 ampoule per 10 kg BW”)<br />
platelet c<strong>on</strong>centrates (goal for transfusi<strong>on</strong>-dependent<br />
bleeding: 100,000/µl)<br />
in the individual case & if all other treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are unsuccessful<br />
if necessary initially 90 µg/kg BW rFVIIa<br />
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References<br />
1. Afshari A, Wetterslev J, Brok J et al. (2007)<br />
Antithrombin III in critically ill patients: systematic<br />
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2. Beekley AC (2008) Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol resuscitati<strong>on</strong>: a<br />
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3. Bickell WH, Wall MJ, Jr., Pepe PE et al. (1994)<br />
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Trauma 60: S59-S69<br />
94. Rixen D, Raum M, Bouill<strong>on</strong> B et al. (2001)<br />
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95. Rugeri L, Levrat A, David JS et al. (2007) Diagnosis<br />
<strong>of</strong> early coagulati<strong>on</strong> abnormalities in trauma patients<br />
by rotati<strong>on</strong> thrombelastography. J Thromb Haemost 5:<br />
289-295 [LoE 3b]<br />
96. Rundgren M, Engstrom M (2008) A<br />
thromboelastometric evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the effects <strong>of</strong><br />
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97. Sagraves SG, Toschlog EA, Rot<strong>on</strong>do MF (2006)<br />
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98. Samama CM (2008) Prothrombin complex<br />
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99. Sarani B, Dunkman WJ, Dean L et al. (2008)<br />
Transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fresh frozen plasma in critically ill<br />
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100. Scalea TM, Bochicchio KM, Lumpkins K et al.<br />
(2008) Early aggressive use <strong>of</strong> fresh frozen plasma<br />
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101. Schochl H, Frietsch T, Pavelka M et al. (2009)<br />
Hyperfibrinolysis after major trauma: differential<br />
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102. Schöchl H (2006) Gerinnungsmanagement bei<br />
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Transfusi<strong>on</strong> management <strong>of</strong> trauma patients. Anesth<br />
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104. Singbartl K, Innerh<strong>of</strong>er P, Radvan J et al. (2003)<br />
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105. Snyder CW, Weinberg JA, McGwin G, Jr. et al.<br />
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mortality: survival benefit or survival bias? J Trauma<br />
66: 358-362 [LoE 2c]<br />
106. Spahn DR, Cerny V, Coats TJ et al. (2007)<br />
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107. Spahn DR, Rossaint R (2005) Coagulopathy <strong>and</strong><br />
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95: 130-139<br />
108. Spahn DR, Tucci MA, Makris M (2005) Is<br />
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109. Sperry JL, Ochoa JB, Gunn SR et al. (2008) An<br />
FFP:PRBC transfusi<strong>on</strong> ratio >/=1:1.5 is associated<br />
<strong>with</strong> a lower risk <strong>of</strong> mortality after massive<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong>. J Trauma 65: 986-993 [LoE 2b]<br />
110. Spinella PC (2008) Warm fresh whole blood<br />
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111. Spinella PC, Holcomb JB (2009) Resuscitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
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112. Spinella PC, Perkins JG, Grathwohl KW et al. (2008)<br />
Effect <strong>of</strong> plasma <strong>and</strong> red blood cell transfusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
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injuries. J Trauma 64: S69-S77 [LoE 3b]<br />
113. Spinella PC, Perkins JG, McLaughlin DF et al. (2008)<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> recombinant activated factor VII <strong>on</strong><br />
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114. Stainsby D, MacLennan S, Hamilt<strong>on</strong> PJ (2000)<br />
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115. Stanworth SJ, Birchall J, Doree CJ et al. (2007)<br />
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116. Stanworth SJ, Brunskill SJ, Hyde CJ et al. (2004) Is<br />
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118. Steuernagel,C. Bleeding Card. Erreichbar unter:<br />
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119. Stinger HK, Spinella PC, Perkins JG et al. (2008) The<br />
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120. Tanaka KA, Taketomi T, Szlam F et al. (2008)<br />
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121. Teixeira PG, Inaba K, Shulman I et al. (2009) Impact<br />
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122. The CRASH-2 Trial Collaborators (2006) Improving<br />
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125. Tinmouth A, Ferguss<strong>on</strong> D, Yee IC et al. (2006)<br />
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126. Tsuei BJ, Kearney PA (2004) Hypothermia in the<br />
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128. Velik-Salchner C, Haas T, Innerh<strong>of</strong>er P et al. (2007)<br />
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(2008) Age <strong>of</strong> transfused blood: an independent<br />
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leukoreducti<strong>on</strong>. J Trauma 65: 279-282<br />
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132. Weinkove R, Rangarajan S (2008) Fibrinogen<br />
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A high ratio <strong>of</strong> plasma <strong>and</strong> platelets to packed red<br />
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2.17 Interventi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If possible, embolizati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out <strong>on</strong> patients whose<br />
hemodynamics can be stabilized.<br />
A stent/a stent graft must be used if an intimal dissecti<strong>on</strong>, vessel tear, AV<br />
fistula, pseudoaneurysm or a traumatic aortic rupture is present.<br />
If a patient <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> has a ruptured iliac artery or distal<br />
abdominal aortic hernia, a ballo<strong>on</strong> occlusi<strong>on</strong> can be temporarily carried out<br />
for up to 60 minutes.<br />
If there is renewed bleeding after successful embolizati<strong>on</strong>, further treatment<br />
should also be interventi<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong> for interventi<strong>on</strong>al treatment <strong>and</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong> algorithm<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR B<br />
The basic requirement for carrying out interventi<strong>on</strong>al radiology to m<strong>on</strong>itor bleeding should be<br />
the multi-slice CT scan (MSCT) <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent. Generally, the source <strong>of</strong> bleeding can be<br />
identified using this examinati<strong>on</strong>. Embolizati<strong>on</strong> should <strong>on</strong>ly be c<strong>on</strong>sidered if there is evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
an active c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> in the MSCT as <strong>on</strong>ly then is there adequate prospect <strong>of</strong> a<br />
successful visualizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the source <strong>of</strong> bleeding <strong>and</strong> subsequent treatment. In particular,<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>al treatment may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered in the following injury patterns:<br />
� pelvic fractures <strong>with</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> in the MSCT<br />
� spinal fractures <strong>with</strong> clear c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong><br />
� injuries to the great vessels<br />
� parallel or supplementary to surgical c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding<br />
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Technical <strong>and</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>nel requirements<br />
Carrying out interventi<strong>on</strong>al treatment to c<strong>on</strong>trol bleeding is <strong>on</strong>ly advisable if the following<br />
requirements are met:<br />
� A c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient must be possible under massive transfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
intensive medical treatment.<br />
� The pers<strong>on</strong>nel requirements must be met in the form <strong>of</strong> physicians <strong>on</strong> site who are<br />
experienced in angiography.<br />
� Supplies <strong>of</strong> the required embolizati<strong>on</strong> materials <strong>and</strong> stents must be available.<br />
Before carrying out a radiologic interventi<strong>on</strong>, which generally lasts between 30 <strong>and</strong> 60 minutes<br />
including transport to the angiography unit, it is essential to clarify whether the patient can be<br />
stabilized <strong>with</strong> transfusi<strong>on</strong>s up to the time <strong>of</strong> the interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> for the period <strong>of</strong> the<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>, whether the bleeding is located in an area that is typically accessible for<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> whether other sources <strong>of</strong> bleeding (e.g., extensive crani<strong>of</strong>acial injuries <strong>with</strong><br />
massive diffuse bleeding), which are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the blood loss, have been excluded.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> techniques for interventi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding<br />
In interventi<strong>on</strong>al radiology, the following materials are available for interventi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong><br />
bleeding:<br />
� n<strong>on</strong>-covered <strong>and</strong> covered stents<br />
� metal coils<br />
� detachable ballo<strong>on</strong>s<br />
� solid particles<br />
− polyvinyl alcohol (C<strong>on</strong>tour ® )<br />
− gelatin foam (gel type)<br />
− microspheres (Embospheres ® )<br />
� liquid embolizati<strong>on</strong> materials<br />
− ethanol<br />
− tissue adhesives (Bucrylat ® )<br />
− occlusi<strong>on</strong> gel (Ethiblock ® )<br />
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The coils are available in different diameters, shapes, <strong>and</strong> lengths. They are particularly suitable<br />
for the precise embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> severely bleeding vessels <strong>of</strong> larger diameter. The positi<strong>on</strong>ing <strong>of</strong><br />
the coils can be very precise <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s are very rare.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tour particles are also available in different sizes between 100 <strong>and</strong> 500 µm <strong>and</strong> are<br />
particularly suitable for the treatment <strong>of</strong> diffuse bleeding from fracture z<strong>on</strong>es. Which <strong>of</strong> the<br />
above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed materials are to be used depends <strong>on</strong> the bleeding <strong>and</strong> the experience <strong>of</strong> the<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>al radiologist <strong>and</strong> requires an individual decisi<strong>on</strong> adapted to the situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The goal <strong>of</strong> every embolizati<strong>on</strong> must be to carry out treatment <strong>with</strong>out damaging the tissue if<br />
possible. In so doing, attenti<strong>on</strong> should be given to maintaining residual perfusi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
downstream organs <strong>and</strong> keeping damage to downstream tissue to the minimum.<br />
The main indicati<strong>on</strong> for implanting a n<strong>on</strong>-covered stent in trauma management is the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
an intimal dissecti<strong>on</strong>. There is an indicati<strong>on</strong> to implant a stent coated <strong>with</strong> polytetrafluroethylene<br />
(PTFE), dacr<strong>on</strong> or polyester in vessel tears, AV fistulas, pseudoaneurysms or traumatic aortic<br />
ruptures in order to cover the vessel leak.<br />
Temporary ballo<strong>on</strong> occlusi<strong>on</strong> is available as a last resort. This can take the form <strong>of</strong> an occlusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the infrarenal abdominal aorta for 30-60 minutes either under DSA or CT m<strong>on</strong>itoring or a<br />
more selective occlusi<strong>on</strong> in the internal iliac artery. However, if there is severe bleeding from the<br />
proximal internal iliac artery, preference should be given to coils for primary embolizati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
goal <strong>of</strong> temporary ballo<strong>on</strong> occlusi<strong>on</strong> is to permit restorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> central circulati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong><br />
maximum circulati<strong>on</strong> instability <strong>and</strong> thus to extend the timeframe until surgical or interventi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
care.<br />
Planning interventi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding<br />
A full-body MSCT scan is routinely performed before carrying out a radiologic interventi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolling bleeding. There is a proven st<strong>and</strong>ardized examinati<strong>on</strong> protocol for this. Besides the<br />
plain examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> head <strong>and</strong> spine, the MSCT examinati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>trast-enhanced<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> thorax, abdomen, <strong>and</strong> pelvis. The primary c<strong>on</strong>trast-enhanced examinati<strong>on</strong> after<br />
intravenous administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 120 ml c<strong>on</strong>trast agent at an injecti<strong>on</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> 2 ml/sec has been<br />
proven for the examinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> thorax, abdomen, <strong>and</strong> pelvis. The examinati<strong>on</strong> should be carried<br />
out 85 sec<strong>on</strong>ds after c<strong>on</strong>trast agent administrati<strong>on</strong> has started. This process ensures that, firstly,<br />
there is good, homogeneous c<strong>on</strong>trasting <strong>of</strong> the parenchymatous organs but, sec<strong>on</strong>dly, sufficiently<br />
good c<strong>on</strong>trasting <strong>of</strong> the great vessels is still ensured. In children <strong>and</strong> in a body weight less than<br />
60 kg, the quantity <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent <strong>and</strong> the flow rate should be adjusted appropriately (e.g.,<br />
child weighing 30 kg: 60 ml c<strong>on</strong>trast agent, flow rate 1 ml/s, child weighing 15 kg: 30 ml<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent, flow rate 0.5 ml/s). The start delay for the scan should remain at 80-85 sec<strong>on</strong>ds.<br />
The MSCT is able to visualize minimal density gradients reliably. Thus, the MSCT allows<br />
differentiati<strong>on</strong> between already coagulated blood (density values between 40 <strong>and</strong> 70 HU) <strong>and</strong><br />
active bleeding (density values between 25 <strong>and</strong> 370 HU, mean value 132 HU) [7].<br />
Emergency room – Interventi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> bleeding 293
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Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pelvis<br />
Overall, the embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pelvic fractures is <strong>on</strong>ly seldom indicated as most patients <strong>with</strong><br />
pelvic fractures are hemodynamically stable. According to a study by Agolini et al. [8], <strong>on</strong>ly 15<br />
patients (1.9%) required embolizati<strong>on</strong> out <strong>of</strong> 806 patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic fractures. Other authors<br />
give the rate <strong>of</strong> necessary embolizati<strong>on</strong>s at 3% [9].<br />
The management <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> significant bleeding from pelvic fractures is very challenging.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to arterial bleeding, venous bleeding also represents a big problem. Arterial bleeding<br />
can be stopped by arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong>. The resulting hematoma then acts as a tamp<strong>on</strong>ade <strong>and</strong><br />
also c<strong>on</strong>tributes towards arresting the venous bleeding. It is surgical hemostasis in arterial<br />
bleeding that frequently fails [10, 11] as the tamp<strong>on</strong>ade effect <strong>of</strong> the hematoma is removed<br />
during access to the iliac arteries, <strong>and</strong> massive, unc<strong>on</strong>trollable venous bleeding can occur. Even<br />
if definite evidence is still lacking, there are clear signs from clinical experience that arterial<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong> can help even in diffuse venous bleeding as the arterial forward flow is cut <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
According to our experience, the evidence here <strong>of</strong> active c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
MSCT greatly assists the decisi<strong>on</strong>-making process. If the pers<strong>on</strong>nel <strong>and</strong> logistic requirements are<br />
in place, embolizati<strong>on</strong> should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered if there is evidence <strong>of</strong> active, relevant c<strong>on</strong>trast agent<br />
extravasati<strong>on</strong> in the presence <strong>of</strong> a critical circulati<strong>on</strong> situati<strong>on</strong>. If the examinati<strong>on</strong> technique is<br />
appropriate, the quantity <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent sufficient, <strong>and</strong> the start delay 80-85 sec<strong>on</strong>ds after<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast agent administrati<strong>on</strong> has started, the lack <strong>of</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the MSCT is generally a reliable indicati<strong>on</strong> that arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong> could not promise success.<br />
The studies by Agolini et al. [8] also showed that early embolizati<strong>on</strong> leads to a more favorable<br />
result <strong>with</strong> regard to mortality. Thus, in this study <strong>with</strong> an admittedly relatively small patient<br />
collective which was embolized, there was an advantage for mortality in the group that was<br />
embolized <strong>with</strong>in 3 hours (mortality 14%) compared to the group embolized later (mortality<br />
75%).<br />
Embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spleen<br />
Arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong>s in splenic injuries are carried out <strong>on</strong>ly in isolated cases, usually as an<br />
alternative to surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>s to preserve the spleen [12]. Selective embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out<br />
subsequent surgery is successful in 87-95% <strong>of</strong> cases [3, 13]. Proximal embolizati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the lienal<br />
artery should be avoided due to the risk <strong>of</strong> massive abdominal wall or pancreatic infarcti<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, proximal embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the lienal artery is <strong>of</strong>ten not suited to achieving permanent<br />
hemostasis due to a reducti<strong>on</strong> in pressure in the intrasplenic vessels.<br />
Embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the liver<br />
Embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the hepatic artery can be successfully used in the management <strong>of</strong> post-traumatic<br />
bleeding [14, 15, 16], involving overall relatively small series. <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> sustained bleeding<br />
after primary surgical hemostasis to the liver in particular should undergo angiography <strong>and</strong>, if<br />
necessary, be embolized to avoid another operati<strong>on</strong> [17].<br />
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If there is renewed bleeding after successful embolizati<strong>on</strong>, further treatment should also be<br />
carried out by angiography. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the improved surgical results, arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong> has<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed particularly to improving the outcome after traumatic hepatic injuries [18].<br />
Embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the kidneys<br />
Many kidney injuries can be treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively. Avulsi<strong>on</strong>s to the vascular pedicle must be<br />
surgically managed <strong>with</strong>in the first few hours in order to preserve renal functi<strong>on</strong>. Angiography is<br />
indicated if, during the MSCT, c<strong>on</strong>trast agent extravasati<strong>on</strong> could be visualized in the kidney or<br />
around the kidney. Hemorrhagic-induced extravasati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast agent must not be c<strong>on</strong>fused<br />
<strong>with</strong> a dense c<strong>on</strong>trast agent collecti<strong>on</strong>, e.g., in a urinoma. The success <strong>of</strong> renal embolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
depends <strong>on</strong> this being carried out rapidly <strong>and</strong> as selectively as possible. A proximal occlusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the renal artery is <strong>on</strong>ly indicated when a nephrectomy is indicated due to the organ being<br />
damaged but this must <strong>on</strong>ly be d<strong>on</strong>e later when the patient is more stable. In any case, the search<br />
for pole vessels is important for the angiographic work-up <strong>of</strong> the traumatic kidney injury as these<br />
might also require embolizati<strong>on</strong>. Studies have shown that kidney embolizati<strong>on</strong> is successful as<br />
primary treatment in 82-100% <strong>of</strong> cases.<br />
Endovascular treatment <strong>of</strong> traumatic aortic rupture<br />
Numerous studies have been carried out during recent years <strong>on</strong> the value <strong>of</strong> endovascular<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> traumatic aortic rupture [19–26]. Practically all come to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that in an<br />
acute situati<strong>on</strong> preference should be given to endovascular treatment as opposed to the opensurgical<br />
procedure. Thus, Ott et al. [24] found evidence that the mortality <strong>and</strong> paraplegia rates in<br />
endovascular treatment are markedly better at 0% than the results <strong>of</strong> open-surgical treatment<br />
<strong>with</strong> a mortality <strong>of</strong> 17% <strong>and</strong> a paraplegia rate <strong>of</strong> 16%.<br />
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References<br />
1. Gruen G, Leit M, Gruen R, Peitzman A. The acute<br />
management <strong>of</strong> hemodynamically unstable multiple<br />
trauma patients <strong>with</strong> pelvic ring fractures. J Trauma<br />
1994; 36:706-711; discussi<strong>on</strong> 711-703.<br />
2. Nix J, Costanza M, Daley B, Powell M, Enders<strong>on</strong> B.<br />
Outcome <strong>of</strong> the current management <strong>of</strong> splenic<br />
injuries. J Trauma 2001; 50:835-842.<br />
3. Hagiwara A, Yukioka T, Ohta S, Nitatori T, Matsuda<br />
H, Shimazaki S. N<strong>on</strong>surgical management <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> blunt splenic injury: efficacy <strong>of</strong> transcatheter<br />
arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong>. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996;<br />
167:159-166.<br />
4. Saidi A, Bocqueraz F, Descotes J, et al. Blunt kidney<br />
trauma: a ten-year experience. Prog Urol 2004;<br />
14:1125-1131.<br />
5. Gourlay D, H<strong>of</strong>fer E, Routt M, Bulger E. Pelvic<br />
angiography for recurrent traumatic pelvic arterial<br />
hemorrhage. J Trauma 2005; 59:1168-1173;<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> 1173-1164.<br />
6. Sirit<strong>on</strong>gtaworn P. Management <strong>of</strong> life threatening<br />
hemorrhage from facial fracture. J Med Assoc Thai<br />
2005; 88:382-385.<br />
7. Shanmuganathan K, Mirvis S, Sover E. Value <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast-enhanced CT in detecting active hemorrhage<br />
in patients <strong>with</strong> blunt abdominal or pelvic trauma.<br />
AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 161:65-69.<br />
8. Agolini S, Shah K, Jaffe J, Newcomb J, Rhodes M,<br />
Reed J. Arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong> is a rapid <strong>and</strong> effective<br />
technique for c<strong>on</strong>trolling pelvic fracture hemorrhage.<br />
J Trauma 1997; 43:395-399.<br />
9. Mucha P, Welch T. Hemorrhage in major pelvic<br />
fractures. Surg Clin North Am 1988; 68:757-773.<br />
10. Ben-Menachem Y, Coldwell D, Young J, Burgess A.<br />
Hemorrhage associated <strong>with</strong> pelvic fractures: causes,<br />
diagnosis, <strong>and</strong> emergent management. AJR Am J<br />
Roentgenol 1991; 157:1005-1014.<br />
11. Panetta T, Sclafani S, Goldstein A, Phillips T, Shaftan<br />
G. Percutaneous transcatheter embolizati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
massive bleeding from pelvic fractures. J Trauma<br />
1985; 25:1021-1029.<br />
12. Chuang V, Reuter S. Selective arterial embolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
for the c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> traumatic splenic bleeding. Invest<br />
Radiol 1975; 10:18-24.<br />
13. Sclafani S, Weisberg A, Scalea T, Phillips T, Duncan<br />
A. Blunt splenic injuries: n<strong>on</strong>surgical treatment <strong>with</strong><br />
CT, arteriography, <strong>and</strong> transcatheter arterial<br />
embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the splenic artery. Radiology 1991;<br />
181:189-196.<br />
14. Yao D, Jeffrey R, Mirvis S, et al. Using c<strong>on</strong>trastenhanced<br />
helical CT to visualize arterial extravasati<strong>on</strong><br />
after blunt abdominal trauma: incidence <strong>and</strong> organ<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong>. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 178:17-20.<br />
15. Kos X, Fanchamps J, Trotteur G, D<strong>on</strong>delinger R.<br />
Radiologic Damage C<strong>on</strong>trol: evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
combined CT <strong>and</strong> angiography suite <strong>with</strong> a pivoting<br />
table. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 1999; 22:124-129.<br />
16. Inoguchi H, Mii S, Sakata H, Orita H, Yamashita S.<br />
Intrahepatic pseudoaneurysm after surgical hemostasis<br />
for a delayed hemorrhage due to blunt liver injury:<br />
report <strong>of</strong> a case. Surg Today 2001; 31:367-370.<br />
17. De Toma G, Mingoli A, Modini C, Cavallaro A, Stipa<br />
S. The value <strong>of</strong> angiography <strong>and</strong> selective hepatic<br />
artery embolizati<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>tinuous bleeding after<br />
surgery in liver trauma: case reports. J Trauma 1994;<br />
37:508-511.<br />
18. Richards<strong>on</strong> D, Franklin G, Lukan J, et al. Evoluti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the management <strong>of</strong> hepatic trauma: a 25-year<br />
perspective. Ann Surg 2000; 232:324-330.<br />
19. Duncan I, Wright N, Fingles<strong>on</strong> L, Coetzee J.<br />
Immediate endovascular stent-graft repair <strong>of</strong> an acute<br />
traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> the thoracic aorta: case report <strong>and</strong><br />
subject review. S Afr J Surg 2004; 42:47-50.<br />
20. Lawlor D, Ott M, Forbes T, Kribs S, Harris K, De<br />
RG. Endovascular management <strong>of</strong> traumatic thoracic<br />
aortic injuries. Can J Surg 2005; 48:293-297.<br />
21. Verdant A. Endovascular management <strong>of</strong> traumatic<br />
aortic injuries. Can J Surg 2006; 49:217; author reply<br />
217-218.<br />
22. Orend K, Pamler R, Kapfer X, Liewald F, Gorich J,<br />
Sunder-Plassmann L. Endovascular repair <strong>of</strong><br />
traumatic descending aortic transecti<strong>on</strong>. J Endovasc<br />
Ther 2002; 9:573-578.<br />
23. Amabile P, Collart F, Gariboldi V, Rollet G, Bartoli J,<br />
Piquet P. Surgical versus endovascular treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
traumatic thoracic aortic rupture. J Vasc Surg 2004;<br />
40:873-879.<br />
24. Ott M, Stewart T, Lawlor D, Gray D, Forbes T.<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> blunt thoracic aortic injuries:<br />
endovascular stents versus open repair. J Trauma<br />
2004; 56:565-570.<br />
25. Lin P, Bush R, Zhou W, Peden E, Lumsden A.<br />
Endovascular treatment <strong>of</strong> traumatic thoracic aortic<br />
injury--should this be the new st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>of</strong> treatment? J<br />
Vasc Surg 2006; 43 Suppl A:22A-29A.<br />
26. Dunham M, Zygun D, Petrasek P, Kortbeek J, Karmy-<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es R, Moore R. Endovascular stent grafts for acute<br />
blunt aortic injury. J Trauma 2004; 56:1173-1178.<br />
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3 Emergency surgery phase<br />
3.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
How would you decide?<br />
A 35-year-old cyclist has an accident. The patient is intubated <strong>and</strong> ventilated at the accident<br />
scene by the emergency physician. Volume replacement to support circulati<strong>on</strong> is introduced. The<br />
patient is brought to you for primary management. After exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> relevant intraabdominal or<br />
intrathoracic bleeding <strong>and</strong> after a thorough diagnostic study, the following injury pattern<br />
manifests itself: traumatic brain injury II °, chest trauma <strong>with</strong> multiple rib fracture <strong>and</strong><br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounced left pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>, I ° left open femoral shaft fracture, right distal lower leg<br />
fracture. The laboratory tests initially carried out show a hemoglobin value <strong>of</strong> 9.3 g/dl, INR <strong>of</strong><br />
77%, <strong>and</strong> a base excess <strong>of</strong> - 4.5 mmol/l.<br />
You c<strong>on</strong>sider what care opti<strong>on</strong>s exist in the first surgical phase for this patient <strong>and</strong> weigh up their<br />
advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages. The l<strong>on</strong>ger you think about it, the more questi<strong>on</strong>s arise: What is<br />
the first-line choice <strong>of</strong> surgery strategy for the femoral shaft fracture? Which care strategy is best<br />
for the distal lower leg fracture? Does the fibula have to be managed at the same time? Is<br />
primary definitive osteosynthesis sensible or is temporary osteosynthesis better? What role does<br />
the traumatic brain injury or the chest trauma play in the decisi<strong>on</strong>-making? You remember the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> similar cases in your department, the dogmatically repeated ideas <strong>of</strong> your<br />
“teacher” or other colleagues, the ec<strong>on</strong>omic “restraints” <strong>of</strong> your hospital administrati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
perennial lack <strong>of</strong> time to deal properly for <strong>on</strong>ce <strong>with</strong> the almost limitless complex literature <strong>on</strong><br />
polytrauma management. In the end, you opt <strong>on</strong>ce more to carry out the care based <strong>on</strong> your own<br />
experiences.<br />
How would other providers in Germany decide?<br />
By way <strong>of</strong> example, we will focus <strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> femoral shaft management. According to<br />
the available data in the trauma registry <strong>of</strong> the German Trauma Society, more than 65% <strong>of</strong> all<br />
multiple injuries involve injuries to the extremities <strong>and</strong>/or the pelvis (AIS > 2). It is, therefore, all<br />
the more ast<strong>on</strong>ishing that c<strong>on</strong>tradictory surgical management strategies for femoral shaft<br />
fractures in polytrauma are practiced <strong>and</strong> published [1]. According to analyses <strong>of</strong> the trauma<br />
registry, the primary management <strong>of</strong> femoral shaft fractures in multiply injured patients in<br />
Germany is, almost dogmatically, always <strong>with</strong> an external fixator in some hospitals, always <strong>with</strong><br />
a medullary nail in other hospitals, <strong>and</strong> finally in many hospitals, in every c<strong>on</strong>ceivable<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong>, sometimes <strong>with</strong> fixators <strong>and</strong> sometimes <strong>with</strong> nails [1].<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this “emergency surgery phase” guideline secti<strong>on</strong><br />
Such depicti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> “reality” refer to an alternative, <strong>of</strong>ten even c<strong>on</strong>tradictory range <strong>of</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from different hospitals. They support the need for an overview <strong>of</strong> the evidence levels <strong>and</strong> grades<br />
<strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> differing management strategies. Thus, the aim <strong>of</strong> this secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
guideline is to gain an overview <strong>of</strong> the evidence levels <strong>of</strong> different management strategies in the<br />
emergency surgery phase after multiple injury, <strong>and</strong> from this either to derive clinical treatment<br />
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algorithms (if there is sufficient evidence) or to document the need for scientific verificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
the evidence (grade <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
Special notes:<br />
In this guideline secti<strong>on</strong>, the assessment <strong>of</strong> core questi<strong>on</strong>s is <strong>of</strong>ten hampered by the lack <strong>of</strong><br />
“hard”, scientifically based data or by <strong>on</strong>ly results <strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>o-injuries being available. In this<br />
regard, the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding locati<strong>on</strong>s are explicitly referred to <strong>and</strong> attempts are made, despite the<br />
partly c<strong>on</strong>tradictory informati<strong>on</strong> from the literature, to provide the clearest possible<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for clinical routine in individual key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Moreover, in terms <strong>of</strong> fracture discussi<strong>on</strong>s, the initial assumpti<strong>on</strong>, if not explicitly menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
elsewhere, is a closed fracture <strong>with</strong>out vascular involvement <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> no compartment<br />
syndrome. The open fracture, vascular involvement, <strong>and</strong> compartment syndrome are regarded as<br />
an indicati<strong>on</strong> for emergency surgery <strong>and</strong> require, if necessary, a different management strategy.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, in many surgically dem<strong>and</strong>ing fractures (e.g., distal complex femur or humerus<br />
c<strong>on</strong>dyle fracture), particularly in polytrauma, it should be taken into account that primary<br />
definitive care can <strong>on</strong>ly be c<strong>on</strong>sidered if: a) careful planning has been carried out (if appropriate,<br />
<strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> 3D CT); b) the expected durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> surgery is not too l<strong>on</strong>g; c) an experienced<br />
surge<strong>on</strong> is present; d) a suitable implant is in stock in the hospital. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, in many<br />
German trauma centers, such surgically dem<strong>and</strong>ing fractures in the multiply injured patient<br />
ought first to receive primary temporary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> before subsequently undergoing sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
definitive rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Finally, it is assumed hereafter that the patient has otherwise stable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
injuries <strong>of</strong> the extremities. The management strategy for a patient <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries <strong>and</strong><br />
cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary, metabolic, or coagulatory “instability” may be very different from this,<br />
depending <strong>on</strong> different priorities. Please refer to the relevant literature [1–7] for a risk assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the management strategy. Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol is a<br />
strategy for management <strong>of</strong> severely injured patients <strong>with</strong> the goal <strong>of</strong> minimizing sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
damage <strong>and</strong> maximizing the outcome for the patient. In the area <strong>of</strong> fracture treatment, for<br />
example, this would mean not carrying out primary definitive osteosynthesis but instead<br />
stabilizing the fracture temporarily <strong>with</strong> an external fixator. The smaller interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
shorter surgery time are intended to make it possible to limit the additi<strong>on</strong>al trauma burden to the<br />
maximum possible extent in terms <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage. In precisely this respect, it must<br />
therefore be emphasized that individual biologic requirements (e.g., age), overall injury severity,<br />
but also additi<strong>on</strong>al severe injuries (e.g., severe traumatic brain injury), required surgery time,<br />
compensated dysfuncti<strong>on</strong>s in vital parameters (borderline patients), <strong>and</strong> the physiologic status <strong>of</strong><br />
the patient (metabolism, coagulati<strong>on</strong>, temperature, etc.) should also be included in the decisi<strong>on</strong>making.<br />
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References<br />
1. Rixen D, Grass G, Sauerl<strong>and</strong> S, Lefering R, Raum<br />
MR, Yücel N, Bouill<strong>on</strong> B, Neugebauer EAM, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
„Polytrauma Study Group“ <strong>of</strong> the German Trauma<br />
Society (2005) Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> criteria for temporary<br />
external fixati<strong>on</strong> in risk-adapted Damage C<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
orthopaedic surgery <strong>of</strong> femur shaft fractures in<br />
multiple trauma patients: “evidence based medicine”<br />
versus “reality” in the trauma registry <strong>of</strong> the German<br />
Trauma Society. J Trauma 59:1375-1395<br />
2. Giannoudis PV (2003) Surgical priorities in Damage<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trol in polytrauma. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg (Br) 85:<br />
478-483<br />
3. Pape H, Stalp M, Dahlweid M, Regel G, Tscherne H,<br />
Arbeitsgemeinschaft „Polytrauma“ der Deutschen<br />
Gesellschaft für Unfallchirurgie (1999) Welche<br />
primäre Operati<strong>on</strong>sdauer ist hinsichtlich eines<br />
„Borderline-Zust<strong>and</strong>es“ polytraumatisierter Patienten<br />
vertretbar? Unfallchirurg 102: 861-869<br />
4. Pape HC, van Griensven M, Sott AH, Giannoudis P,<br />
Morley J, Roise O, Ellingsen E, Hildebr<strong>and</strong> F, Wiese<br />
B, Krettek C, EPOFF study group (2003) Impact <strong>of</strong><br />
intramedullary instrumentati<strong>on</strong> versus Damage<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trol for femoral fractures <strong>on</strong> immunoinflammatory<br />
parameters: prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized analysis by the<br />
EPOFF study group. J Trauma 55: 7-13<br />
5. Scalea TM, Boswell SA, Scott JD, Mitchell KA,<br />
Kramer ME, Pollak AN (2000) External fixati<strong>on</strong> as a<br />
bridge to intramedullary nailing for patients <strong>with</strong><br />
multiple injuries <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> femur fractures: Damage<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trol orthopedics. J Trauma 48: 613-623<br />
6. Bouill<strong>on</strong> B, Rixen D, Maegele M, Steinhausen E,<br />
Tjardes T, Paffrath T (2009) Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
orthopedics – was ist der aktuelle St<strong>and</strong>?<br />
Unfallchirurg 112:860–869<br />
7. Pape HC, Rixen D, Morley J, Husebye EE, Mueller<br />
M, Dum<strong>on</strong>t C, Gruner A,Oestern HJ, Bayeff-Fil<strong>of</strong>f M,<br />
Garving C, Pardini D, van Griensven M, Krettek C,<br />
Giannoudis P <strong>and</strong> the EPOFF study group (2007)<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> the method <strong>of</strong> initial stabilizati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
femoral shaft fractures in patients <strong>with</strong> multiple<br />
injuries at risk for complicati<strong>on</strong>s (borderline patients).<br />
Ann Surg 246:491-501<br />
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3.2 Thorax<br />
Surgical approach route<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the injury locati<strong>on</strong>, an anterolateral thoracotomy, a<br />
posterolateral thoracotomy or a sternotomy can be selected. If the injury<br />
locati<strong>on</strong> is unclear, the clamshell approach may be selected.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
The st<strong>and</strong>ard approach is the anterolateral or posterolateral thoracotomy <strong>on</strong> the injury side at the<br />
level <strong>of</strong> the 4th-6th intercostal space. If a bilateral chest injury is suspected, a bilateral<br />
anterolateral thoracotomy or a clamshell thoracotomy can be performed. If the injury can be<br />
located precisely, the appropriate approaches are used, e.g., posterolateral approach for<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s to the thoracic aorta or a higher intercostal approach for injuries to the subclavian<br />
vessels or to the intrathoracic trachea [8, 17, 51, 52].<br />
The anterolateral thoracotomy appears to provide insufficient exposure <strong>of</strong> the injured organs in<br />
up to 20% <strong>of</strong> cases [25]. If required, this approach can thus be enlarged in the posterior directi<strong>on</strong><br />
or into a flap approach [51].<br />
The median sternotomy is preferred for injuries to the heart, the ascending aorta, <strong>and</strong> the aortic<br />
arch as well as injuries to the great vessels [25, 50, 51].<br />
In trauma surgery practice, the thoracoscopy is unsuitable in life-threatening emergencies. The<br />
video-based thoracoscopy can be used for the diagnostic work-up <strong>of</strong> diaphragm injuries or in the<br />
search for sources <strong>of</strong> bleeding but also for performing smaller interventi<strong>on</strong>s such as draining a<br />
hemothorax, etc. [17, 33, 51].<br />
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Penetrating chest injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If there are perforating chest injuries, embedded foreign bodies should <strong>on</strong>ly be<br />
removed during surgery under c<strong>on</strong>trolled c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s after opening up the<br />
chest.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
If it can be assumed that the chest has been perforated, foreign bodies penetrating the chest must<br />
not be removed due to a possible tamp<strong>on</strong>ade effect. Removal is always performed during surgery<br />
via an exploratory thoracotomy. The airtight closure or b<strong>and</strong>aging <strong>of</strong> puncture openings is also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>traindicated because it prevents the pleural space from being decompressed. In complicated<br />
injuries, the goal should be a two-step closure <strong>of</strong> the chest wall after thorough lavage <strong>and</strong><br />
generous wound debridement to avoid septic complicati<strong>on</strong>s [51].<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong> for thoracotomy<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
A penetrating chest injury, which is the cause <strong>of</strong> hemodynamic instability in<br />
the patient, must undergo an immediate exploratory thoracotomy.<br />
A thoracotomy can be performed if there is an initial blood loss <strong>of</strong> > 1,500 ml<br />
from the chest drain or if there is persistent blood loss <strong>of</strong> > 250 ml/h over more<br />
than 4 hours.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR 0<br />
The indicati<strong>on</strong> for immediate thoracotomy in penetrating injuries arises if the following are<br />
already present <strong>on</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> to the emergency room: severe hemodynamic shock states, signs <strong>of</strong><br />
pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade, diffuse bleeding, absence <strong>of</strong> peripheral pulses, <strong>and</strong> cardiac arrest [2–4,<br />
17, 25, 32, 51]. Hemodynamically stable patients can be m<strong>on</strong>itored after inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a chest<br />
drain or can undergo further diagnostic tests such as helical CT.<br />
Studies during the Vietnam War showed a reducti<strong>on</strong> in mortality <strong>and</strong> the complicati<strong>on</strong> rate in<br />
predominantly penetrating injuries <strong>with</strong> a thoracotomy performed after a blood loss <strong>of</strong> initially<br />
> 1,500 ml or exceeding 500 ml in the first hour after drain inserti<strong>on</strong> [32].<br />
In a multicenter study, there was evidence also <strong>of</strong> the dependence <strong>of</strong> mortality <strong>on</strong> thoracic blood<br />
loss irrespective <strong>of</strong> the mechanism <strong>of</strong> injury (blunt versus penetrating). Mortality rose here by a<br />
factor <strong>of</strong> 3.2 in the group <strong>with</strong> a blood loss <strong>of</strong> more than 1,500 ml in the first 24 hours compared<br />
<strong>with</strong> a blood loss from the chest drain <strong>of</strong> 500 ml/24 h. The mean time for performing the<br />
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thoracotomy was 2.4 ± 5.4 hours after admissi<strong>on</strong> [24]. Other authors agree <strong>with</strong> the strategy <strong>of</strong><br />
performing a thoracotomy for blunt or penetrating injuries after an initial blood loss <strong>of</strong> 1,500 ml<br />
or <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinuous bleeding <strong>of</strong> 250 ml/h over 4 hours [12, 24, 29, 32, 50]. If the drainage volume<br />
per time unit is used as an indicati<strong>on</strong> criteri<strong>on</strong> for thoracotomy, this requires the drains to be<br />
correctly positi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> have reliable patency [51].<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> a combinati<strong>on</strong> thoracic injury <strong>with</strong> high blood loss <strong>and</strong> marked metabolic<br />
derangement, a temporary chest closure c<strong>on</strong>sistent <strong>with</strong> damage c<strong>on</strong>trol surgery can be carried<br />
out after acute management <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trolling <strong>of</strong> bleeding. After stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient in<br />
intensive care, the definitive surgical management <strong>and</strong> chest closure is carried out later [12, 19,<br />
22, 50].<br />
Lung injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If an indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery exists for lung injuries (persistent bleeding <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
air leak), the interventi<strong>on</strong> should be parenchymal-sparing.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Lung parenchymal injuries in a penetrating or blunt chest trauma <strong>with</strong> persistent bleeding <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
air leak require surgical management [16, 17, 51]. One <strong>of</strong> the main indicators for an exploratory<br />
thoracotomy is marked or persistent bleeding (1,500 ml initially or 500 ml/h) [24]. If necessary,<br />
appropriate surgical management <strong>of</strong> possible lung parenchymal injuries is then indicated for<br />
hemostasis. Compared to parenchymal-sparing surgical procedures such as oversewing,<br />
tractotomy, atypical resecti<strong>on</strong> or segment resecti<strong>on</strong>, the lobectomy <strong>and</strong> pneum<strong>on</strong>ectomy carry a<br />
higher complicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> mortality rate [12, 19, 22, 30, 50]. At the same time, blunt injuries<br />
appear to be associated <strong>with</strong> a worse prognosis <strong>with</strong> regard to number <strong>of</strong> days in situ,<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> mortality [30].<br />
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Great vessel injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> aortic ruptures, preference should be given over open<br />
revascularizati<strong>on</strong> procedures to implantati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an endostent graft if<br />
technically <strong>and</strong> anatomically possible.<br />
A systolic blood pressure <strong>of</strong> 90-120 mmHg should be set until rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the aorta or if under c<strong>on</strong>servative management.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
The treatment for an aortic rupture traditi<strong>on</strong>ally c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> aortic rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> by direct suture<br />
<strong>with</strong> clamping <strong>of</strong> the aorta <strong>and</strong> using different bypass procedures to perfuse the lower body half<br />
<strong>and</strong> spinal cord during the clamping phase (left heart bypass, Gott shunt, heart-lung machine) [1,<br />
11, 18, 28, 31, 35, 42, 50].<br />
Current studies identify acute stenting for aortic ruptures as a minimally invasive, time-saving<br />
treatment opti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> minimal access damage [1, 36]. Complicati<strong>on</strong>s such as cerebral or spinal<br />
hypoperfusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding late complicati<strong>on</strong>s such as paraplegia occur less <strong>of</strong>ten. In the<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g term, anticoagulati<strong>on</strong> as required in most bypass procedures can be dispensed <strong>with</strong> [6, 9, 14,<br />
37, 47]. Also in a current meta-analysis which compares open aortic rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
endovascular stenting, evidence was found <strong>of</strong> a significantly lower mortality rate <strong>and</strong> a<br />
significantly lower rate <strong>of</strong> post-operative neurologic deficits (paraplegia, strokes) <strong>with</strong> the same<br />
technical success rate for endovascular stenting [37]. However, there are to date no data <strong>on</strong> l<strong>on</strong>gterm<br />
survival after endovascular aortic rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> [21, 41]. Overall, according to the<br />
literature currently available, the implantati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an endostent graft appears to be preferable to<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al procedure [15].<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s such as paraplegia <strong>and</strong> acute kidney failure due to the open procedure are the<br />
result <strong>of</strong> operative-induced ischemia. The complicati<strong>on</strong> rate correlates <strong>with</strong> the aortic clamping<br />
time [23, 45].<br />
If perfusi<strong>on</strong> is maintained during bypass procedure surgery instead <strong>of</strong> clamping the aorta, the<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong> rate is reduced (paraplegia, kidney failure) [10, 11, 16, 35].<br />
The hemodynamic status <strong>of</strong> the patient at the time <strong>of</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> determines the timing for<br />
management <strong>of</strong> the aortic rupture. <strong>Patients</strong> in a hemodynamically unstable c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> or in<br />
extremis must undergo surgery immediately [10]. In patients <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant traumatic brain<br />
injury, severe abdominal or skeletal injuries which require immediate surgery <strong>and</strong> in elderly<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> extensive cardiac <strong>and</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary comorbidities, the aortic injury can be managed<br />
<strong>with</strong> delayed urgency after treatment <strong>of</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al life-threatening injuries <strong>and</strong>/or after<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> [28, 50, 51]. In a series <strong>of</strong> 395 patients, Camp et al. showed that in<br />
hemodynamically stable patients the mortality was not significantly increased in n<strong>on</strong>-urgent (> 4<br />
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hours) or delayed surgery (> 24 hours) compared to emergency surgery (< 4 hours) [10]. Other<br />
authors agree <strong>with</strong> this opini<strong>on</strong> [10, 15, 16, 45]. Delays <strong>of</strong> up to 2 m<strong>on</strong>ths are tolerated in some<br />
cases [39].<br />
If surgery is not carried out as an emergency, strict pharmacologic c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> blood pressure<br />
(systolic blood pressure between 90 <strong>and</strong> 120 mmHg <strong>and</strong> heart rate < 100/min) is required <strong>with</strong><br />
beta blockers <strong>and</strong> vasodilators [15, 16].<br />
Cardiac injuries<br />
Life-threatening cardiac injuries occur primarily due to penetrating trauma. Injuries to several<br />
chambers are particularly associated <strong>with</strong> high mortality [2, 3, 17, 51]. An intrathoracic injury to<br />
the inferior vena cava <strong>of</strong>ten causes a life-threatening pericardial tamp<strong>on</strong>ade. The surgical<br />
management <strong>of</strong> the vein is carried out after pericardial decompressi<strong>on</strong> via the right atrium by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> a direct suture or <strong>with</strong> a patch closure using extracorporeal circulati<strong>on</strong> [49–52].<br />
The approach is via a median sternotomy or, in the case <strong>of</strong> absolute urgency, by a left<br />
anterolateral thoracotomy. After decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the cardiac tamp<strong>on</strong>ade, which is present in<br />
more than 50% <strong>of</strong> cases, via a l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal incisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pericardium, bleeding must be quickly<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by staple or suture. After removal <strong>of</strong> the clamp from the bleeding atrial wall, this can<br />
be closed <strong>with</strong> a direct suture [34]. Ventricle lesi<strong>on</strong>s are closed by means <strong>of</strong> a pericardial patch<br />
or Tefl<strong>on</strong> felt augmentati<strong>on</strong>. Finally, the pericardial incisi<strong>on</strong> is adjusted by loosening to avoid a<br />
retamp<strong>on</strong>ade [2, 3, 17, 51]. Injuries that do not require an immediate thoracotomy are isolated<br />
septal defects, valve injuries or ventricle aneurysms [34].<br />
Proximal lesi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the cor<strong>on</strong>ary vessels must be rec<strong>on</strong>structed or in an emergency managed<br />
<strong>with</strong> a cor<strong>on</strong>ary artery bypass using a heart-lung machine. Distal lesi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the cor<strong>on</strong>aries can be<br />
ligated [17, 51].<br />
The patient’s cardiac rhythm <strong>and</strong> cardiorespiratory functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> arrival in the emergency room are<br />
important factors in prognosis [2, 3]. At all times, attempts must therefore be made to maintain<br />
cardiac pump functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> treat cardiac arrhythmias as this lowers mortality [2, 3].<br />
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Injuries <strong>of</strong> the tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial system<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If there is clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an injury to the tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial system, a<br />
br<strong>on</strong>choscopy should be carried out to c<strong>on</strong>firm the diagnosis.<br />
Traumatic injuries to the tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial system should be surgically<br />
managed early following the diagnosis.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> localized injuries to the tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial system, c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
treatment can be attempted.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
Injuries to the tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial system are rare <strong>and</strong> there is <strong>of</strong>ten a delay in making the diagnosis<br />
[5, 7, 26, 40, 44]. Occasi<strong>on</strong>ally, tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries also occur as a complicati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
orotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> [43]. Penetrating injuries predominantly affect the cervical trachea<br />
whereas blunt injuries usually give rise to intrathoracic injuries. The right main br<strong>on</strong>chus in the<br />
immediate vicinity <strong>of</strong> the carina is affected more <strong>of</strong>ten [7, 26, 40]. If there are persistent<br />
pneumothoraces despite a functi<strong>on</strong>ing chest drain <strong>and</strong> despite the presence <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
emphysema or atelectases, a tracheobr<strong>on</strong>choscopy should be performed to c<strong>on</strong>firm the suspected<br />
diagnosis <strong>of</strong> a tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injury [5, 7, 26, 27, 40]. Fiberoptic intubati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> placement <strong>of</strong><br />
the cuff distal to the defect can be directly c<strong>on</strong>nected to secure the airway. In a retrospective<br />
study, Kummer et al. established that a large number <strong>of</strong> patients require a definitive airway<br />
(tracheostomy) [27]. The emphasis here was <strong>on</strong> penetrating injuries. Surgical management <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial system should be carried out as so<strong>on</strong> as possible after making the diagnosis as<br />
delayed management is associated <strong>with</strong> an increased complicati<strong>on</strong> rate [7, 13, 26, 34, 40].<br />
Surgical management <strong>of</strong> airway injuries is associated <strong>with</strong> a markedly lower mortality compared<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment [7, 26, 40]. C<strong>on</strong>servative treatment should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered after<br />
br<strong>on</strong>choscopic inspecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly in patients <strong>with</strong> small br<strong>on</strong>chial tissue defects (defect smaller than<br />
1/3 <strong>of</strong> the br<strong>on</strong>chial circumference) <strong>and</strong> well adapted br<strong>on</strong>chial margins [7, 13, 26, 34, 40]. In a<br />
retrospective study, Schneider <strong>and</strong> colleagues found no difference between the c<strong>on</strong>servative <strong>and</strong><br />
the surgical method in iatrogenic tracheal injuries <strong>with</strong>out ventilati<strong>on</strong> disorders <strong>and</strong> superficial or<br />
covered tracheal tears [43].<br />
Cervical injuries are managed by a collar incisi<strong>on</strong>. A right-sided posterolateral thoracotomy<br />
should be performed in the 4th-5th ICS as an approach to intrathoracic tracheal injuries [5, 7, 26,<br />
34, 40]. In simple transverse tears, tensi<strong>on</strong>-free end-to-end anastomosis <strong>of</strong> the br<strong>on</strong>chus is<br />
performed after its immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>, if necessary, resecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the cartilaginous bridge. If a<br />
direct suture is not possible, l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal tears <strong>with</strong> a defective formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the membrane wall<br />
are closed <strong>with</strong> a patch to avoid br<strong>on</strong>chial stenoses developing [7, 26, 34, 40]. Managing the<br />
tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries <strong>with</strong> a stent appears to have no role to play according to current<br />
literature.<br />
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Injuries to the b<strong>on</strong>y thorax (excluding spine)<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> injuries to the b<strong>on</strong>y thorax including flail chest should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The vast majority <strong>of</strong> multiple rib fractures <strong>with</strong> an unstable thorax can be n<strong>on</strong>-surgically treated<br />
by internal pneumatic splinting, CPAP (c<strong>on</strong>tinuous positive airway pressure) ventilati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
sensible br<strong>on</strong>chial toilet, <strong>and</strong> adequate pain therapy [38, 48]. Surgical treatment should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered in patients <strong>with</strong> persistent respiratory insufficiency due to chest instability despite<br />
existing ventilati<strong>on</strong>, in patients <strong>with</strong> extensive chest wall defects, <strong>and</strong> flail chest <strong>with</strong> threatening<br />
intrathoracic injury [38, 46, 48]. Voggenreiter et al. showed that primary surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
multiple rib fractures <strong>with</strong> flail chest <strong>and</strong> respiratory insufficiency <strong>with</strong>out pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong><br />
has better results <strong>with</strong> a shorter ventilati<strong>on</strong> period or a lower complicati<strong>on</strong> rate than c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
treatment. However, patients <strong>with</strong> a marked pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong> do not gain from surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the b<strong>on</strong>y thorax [50].<br />
In a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study <strong>of</strong> surgically managed multiple rib fractures in patients <strong>with</strong><br />
flail chest <strong>and</strong> respiratory insufficiency, Tanaka et al. found evidence <strong>of</strong> a shorter ventilati<strong>on</strong><br />
time, a shorter stay in the intensive care unit, <strong>and</strong> a lower complicati<strong>on</strong> rate in the group<br />
surgically stabilized <strong>with</strong> Judet clamps compared to the c<strong>on</strong>trol group who received internal<br />
pneumatic splints [46].<br />
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75:383-387 [LoE 2b]<br />
7. Balci Ae, Eren N, Eren S et al. (2002) Surgical<br />
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989 [LoE 4]<br />
8. Branney Sw, Moore Ee, Feldhaus Km et al. (1998)<br />
Critical analysis <strong>of</strong> two decades <strong>of</strong> experience <strong>with</strong><br />
postinjury emergency department thoracotomy in a<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al trauma center. J Trauma 45:87-94; discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
94-85 [LoE 4]<br />
9. Buz S, Zipfel B, Mulahasanovic S et al. (2008)<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al surgical repair <strong>and</strong> endovascular<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> acute traumatic aortic rupture. Eur J<br />
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10. Camp Pc, Shackford Sr (1997) Outcome after blunt<br />
traumatic thoracic aortic lacerati<strong>on</strong>: identificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
high-risk cohort. Western Trauma Associati<strong>on</strong><br />
Multicenter Study Group. J Trauma 43:413-422 [LoE<br />
3b]<br />
11. Cardarelli Mg, Mclaughlin Js, Downing Sw et al.<br />
(2002) Management <strong>of</strong> traumatic aortic rupture: a 30year<br />
experience. Ann Surg 236:465-469; discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
469-470 [LoE 2b]<br />
12. Cothren C, Moore Ee, Biffl Wl et al. (2002) Lungsparing<br />
techniques are associated <strong>with</strong> improved<br />
outcome compared <strong>with</strong> anatomic resecti<strong>on</strong> for severe<br />
lung injuries. J Trauma 53:483-487 [LoE 4]<br />
13. Dienemann H, H<strong>of</strong>fmann H (2001) [Tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial<br />
injuries <strong>and</strong> fistulas]. Chirurg 72:1131-1136 [LoE 4]<br />
14. Dunham Mb, Zygun D, Petrasek P et al. (2004)<br />
Endovascular stent grafts for acute blunt aortic injury.<br />
J Trauma 56:1173-1178 [LoE 4]<br />
15. Fabian Tc, Davis Ka, Gavant Ml et al. (1998)<br />
Prospective study <strong>of</strong> blunt aortic injury: helical CT is<br />
diagnostic <strong>and</strong> antihypertensive therapy reduces<br />
rupture. Ann Surg 227:666-676; discussi<strong>on</strong> 676-667<br />
[LoE 2b]<br />
16. Fabian Tc, Richards<strong>on</strong> Jd, Croce Ma et al. (1997)<br />
Prospective study <strong>of</strong> blunt aortic injury: Multicenter<br />
Trial <strong>of</strong> the American Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong><br />
Trauma. J Trauma 42:374-380; discussi<strong>on</strong> 380-373<br />
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17. Feliciano Dv, Rozycki Gs (1999) Advances in the<br />
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18. Fujikawa T, Yukioka T, Ishimaru S et al. (2001)<br />
Endovascular stent grafting for the treatment <strong>of</strong> blunt<br />
thoracic aortic injury. J Trauma 50:223-229 [LoE 4]<br />
19. Gasparri M, Karmy-J<strong>on</strong>es R, Kralovich Ka et al.<br />
(2001) Pulm<strong>on</strong>ary tractotomy versus lung resecti<strong>on</strong>:<br />
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51:1092-1095; discussi<strong>on</strong> 1096-1097 [LoE 4]<br />
20. Go Mr, Barbato Je, Dillavou Ed et al. (2007) Thoracic<br />
endovascular aortic repair for traumatic aortic<br />
transecti<strong>on</strong>. J Vasc Surg 46:928-933<br />
21. Hoornweg Ll, Dinkelman Mk, Goslings Jc et al.<br />
(2006) Endovascular management <strong>of</strong> traumatic<br />
ruptures <strong>of</strong> the thoracic aorta: a retrospective<br />
multicenter analysis <strong>of</strong> 28 cases in The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s. J<br />
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22. Huh J, Wall Mj, Jr., Estrera Al et al. (2003) Surgical<br />
management <strong>of</strong> traumatic pulm<strong>on</strong>ary injury. Am J<br />
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23. Jahromi As, Kazemi K, Safar Ha et al. (2001)<br />
Traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> the thoracic aorta: cohort study<br />
<strong>and</strong> systematic review. J Vasc Surg 34:1029-1034<br />
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24. Karmy-J<strong>on</strong>es R, Jurkovich Gj, Nathens Ab et al.<br />
(2001) Timing <strong>of</strong> urgent thoracotomy for hemorrhage<br />
after trauma: a multicenter study. Arch Surg 136:513-<br />
518 [LoE 3b]<br />
25. Karmy-J<strong>on</strong>es R, Nathens A, Jurkovich Gj et al. (2004)<br />
Urgent <strong>and</strong> emergent thoracotomy for penetrating<br />
chest trauma. J Trauma 56:664-668; discussi<strong>on</strong> 668-<br />
669 [LoE 4]<br />
26. Kiser Ac, O'brien Sm, Detterbeck Fc (2001) Blunt<br />
tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries: treatment <strong>and</strong> outcomes.<br />
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27. Kummer C, Netto Fs, Rizoli S et al. (2007) A review<br />
<strong>of</strong> traumatic airway injuries: potential implicati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
airway assessment <strong>and</strong> management. Injury 38:27-33<br />
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28. Maggisano R, Nathens A, Alex<strong>and</strong>rova Na et al.<br />
(1995) Traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> the thoracic aorta: should<br />
<strong>on</strong>e always operate immediately? Ann Vasc Surg<br />
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29. Mansour Ma, Moore Ee, Moore Fa et al. (1992)<br />
Exigent postinjury thoracotomy analysis <strong>of</strong> blunt<br />
versus penetrating trauma. Surg Gynecol Obstet<br />
175:97-101 [LoE 3b]<br />
30. Martin Mj, Mcd<strong>on</strong>ald Jm, Mullenix Ps et al. (2006)<br />
Operative management <strong>and</strong> outcomes <strong>of</strong> traumatic<br />
lung resecti<strong>on</strong>. J Am Coll Surg 203:336-344 [LoE 2b]<br />
31. Marty-Ane Ch, Berthet Jp, Branchereau P et al.<br />
(2003) Endovascular repair for acute traumatic rupture<br />
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<strong>of</strong> the thoracic aorta. Ann Thorac Surg 75:1803-1807<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
32. Mcnamara Jj, Messersmith Jk, Dunn Ra et al. (1970)<br />
Thoracic injuries in combat casualties in Vietnam.<br />
Ann Thorac Surg 10:389-401 [LoE 3b]<br />
33. Mcswain Ne, Jr. (1992) Blunt <strong>and</strong> penetrating chest<br />
injuries. World J Surg 16:924-929 [LoE 4]<br />
34. Meredith Jw, Hoth Jj (2007) Thoracic trauma: when<br />
<strong>and</strong> how to intervene. Surg Clin North Am 87:95-118,<br />
vii [LoE 2a]<br />
35. Miller Pr, Kortesis Bg, Mclaughlin Ca, 3rd et al.<br />
(2003) Complex blunt aortic injury or repair:<br />
beneficial effects <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary bypass use. Ann<br />
Surg 237:877-883; discussi<strong>on</strong> 883-874 [LoE 2b]<br />
36. Ott Mc, Stewart Tc, Lawlor Dk et al. (2004)<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> blunt thoracic aortic injuries:<br />
endovascular stents versus open repair. J Trauma<br />
56:565-570 [LoE 4]<br />
37. Peters<strong>on</strong> Bg, Matsumura Js, Morasch Md et al. (2005)<br />
Percutaneous endovascular repair <strong>of</strong> blunt thoracic<br />
aortic transecti<strong>on</strong>. J Trauma 59:1062-1065 [LoE 1]<br />
38. Pettiford Bl, Luketich Jd, L<strong>and</strong>reneau Rj (2007) The<br />
management <strong>of</strong> flail chest. Thorac Surg Clin 17:25-33<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
39. Reed Ab, Thomps<strong>on</strong> Jk, Craft<strong>on</strong> Cj et al. (2006)<br />
Timing <strong>of</strong> endovascular repair <strong>of</strong> blunt traumatic<br />
thoracic aortic transecti<strong>on</strong>s. J Vasc Surg 43:684-688<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
40. Rossbach Mm, Johns<strong>on</strong> Sb, Gomez Ma et al. (1998)<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> major tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries: a 28year<br />
experience. Ann Thorac Surg 65:182-186 [LoE<br />
4]<br />
41. Rousseau H, Dambrin C, Marcheix B et al. (2005)<br />
Acute traumatic aortic rupture: a comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
surgical <strong>and</strong> stent-graft repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc<br />
Surg 129:1050-1055 [LoE 3b]<br />
42. Rousseau H, Soula P, Perreault P et al. (1999)<br />
Delayed treatment <strong>of</strong> traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> the thoracic<br />
aorta <strong>with</strong> endoluminal covered stent. Circulati<strong>on</strong><br />
99:498-504 [LoE 4]<br />
43. Schneider T, Storz K, Dienemann H et al. (2007)<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> iatrogenic tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries: a<br />
retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> 29 cases. Ann Thorac Surg<br />
83:1960-1964 [LoE 2b]<br />
44. Schneider T, Volz K, Dienemann H et al. (2009)<br />
Incidence <strong>and</strong> treatment modalities <strong>of</strong><br />
tracheobr<strong>on</strong>chial injuries in Germany. Interact<br />
Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 8:571-576 [LoE 2b]<br />
45. Symbas Pn, Sherman Aj, Silver Jm et al. (2002)<br />
Traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> the aorta: immediate or delayed<br />
repair? Ann Surg 235:796-802 [LoE 2b]<br />
46. Tanaka H, Yukioka T, Yamaguti Y et al. (2002)<br />
Surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> internal pneumatic<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong>? A prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study <strong>of</strong><br />
management <strong>of</strong> severe flail chest patients. J Trauma<br />
52:727-732; discussi<strong>on</strong> 732 [LoE 4]<br />
47. Tang Gl, Tehrani Hy, Usman A et al. (2008) Reduced<br />
mortality, paraplegia, <strong>and</strong> stroke <strong>with</strong> stent graft repair<br />
<strong>of</strong> blunt aortic transecti<strong>on</strong>s: a modern meta-analysis. J<br />
Vasc Surg 47:671-675 [LoE 2a]<br />
48. Vodicka J, Spidlen V, Safranek J et al. (2007) [<strong>Severe</strong><br />
injury to the chest wall--experience <strong>with</strong> surgical<br />
therapy]. Zentralbl Chir 132:542-546 [LoE 4]<br />
49. Voggenreiter G, Neudeck F, Aufmkolk M et al.<br />
(1998) Operative chest wall stabilizati<strong>on</strong> in flail chest-<br />
-outcomes <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> or <strong>with</strong>out pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>. J Am Coll Surg 187:130-138 [LoE 4]<br />
50. Wall Mj, Jr., Hirshberg A, Lemaire Sa et al. (2001)<br />
Thoracic aortic <strong>and</strong> thoracic vascular injuries. Surg<br />
Clin North Am 81:1375-1393 [LoE 4]<br />
51. Wall Mj, Jr., Soltero E (1997) Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol for<br />
thoracic injuries. Surg Clin North Am 77:863-878<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
52. Xenos Es, Freeman M, Stevens S et al. (2003)<br />
Covered stents for injuries <strong>of</strong> subclavian <strong>and</strong> axillary<br />
arteries. J Vasc Surg 38:451-454[LoE 4]<br />
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3.3 Diaphragm<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
When detected during the primary diagnostic study <strong>and</strong>/or intraoperative<br />
diagnosis, a traumatic diaphragmatic rupture should be quickly closed.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
A diaphragmatic rupture in up to 1.6% <strong>of</strong> cases due to blunt injuries is mainly caused by a lateral<br />
collisi<strong>on</strong> in road traffic accidents <strong>and</strong> predominantly affects the left diaphragm side [1–7].<br />
There are no valid data available <strong>on</strong> the ideal time for surgery in the multiply injured patient.<br />
Only a pragmatic recommendati<strong>on</strong> can be made that the rupture should be quickly closed if there<br />
is intrathoracic displacement <strong>of</strong> abdominal organs. This also applies to the intraoperative<br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a diaphragmatic rupture in the case <strong>of</strong> a cavity opening due to other injuries.<br />
There is currently no clear evidence that a deferred closure increases the case fatality rate. With<br />
an all-cause mortality <strong>of</strong> 17%, the r<strong>and</strong>om effects meta-regressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 22 studies (n = 980) from<br />
1976-1992 [7] showed no correlati<strong>on</strong> between the frequency <strong>of</strong> deferred management <strong>and</strong> the<br />
case fatality rate (beta -0.013, 95% CI: - 0.67– - 0.240). In a current analysis <strong>of</strong> 4,153 patients <strong>on</strong><br />
the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Trauma Database, pleural empyema was also not associated <strong>with</strong> the timing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
surgical interventi<strong>on</strong> [8].<br />
In the acute situati<strong>on</strong> in patients <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> if there are no thoracic lesi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
surgical access is ideally via a transabdominal approach [9]. A thoraco-abdominal approach is<br />
used in c<strong>on</strong>firmed combinati<strong>on</strong> injuries or if the suture is technically difficult to carry out. If<br />
management is delayed for 7-10 days, a thoracotomy is recommended due to intrathoracic<br />
adhesi<strong>on</strong>s [7, 10].<br />
The diaphragm defect can usually be closed using a direct suture; defect grafting is <strong>on</strong>ly rarely<br />
necessary [1, 6, 10]. On the basis <strong>of</strong> the available data, no c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s can be drawn <strong>on</strong> the<br />
success rates <strong>of</strong> specific suturing techniques (c<strong>on</strong>tinuous versus single knot) or suturing materials<br />
(m<strong>on</strong><strong>of</strong>ilament versus braided, absorbable versus n<strong>on</strong>-absorbable). There are numerous reports in<br />
the literature <strong>on</strong> endoscopic techniques for closing post-traumatic diaphragmatic hernias [11,<br />
12]; at present, however, no importance can be ascribed to these in the emergency surgery phase.<br />
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References<br />
1. Athanassiadi K, Kalavrouziotis G, Athanassiou M et<br />
al. Blunt diaphragmatic rupture. Eur J Cardiothorac<br />
Surg 1999;15(4):469-474 [LoE 4].<br />
2. Berger<strong>on</strong> E, Clas D, Ratte S et al. Impact <strong>of</strong> deferred<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> blunt diaphragmatic rupture: a 15-year<br />
experience in six trauma centers in Quebec. J Trauma<br />
2002;52(4):633-640 [LoE 4].<br />
3. Brasel KJ, Borgstrom DC, Meyer P, Weigelt JA.<br />
Predictors <strong>of</strong> outcome in blunt diaphragm rupture. J<br />
Trauma 1996;41(3):484-487 [LoE 4].<br />
4. Chughtai T, Ali S, Sharkey P, Lins M, Rizoli S.<br />
Update <strong>on</strong> managing diaphragmatic rupture in blunt<br />
trauma: a review <strong>of</strong> 208 c<strong>on</strong>secutive cases. Can J Surg<br />
2009;52(3):177-181 [LoE 4].<br />
5. Kearney PA, Rouhana SW, Burney RE. Blunt rupture<br />
<strong>of</strong> the diaphragm: mechanism, diagnosis, <strong>and</strong><br />
treatment. Ann Emerg Med 1989;18(12):1326-1330<br />
[LoE 4].<br />
6. Mihos P, Potaris K, Gakidis J et al. Traumatic rupture<br />
<strong>of</strong> the diaphragm: experience <strong>with</strong> 65 patients. Injury<br />
2003;34(3):169-172 [LoE 4].<br />
7. Shah R, Sabanathan S, Mearns AJ, Choudhury AK.<br />
Traumatic rupture <strong>of</strong> diaphragm. Ann Thorac Surg<br />
1995;60(5):1444-1449 [LoE 5].<br />
8. Barmparas G, Dubose J, Teixeira PG et al. Risk<br />
factors for empyema after diaphragmatic injury:<br />
results <strong>of</strong> a Nati<strong>on</strong>al Trauma Databank analysis. J<br />
Trauma 2009;66(6):1672-1676 [LoE 2b].<br />
9. Waldschmidt ML, Laws HL. Injuries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
diaphragm. J Trauma 1980;20(7):587-592 [LoE 4].<br />
10. Matsevych OY. Blunt diaphragmatic rupture: four<br />
year's experience. Hernia 2008;12(1):73-78 [LoE 5].<br />
11. Lomanto D, Po<strong>on</strong> PL, So JB et al.<br />
Thoracolaparoscopic repair <strong>of</strong> traumatic<br />
diaphragmatic rupture. Surg Endosc 2001;15(3):323.<br />
12. Ouazzani A, Guerin E, Capelluto E et al. A<br />
laparoscopic approach to left diaphragmatic rupture<br />
after blunt trauma. Acta Chir Belg 2009;109(2):228-<br />
231.<br />
13. Waldschmidt ML, Laws HL. Injuries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
diaphragm. J Trauma 1980;20(7):587-592<br />
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3.4 Abdomen<br />
Surgical approach path<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the trauma situati<strong>on</strong>, preference should be given to the midline laparotomy<br />
over other approach paths.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The midline laparotomy represents an anatomically justified universal surgical approach path to<br />
the traumatized abdomen. It can be performed quickly causing little bleeding <strong>and</strong> permits a good<br />
overview <strong>of</strong> all 4 quadrants [9, 10].<br />
There is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e quasi-r<strong>and</strong>omized study, which is over 25 years old (treatment group allocati<strong>on</strong><br />
according to even or odd admissi<strong>on</strong> number), in which the midline laparotomy was compared<br />
<strong>with</strong> a transverse upper abdominal laparotomy in patients <strong>with</strong> abdominal trauma [11]. The<br />
wound infecti<strong>on</strong> rates in patients <strong>with</strong> negative <strong>and</strong> positive laparotomy were 2% <strong>and</strong> 11%<br />
irrespective <strong>of</strong> the selected approach path. The mean period under anesthesia was 25 minutes<br />
shorter after positive midline laparotomy than after the transverse upper abdominal laparotomy<br />
(Table 14). This difference was statistically significant according to the published data (p<br />
= 0.02). However, there were no st<strong>and</strong>ard deviati<strong>on</strong>s reported nor was a further breakdown <strong>of</strong><br />
surgery times undertaken. The study cannot serve as pro<strong>of</strong> in favor <strong>of</strong> a specific type <strong>of</strong> incisi<strong>on</strong><br />
but supports the possibility <strong>of</strong> surgical preferences (“Adequacy <strong>of</strong> organ exposure is still a matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>al preference”).<br />
Indirect evidence comes from r<strong>and</strong>omized studies <strong>of</strong> elective abdominal interventi<strong>on</strong>s. A<br />
Cochrane Review suggests an advantage <strong>of</strong> the transverse incisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> regard to the<br />
postoperative requirement for morphine equivalents, lung functi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the rate <strong>of</strong> incisi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
hernias [12]. A difference in the rate <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary complicati<strong>on</strong>s or in wound infecti<strong>on</strong>s could<br />
not be detected. The multicenter r<strong>and</strong>omized POVATI (Postsurgical Pain Outcome <strong>of</strong> Vertical<br />
<strong>and</strong> Transverse Abdominal Incisi<strong>on</strong>) Study published in 2009 showed an equivalence in the<br />
primary endpoint <strong>of</strong> postoperative analgesia requirement <strong>and</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> differences in sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
endpoints such as pulm<strong>on</strong>ary complicati<strong>on</strong>s, mortality, <strong>and</strong> incisi<strong>on</strong>al hernias after 1 year [13].<br />
The authors also stress here the possibility <strong>of</strong> a situati<strong>on</strong>-dependent approach to the abdomen<br />
(“The decisi<strong>on</strong> about the incisi<strong>on</strong> should be driven by surge<strong>on</strong> preference <strong>with</strong> respect to the<br />
patient’s disease <strong>and</strong> anatomy”).<br />
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Table 14: Midline laparotomy versus transverse upper abdominal laparotomy in abdominal<br />
trauma<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Results<br />
St<strong>on</strong>e et al. 1983<br />
[11]<br />
2b 339 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
blunt or penetrating<br />
abdominal trauma<br />
Midline laparotomy (n =<br />
177)<br />
Mean period under<br />
anesthesia: positive<br />
laparotomy (n = 66)<br />
215 min, negative<br />
laparotomy (n = 111)<br />
126 min<br />
Transverse upper<br />
abdominal laparotomy (n<br />
= 162)<br />
Mean period under<br />
anesthesia: positive<br />
laparotomy (n = 61)<br />
240 min, negative<br />
laparotomy (n = 101) 132<br />
min<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong>s for a diagnostic laparoscopy are dealt <strong>with</strong> in the subsecti<strong>on</strong> “Emergency room:<br />
diagnostic study <strong>of</strong> the abdomen”. The recommendati<strong>on</strong>s updated in 2007 <strong>of</strong> the Society <strong>of</strong><br />
American Gastrointestinal <strong>and</strong> Endoscopic Surge<strong>on</strong>s (SAGES) also apply [14]. Reference is<br />
made to the evidence-based guideline <strong>of</strong> the European Associati<strong>on</strong> for Endoscopic Surgery<br />
(EAES) for therapeutic laparoscopy in abdominal trauma [15]. Numerous authors report <strong>on</strong><br />
laparoscopic <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>-assisted laparoscopic abdominal surgery interventi<strong>on</strong>s performed <strong>on</strong> blunt<br />
<strong>and</strong> penetrating abdominal trauma (e.g., hemostasis, oversewing, <strong>and</strong> resecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hollow organs)<br />
[16–20]. There are no clinical studies in which laparoscopy was compared <strong>with</strong> a laparotomy or<br />
used in the particular case <strong>of</strong> polytrauma. The c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>of</strong> the EAES should be followed,<br />
namely that the currently available data prohibits a clear recommendati<strong>on</strong> in favor <strong>of</strong> therapeutic<br />
laparoscopic interventi<strong>on</strong>s for abdominal trauma (“Nevertheless, the scarceness <strong>of</strong> clinical data<br />
prohibits a clear recommendati<strong>on</strong> in favor <strong>of</strong> therapeutic laparoscopy for trauma”).<br />
Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol: General principles<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In patients <strong>with</strong> unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> complex intraabdominal damage,<br />
priority should be given to the damage c<strong>on</strong>trol principle (hemostasis,<br />
packing/wrapping, temporary abdominal wall closure) over attempted<br />
definitive treatment.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The term “damage c<strong>on</strong>trol” (DC) was coined by the US navy <strong>and</strong> originally referred to the<br />
capacity <strong>of</strong> a ship to absorb damage yet maintain missi<strong>on</strong> integrity [21]. The basis <strong>and</strong> indicati<strong>on</strong><br />
for DC or an abbreviated/truncated laparotomy is the AHC triad c<strong>on</strong>sisting <strong>of</strong> acidosis (pH<br />
< 7.2), hypothermia (< 34 °C), <strong>and</strong> coagulopathy (Internati<strong>on</strong>al Normalized Ratio [INR] > 1.6 or<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong> requirement during surgery > 4 l) [22]. There is currently no st<strong>and</strong>ardized or uniform<br />
DC algorithm. Major accepted elements are 1) rapid hemostasis in injuries to the<br />
parenchymatous upper abdominal organs <strong>and</strong> avoiding perit<strong>on</strong>eal c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> through the<br />
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simple repair <strong>of</strong> hollow organ injuries, if necessary also disc<strong>on</strong>tinuance <strong>of</strong> resecti<strong>on</strong>, 2)<br />
temporary closure <strong>of</strong> the abdomen, 3) intensive medical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> body temperature,<br />
hemodynamics, <strong>and</strong> coagulati<strong>on</strong>, 4) planned re-surgery to repair <strong>and</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>struct organ injuries,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 5) definitive abdominal wall closure [22–25].<br />
An important element in bleeding from the liver is the perihepatic packing. The liver should be<br />
completely mobilized from its suspensory ligaments <strong>and</strong> the packing inserted around the<br />
posterior paracaval surface <strong>and</strong> subhepatic between liver <strong>and</strong> hepatic flexure in order to achieve<br />
compressi<strong>on</strong> against the diaphragm <strong>with</strong>out hindering the venous outflow from the hepatic veins<br />
[26–30].<br />
Despite the existence <strong>of</strong> an AHC triad, a survival advantage for patients after DC compared to<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-step, definitive surgical treatment (definitive laparotomy, DL) was c<strong>on</strong>firmed in 3 small<br />
retrospective cohort studies [31–33]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, another retrospective cohort study<br />
showed a survival advantage in the DL group [34] (Table 15). The pooled relative risk (r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
effects) is 0.79 (95% CI: 0.48–1.33) in favor <strong>of</strong> DC. If <strong>on</strong>ly the maximum injured in the study by<br />
Rot<strong>on</strong>do are c<strong>on</strong>sidered [32], the pooled relative risk is 0.60 (95% CI: 0.30–1.19). There was no<br />
multivariate adjustment in any <strong>of</strong> these studies for differences in injury severity or other<br />
c<strong>on</strong>founders; the results are thus subject to bias.<br />
In a current Cochrane Review, the authors could not identify any r<strong>and</strong>omized studies despite a<br />
comprehensive search strategy in 9 databases (including c<strong>on</strong>gress abstracts <strong>and</strong> “gray” literature)<br />
<strong>and</strong> a h<strong>and</strong> search [35].<br />
Individual reports suggest survival rates <strong>of</strong> 90% after DC even in a prognostically unfavorable<br />
baseline situati<strong>on</strong> [36]. In the majority <strong>of</strong> larger case series, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, the case fatality<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> the injured who required a DC laparotomy is 25-50% [37–39].<br />
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Table 15: Damage C<strong>on</strong>trol versus definitive management<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
St<strong>on</strong>e et al.<br />
1983 [31]<br />
Rot<strong>on</strong>do et al.<br />
1993 [32]<br />
MacKenzie et<br />
al. 2007 [33]<br />
Nicholas et al.<br />
2003 [34]<br />
2b 31 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or blunt<br />
abdominal injuries<br />
<strong>and</strong> intra-operative<br />
development <strong>of</strong> a<br />
coagulopathy<br />
2b 46 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating<br />
abdominal injuries<br />
2b 37 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or blunt<br />
hepatic injuries,<br />
grade 4/5<br />
2b 250 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating<br />
abdominal injuries<br />
Definitive management<br />
(n = 14)<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
1/14 (7%)<br />
Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
(n = 17) a<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
11/17 (65%)<br />
RR 0.11 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval: 0.02–0.75)<br />
Definitive management<br />
(n = 22)<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
12/22 (55%)<br />
Damage C<strong>on</strong>trol (n = 24) b<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
14/24 (58%)<br />
RR 0.94 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval: 0.56–1.56)<br />
Survival rate for max.<br />
injury: 1/9 (11%) c<br />
Survival rate for max.<br />
injury: 10/13 (77%) c<br />
RR 0.14 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval: 0.02–0.94)<br />
Definitive management<br />
(n = 30)<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
19/30 (63%)<br />
Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
(n = 7)¶<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
7 /7 (100%)<br />
RR 0.63 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval: 0.48–0.83)<br />
Definitive management<br />
(n = 205)<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
184/205 (90%)<br />
Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
(n = 45)<br />
Overall survival rate:<br />
33/45 (73%)<br />
RR 1.22 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval: 1.02–1.47, p =<br />
0.0032)<br />
a: Immediate arrest, packing, abdominal closure under tensi<strong>on</strong>, mean time until sec<strong>on</strong>d look: 27 h<br />
b: four-quadrant packing, hemostasis, ligature or simple (clamp) suture for hollow organ injuries,<br />
temporary abdominal wall closure, mean time until sec<strong>on</strong>d look: 32h<br />
c: Injury to great vessels + ≥ 2 visceral injuries; packing + angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
The Pringle maneuver <strong>with</strong> clamping <strong>of</strong> the portal vein <strong>and</strong> comm<strong>on</strong> hepatic artery is possibly<br />
<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the oldest DC techniques for the temporary hemostasis <strong>of</strong> severe hepatic injuries [40].<br />
Although an ischemia time <strong>of</strong> 45-60 minutes through the hepatic parenchyma is tolerated in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> no preoperative shock event <strong>with</strong>out serious postoperative functi<strong>on</strong> deficit, the full<br />
utilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> this ischemia period would seem to increase noticeably the risk <strong>of</strong> postoperative<br />
liver failure in the multiply injured patient [41]. In a Chinese case series, 5 out <strong>of</strong> 7 patients who<br />
had underg<strong>on</strong>e a Pringle maneuver died because <strong>of</strong> a retrohepatic caval tear [42].<br />
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Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol: Temporary abdominal wall closure<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
After DC laparotomy, the abdomen should be closed <strong>on</strong>ly temporarily <strong>and</strong> not<br />
using a fascial suture.<br />
The temporary abdominal wall closure in DC laparotomy should be<br />
performed using synthetic material which enables a stepwise c<strong>on</strong>vergence <strong>of</strong><br />
the fascial edges.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Primary fascial closure after DC laparotomy increases the risk <strong>of</strong> abdominal compartment<br />
syndrome (ACS). After primary fascial suture, a 6-fold increased risk for ACS was reported<br />
compared to <strong>on</strong>ly skin closure <strong>and</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a 3-liter irrigati<strong>on</strong> bag for cystoscopies (Bogotá<br />
bag) [43]. Against the reduced risk for ACS by using a temporary closure, there is fluid loss <strong>and</strong><br />
disturbed temperature regulati<strong>on</strong> due to the large exchange surface <strong>and</strong> the difficulty <strong>of</strong><br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structing the abdominal wall. Bogotá bag equivalents or commercial products <strong>with</strong> zip or<br />
hook-<strong>and</strong>-loop closure (Wittmann patch or Artificial Burr) have established themselves as<br />
temporary materials [44]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there is widespread use <strong>of</strong> vacuum sealing. The results <strong>of</strong><br />
case series were summarized in a current systematic review paper [45]. According to this, the<br />
Wittmann patch is associated <strong>with</strong> the highest success rate for an abdominal wall closure. A<br />
retrospective cohort study comes to similar results [46]. In a small r<strong>and</strong>omized study, no<br />
difference between a temporary closure using a vacuum dressing <strong>and</strong> polyglactin-910 mesh<br />
could be detected [47].<br />
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Table 16: Methods for abdominal wall closure<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Method Result<br />
van<br />
Hensbroek<br />
et al. 2009<br />
[45]<br />
Weinberg<br />
et al. 2008<br />
[46]<br />
Bee et al.<br />
2008 [47]<br />
4 Systematic<br />
review <strong>of</strong> case<br />
series<br />
2b 59 patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> blunt or<br />
penetrating<br />
abdominal<br />
trauma<br />
1b 59 patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> blunt or<br />
penetrating<br />
abdominal<br />
trauma<br />
a: using foil, abdominal sheets <strong>and</strong> Red<strong>on</strong> drains<br />
Wittmann patch<br />
KCI-VACTM<br />
Vacuum dressing a<br />
Skin closure<br />
Zip closure<br />
Silo (Bogotá bag)<br />
Net or sheet<br />
“Pre-Wittmann<br />
patch” (n = 23)<br />
“Wittmann patch”<br />
(n = 36)<br />
Polyglactin-910<br />
mesh<br />
(n = 20)<br />
Vacuum dressing<br />
(n = 26) a<br />
KCI-VACTM<br />
(n = 5)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
146/180 (81%)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
19/251 (78%)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
846/1,186<br />
(71%)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
62/101 (61%)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
89/135 (66%)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
61/109 (56%)<br />
Survival rate:<br />
844/1,176<br />
(72%)<br />
Case fatality<br />
rate:<br />
5/20 (25%)<br />
Abscess:<br />
9/15 (60%)<br />
Case fatality<br />
rate:<br />
8/31 (26%)<br />
Abscess: 12/23<br />
(52%)<br />
Abdominal wall<br />
closure:<br />
127/146 (88%)<br />
Abdominal wall closure<br />
118/195 (60%)<br />
Abdominal wall closure<br />
444/846 (53%)<br />
Abdominal wall closure<br />
27/62 (43%)<br />
Abdominal wall closure<br />
32/89 (36%)<br />
Abdominal wall closure<br />
21/61 (34%)<br />
Abdominal wall closure<br />
214/844 (25%)<br />
Fascial closure:<br />
7/23 (30%)<br />
Fascial closure:<br />
28/36 (78%)<br />
Fascial closure:<br />
4/15 (27%)<br />
Fascial closure:<br />
7/23 (30%)<br />
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Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol: Sec<strong>on</strong>d look after packing<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
After packing intraabdominal bleeding, a sec<strong>on</strong>d look should be undertaken<br />
<strong>and</strong> the tamp<strong>on</strong>ade replaced between 24 <strong>and</strong> 48 hours after the first<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
After packing <strong>and</strong> intensive medical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> as part <strong>of</strong> the damage c<strong>on</strong>trol sequence, a relaparotomy<br />
is necessary to replace the abdominal sheets <strong>and</strong> also for definitive injury<br />
management, if applicable. A balance must be maintained here between the risk <strong>of</strong> fresh<br />
bleeding <strong>and</strong> the possible complicati<strong>on</strong>s (infecti<strong>on</strong>s, fistula, restricted pulm<strong>on</strong>ary functi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
abdominal compartment syndrome) from the foreign material.<br />
The available data from retrospective cohort studies show that unpacking after 24-36 hours is<br />
associated <strong>with</strong> an increased risk <strong>of</strong> bleeding (pooled relative risk, fixed effects: 3.51, 95%<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval: 1.39–8.90) [48, 49]. There is no clear evidence that leaving the abdominal<br />
sheets for a period <strong>of</strong> 48 hours increases the risk <strong>of</strong> septic complicati<strong>on</strong>s (pooled relative risk,<br />
fixed effects: 1.01; 95% CI: 0.59–1.70) [48–51]. In the study by Abikhaled, however, leaving the<br />
tamp<strong>on</strong>ades > 72 hours was associated <strong>with</strong> an almost 7-fold increase in the relative risk for<br />
intraabdominal abscesses (6.77; 95% CI: 0.84–54.25) [50]. From a pragmatic viewpoint,<br />
therefore, the re-laparotomy should be planned for not so<strong>on</strong>er than 24 hours <strong>and</strong> not later than 48<br />
hours after the first interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
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Table 17: Sec<strong>on</strong>d look after packing<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Nicol et al.<br />
2007 [48]<br />
Cué et al.<br />
1990 [51]<br />
Caruso et al.<br />
1999 [49]<br />
Sharp et al.<br />
1992 [52]<br />
Abikhaled et<br />
al. 1997 [50]<br />
2b 93 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or<br />
blunt hepatic<br />
trauma<br />
2b 21 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or<br />
blunt hepatic<br />
trauma<br />
2b 93 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or<br />
blunt hepatic<br />
trauma<br />
2b 22 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or<br />
blunt hepatic<br />
trauma<br />
2b 35 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or<br />
blunt abdominal<br />
trauma<br />
Definitive abdominal wall closure<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d look<br />
24h:<br />
(n = 25):<br />
Subsequent<br />
bleeding:<br />
8/25 (32%)<br />
Packing in situ 24<br />
h (n = 8):<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
5/8 (63%)<br />
Packing in situ 24<br />
h (n = 7):<br />
Abscess:<br />
2/7 (29%)<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d look<br />
48h:<br />
(n = 44):<br />
Subsequent<br />
bleeding 5/44<br />
(11%)<br />
Packing in situ 48<br />
h (n = 44):<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
6/44 (14%)<br />
Packing in situ 48<br />
h (n = 6):<br />
Abscess:<br />
2/6 (33%)<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d look < 36 h (n = 39):<br />
Subsequent bleeding: 8/39<br />
(21%)<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
13/39 (33%)<br />
Case fatality rate: 7/39 (18%)<br />
6 patients <strong>with</strong> septic<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Packing in situ 2.2 ± 0.4 (2–<br />
3) days<br />
Packing in ≤ 72 h (n = 22):<br />
Abscess 1/22 (5%)<br />
Sepsis 11/22 (50%)<br />
Case fatality rate 1/22 (5%)<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d look 72 h<br />
(n = 3):<br />
Subsequent<br />
bleeding:<br />
0/3<br />
Packing in situ 72<br />
h (n = 20):<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
3/20 (15%)<br />
Packing in situ 72<br />
h (n = 8):<br />
Abscess:<br />
3/8 (38%)<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d look 36-72 h<br />
(n = 24):<br />
Subsequent bleeding: 1/24<br />
(4%)<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
7/29 (29%)<br />
Case fatality rate: 7/24 (29%)<br />
6 patients <strong>with</strong>out septic<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Packing in situ 2.0 ± 1.0 (1–<br />
7) days<br />
Packing in situ > 72 h<br />
(n = 13):<br />
Abscess 4/13 (31%)<br />
Sepsis 10/13 (77%)<br />
Case fatality rate 6/13 (46%)<br />
Definitive fascial closure should be c<strong>on</strong>tinuous using slow absorbable or n<strong>on</strong>absorbable<br />
suture material.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The technique <strong>of</strong> fascial closure after a laparotomy is well-known to be c<strong>on</strong>troversial <strong>and</strong> is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
determined by the surge<strong>on</strong>’s preference. The best available evidence <strong>on</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>-making is<br />
obtained from r<strong>and</strong>omized studies <strong>of</strong> elective abdominal interventi<strong>on</strong>s. It appears pragmatic <strong>and</strong><br />
expedient to transfer any clear trends in favor <strong>of</strong> a specific method to the trauma scenario.<br />
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There are 2 meta-analyses <strong>of</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omized studies for which the data pool <strong>on</strong>ly partially overlaps.<br />
Both show a significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in risk for incisi<strong>on</strong>al hernias through n<strong>on</strong>-absorbable suture<br />
material <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinuous sutures [53, 54]. The results <strong>of</strong> the multicenter INSECT (Interrupted or<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tinuous Slowly Absorbable Sutures – Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Abdominal Closure Techniques) trial<br />
published in 2009 show a similar though not significantly statistical trend [55].<br />
The updated comm<strong>on</strong> Peto odds ratio from all available r<strong>and</strong>omized studies <strong>on</strong> the comparis<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinuous slowly absorbable <strong>and</strong> rapidly absorbable single knot sutures is 0.79 for incisi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
hernias (95% CI: 0.61–1.01) <strong>and</strong> for wound infecti<strong>on</strong>s 1.49 (95% CI: 1.15–1.94).<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If, in the case <strong>of</strong> a patient <strong>with</strong> hepatic injury who can be hemodynamically<br />
stabilized, there is evidence <strong>of</strong> arterial bleeding in a c<strong>on</strong>trast agent CT,<br />
selective angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> or a laparotomy should be performed.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> splenic injuries grade 1-3 which require interventi<strong>on</strong>, selective<br />
angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> can be performed instead <strong>of</strong> surgical hemostasis.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal bleeding which requires interventi<strong>on</strong>, selective<br />
angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> can be performed instead <strong>of</strong> or in additi<strong>on</strong> to surgical<br />
hemostasis.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR 0<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>al radiology has an established value in polytrauma management <strong>and</strong> is used both in<br />
primary n<strong>on</strong>-surgical treatment <strong>of</strong> organ injuries <strong>and</strong> as a neo-adjuvant <strong>and</strong> adjuvant interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
[56, 57]. If there is evidence <strong>of</strong> active bleeding from the c<strong>on</strong>trast agent enhanced CT scan which<br />
cannot or must not be addressed operatively <strong>and</strong> if there is a good resp<strong>on</strong>se to fluid <strong>and</strong> blood<br />
replacement in the emergency room, angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> can c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards sustained<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the circulati<strong>on</strong> [58, 59].<br />
There are no r<strong>and</strong>omized studies. The currently best available evidence is <strong>on</strong> blunt <strong>and</strong><br />
penetrating hepatic injuries <strong>and</strong> suggests a reducti<strong>on</strong> in case fatality rate through additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> during DC management compared to operative treatment <strong>on</strong>ly (comm<strong>on</strong> RR<br />
[fixed effects] 0.47, 95% CI: 0.28–0.78) [60–65]. The bias due to lack <strong>of</strong> multivariate adjustment<br />
must be taken into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>. Currently, there is no answer to the questi<strong>on</strong> as to whether<br />
angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> in hepatic injuries should be performed before or after the DC laparotomy.<br />
Two studies support early neoadjuvant angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> the lower complicati<strong>on</strong> rates<br />
[63, 65]. In 2 other studies, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, mortality was lowered if angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
performed after a DC laparotomy [64, 66].<br />
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Decisi<strong>on</strong>-making must be <strong>on</strong> an individual case basis <strong>on</strong> the availability <strong>and</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> an<br />
experienced interventi<strong>on</strong>al radiologist, the success <strong>of</strong> circulati<strong>on</strong>-stabilizing measures in the<br />
emergency room, the intraoperative finding, <strong>and</strong> the postoperative hemodynamics.<br />
The same applies to angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> in the case <strong>of</strong> bleeding from the spleen, where more upto-date<br />
data now seems to call for cauti<strong>on</strong> [67–70]. Compared to n<strong>on</strong>operative treatment,<br />
angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> did not lead to a reducti<strong>on</strong> in either the treatment failure rate (comm<strong>on</strong> RR<br />
[r<strong>and</strong>om effects] 1.13; 95% CI: 0.86-1.48) or mortality (comm<strong>on</strong> RR [fixed effects] 1.19; 95%<br />
CI: 0.66–1.15).<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 18: Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Asensio et<br />
al.<br />
2007 [61]<br />
Johns<strong>on</strong> et<br />
al.<br />
2002 [62]<br />
Asensio et<br />
al.<br />
2003 [60]<br />
Wahl et al.<br />
2002 [65]<br />
2b 75 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or blunt<br />
hepatic trauma grade 4/5<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> directly after DC laparotomy (n = 17) DC laparotomy <strong>with</strong>out angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> (n = 58)<br />
Case fatality rate 2/17 (12%) Case fatality rate 21/58 (36%)<br />
2b 19 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or blunt<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> directly after DC laparotomy (n = 8) DC laparotomy <strong>with</strong>out angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> (n = 11)<br />
hepatic trauma grade 1–5 Case fatality rate 1/8 (13%) Case fatality rate 4/11 (36%)<br />
2b 103 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or blunt<br />
hepatic trauma grade 4/5<br />
2b 126 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
hepatic trauma grade 1–6<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> directly after DC laparotomy (n = 23) DC laparotomy <strong>with</strong>out angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> (n = 80)<br />
Case fatality rate 7/23 (30%)<br />
(grade 4: 4/14 [28%], grade 5: 3/9 [33%])<br />
RR 0.51 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval 0.27-0.98)<br />
Case fatality rate 52/80 (65%)<br />
(grade 4: 15/37 [39%], grade 5: 37/43 [86%])<br />
OR (multivariate adjusted for RTS, direct surgical access to hepatic veins <strong>and</strong> packing):<br />
0.20 (95% c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval 0.05-0.72)<br />
Early AE<br />
before/instead <strong>of</strong><br />
DC laparotomy<br />
(n = 6)<br />
Case fatality rate<br />
0/6 (0%),<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
3/6 (50%)<br />
Late AE after DC<br />
laparotomy (n = 6)<br />
Case fatality rate 3/6<br />
(50%), complicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
6/6 (100%)<br />
DC laparotomy (n = 20) N<strong>on</strong>operative treatment (n = 94)<br />
Case fatality rate 7/20 (35%),<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s 9/20 (45%)<br />
Case fatality rate 2/94 (2%),<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s 2/94 (2%)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 18: Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> - (c<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Mohr et al.<br />
2003 [63]<br />
M<strong>on</strong>nin et<br />
al.<br />
2008 [64]<br />
2b 26 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating or blunt<br />
Early AE before/instead <strong>of</strong> DC laparotomy (n = 11) Late AE after DC laparotomy (n = 15)<br />
hepatic trauma grade 3–5 Case fatality rate 2/11 (18%), complicati<strong>on</strong>s 5/11 (45%) Case fatality rate 5/15 (33%), complicati<strong>on</strong>s 6/15 (40%)<br />
2b<br />
Table 19: Angiography<br />
14 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
hepatic trauma grade 3–5<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Velmahos<br />
et al. 2000<br />
[66]<br />
2b 137 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt or<br />
penetrating abdominal<br />
trauma<br />
(36 hepatic injuries)<br />
Early AE before/instead <strong>of</strong> DC laparotomy (n = 10) Late AE after DC laparotomy (n = 4)<br />
Case fatality rate 1/10 (10%) Case fatality rate 0/4 (0%)<br />
Emergency room<br />
angiography<br />
(n = 49)<br />
Case fatality rate:<br />
14/49 (29%)<br />
Emergency room ICU<br />
angiography<br />
(n = 15)<br />
Case fatality rate:<br />
3/15 (20%)<br />
Operating room<br />
angiography<br />
(n = 32)<br />
Case fatality rate:<br />
7/32 (22%)<br />
Operating room ICU<br />
angiography (n = 21)<br />
Case fatality rate:<br />
2/21 (10%)<br />
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Table 20: Interventi<strong>on</strong>s after blunt splenic injuries<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Co<strong>on</strong>ey et<br />
al.<br />
2005 [69]<br />
Harbrecht<br />
et al.<br />
2007 [67]<br />
Smith et<br />
al.<br />
2006 [68]<br />
Duchesne<br />
et al.<br />
2008 [70]<br />
Wei et al.<br />
2008 [71]<br />
2b 194 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
splenic injuries grade<br />
1–5<br />
2b 349 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
splenic injuries grade<br />
1–5<br />
2b 221 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
splenic injuries grade<br />
1–5<br />
2b 154 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
splenic injuries grade<br />
1–5<br />
2b 87 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
splenic injuries grade<br />
1–5<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(n = 9)<br />
Success rate: 6/9 (67%)<br />
Case fatality rate: 0/9 (0%)<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(n = 46)<br />
Case fatality rate: 2/46 (4%)<br />
Success rates:<br />
grade 2: 16/17 (94%), grade 3: 76%,<br />
a, b<br />
grade 4: 88%<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(n = 41)<br />
Success rate:<br />
30/41 (73%)<br />
N<strong>on</strong>operative treatment<br />
(n = 137)<br />
Success rate: 126/137 (92%)<br />
Case fatality rate: 9/137 (7%)<br />
N<strong>on</strong>operative treatment<br />
(n = 303)<br />
Case fatality rate: 12/303 (4%)<br />
Success rates:<br />
grade 2: 225/236 (95%), grade 3: 86%,<br />
grade 4: 63% a<br />
N<strong>on</strong>operative treatment<br />
(n = 303)<br />
Success rate:<br />
114/124 (92%)<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 48)<br />
Success rate: 48/48 (100%)<br />
Case fatality rate: 9/48 (19%)<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 221)<br />
Case fatality rate 42/221 (19%)<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 56)<br />
Success rate:<br />
56/56 (100%)<br />
Before carrying out angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> (n = 78) After carrying out angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> (n = 76)<br />
Case fatality rate: 14/78 (18%)<br />
Sepsis: 4/78 (5%)<br />
ARDS: 4/78 (5%)<br />
Angioembolizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(n = 55)<br />
Case fatality rate: 4/55 (7%)<br />
abdominal complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 2/55 (5%)<br />
Case fatality rate: 11/76 (14%)<br />
Sepsis: 9/76 (9%)<br />
ARDS: 17/76 (22%)<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 37)<br />
Case fatality rate: 2/37 (5%)<br />
abdominal complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 13/37 (35%)<br />
a: No. <strong>of</strong> patients unclear b: No effect <strong>of</strong> angioembolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> success rates after multivariate adjustment for age, AIS <strong>and</strong> abdominal c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries<br />
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Spleen-salvaging operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
The goal can be spleen-salvaging surgery in the case <strong>of</strong> splenic injuries <strong>of</strong><br />
severity grade 1-3 according to AAST/Moore that require surgery.<br />
Preference should be given to splenectomy over a salvage attempt in patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> splenic injuries <strong>of</strong> severity grade 4-5 according to AAST/Moore that<br />
require surgery.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR B<br />
The risk <strong>of</strong> an “overwhelming postsplenectomy syndrome (OPSI)” after a splenectomy is estimated<br />
at 2.5% [72]. In patients <strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong>, splenic injuries <strong>on</strong>ly rarely represent an indicati<strong>on</strong><br />
for laparotomy. Thus, <strong>on</strong>ly when surgery becomes necessary (e.g., in the case <strong>of</strong> unstable<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> or high transfusi<strong>on</strong> requirement) does the questi<strong>on</strong> arise for the surge<strong>on</strong> as to the<br />
possibility <strong>and</strong> the certainty <strong>of</strong> salvaging an organ. Complete mobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spleen after<br />
separating the lienorenal <strong>and</strong> phrenicolienal ligaments is definitive for operative success [73].<br />
Unsurprisingly, due to different patient populati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> injury severity scores, it is difficult to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct a direct comparis<strong>on</strong> between the results after splenectomy <strong>and</strong> salvage procedures. With<br />
stable splenorrhaphy frequency between 1988 <strong>and</strong> 1993, an analysis <strong>of</strong> the North Carolina Trauma<br />
Registry showed a trend in favor <strong>of</strong> primary n<strong>on</strong>operative management <strong>and</strong> a rejecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
splenectomy. The comparis<strong>on</strong> between the methods yielded, not surprisingly, a lower mortality<br />
after splenorrhaphy compared to splenectomy (RR 0.36, 95% CI: 0.18-0.73) at higher mean ISS in<br />
the splenectomy group (25 ± 12 versus 19 ± 11, p < 0001) [74]. In this cohort there were also 10<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> a mean ISS <strong>of</strong> 33 ± 15 where the salvage attempt failed. After the splenectomy, 2<br />
patients died. In another study <strong>with</strong> comparable injury severity, c<strong>on</strong>siderably fewer infecti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
occurred after splenorrhaphy (RR 0.30, 95% CI: 0.13–0.70) [75]. A n<strong>on</strong>-significant trend to overall<br />
higher complicati<strong>on</strong> rates after splenorrhaphy (RR 1.81; 95% CI: 0.36-9.02) despite lower injury<br />
severity was observed in another study [76].<br />
In a series <strong>of</strong> 326 patients from the early 1980s, the rates <strong>of</strong> spleen-salvaging operati<strong>on</strong>s for Moore<br />
I/II, III <strong>and</strong> IV/V injuries were 88.5%, 61.5%, <strong>and</strong> 7.7% [77]. A similar trend in relati<strong>on</strong> to the ISS<br />
was also dem<strong>on</strong>strated in a more recent study <strong>with</strong> inclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> 2,258 adult patients [78]. The failure<br />
quota (subsequent bleeding, sec<strong>on</strong>dary splenectomy) after a spleen salvage attempt was 7 out <strong>of</strong> 240<br />
(2.9%; 95% CI: 1.2–5.9%). A splenectomy was necessary in 66.4% <strong>of</strong> all patients <strong>with</strong> an ISS ≥ 15.<br />
In a multivariate analysis <strong>of</strong> 546 patients from a 17-year period, Carlin derived injuries <strong>of</strong> grade 4<br />
<strong>and</strong> 5 as independent predictive variables for a splenectomy [79]. However, whether this depicts the<br />
actual necessity <strong>of</strong> removing a spleen or merely the surge<strong>on</strong>’s str<strong>on</strong>g feelings cannot be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusively evaluated. In the special case <strong>of</strong> 25 multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> a mean ISS <strong>of</strong> 32.0<br />
(95% CI: 28.2-35.8), Aid<strong>on</strong>opoulos <strong>and</strong> colleagues observed subsequent bleeding requiring a<br />
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splenectomy in 2 patients <strong>with</strong> injury grade 3 after suturing <strong>with</strong> a ‘figure <strong>of</strong> eight’ (0-0 chromic cat<br />
gut) [80].<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 21: Interventi<strong>on</strong>s after blunt or penetrating splenic injuries<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Clancy et al.<br />
1997 [81]<br />
Gauer et al.<br />
2008 [82]<br />
Kaseje et al.<br />
2008 [83]<br />
a: Subsequent bleeding:<br />
b: Pancreas leaks <strong>and</strong> fistulas<br />
2b 1,255 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
or penetrating splenic<br />
injuries grade<br />
1–5<br />
2b 91 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
splenic injuries<br />
requiring surgery<br />
2b 91 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
<strong>and</strong> penetrating splenic<br />
injuries requiring<br />
surgery<br />
Splenorrhaphy<br />
(n = 150)<br />
Shock: 26/150 (17%)<br />
mean ISS: 19 ± 11<br />
Splenectomy after splenorrhaphy<br />
(n = 10)<br />
Shock: 2/10 (20%)<br />
mean ISS: 33 ± 15<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 596)<br />
Shock: 149/596 (25%)<br />
mean ISS: 25 ± 12<br />
Case fatality rate: 8/150 (5%) Case fatality rate: 2/10 (20%) Case fatality rate: 88/596 (15%)<br />
Splenorrhaphy<br />
(n = 34)<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 57)<br />
Mean ISS: 31 Mean ISS: 33<br />
Infecti<strong>on</strong>s (total): 5/34 (15%)<br />
Pneum<strong>on</strong>ias: 3/34 (9%)<br />
Splenorrhaphy<br />
(n = 16)<br />
Infecti<strong>on</strong>s (total): 28/57 (49%)<br />
Pneum<strong>on</strong>ias: 19/57 (33%)<br />
Splenectomy<br />
(n = 58)<br />
Mean ISS: 21 Mean ISS: 28<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 2/16 (13%) a Complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 4/58 (7%) b<br />
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Hollow organ injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injuries, if technically possible, preference<br />
must be given over a two-step procedure <strong>with</strong> temporary stoma to oversewing<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly or to primary anastomosis in order to reduce the risk <strong>of</strong> intraabdominal<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
Due to the c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the sterile abdominal cavity <strong>with</strong> mixed anaerobic flora, penetrating<br />
col<strong>on</strong> injuries represent a potentially life-threatening clinical picture. Thus, patients <strong>with</strong><br />
abdominal gunshot wounds who must undergo immediate surgical treatment have a 100-fold<br />
higher relative risk <strong>of</strong> dying compared to patients <strong>with</strong> injuries that can be treated n<strong>on</strong>-surgically<br />
or during sec<strong>on</strong>dary surgery [84].<br />
Since 1979, 6 r<strong>and</strong>omized trials (RCTs) have been published in which the results after primary<br />
operative management to maintain c<strong>on</strong>tinuity were compared <strong>with</strong> those after temporary<br />
inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an ileostomy [85–90]. These studies were summarized in a Cochrane Review<br />
updated in 2009 [91]. The observed trends were also reproduced in the multicenter study <strong>of</strong> the<br />
American Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong> Trauma (AAST) [92].<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the best available evidence, there is a n<strong>on</strong>-significant trend in mortality in favor <strong>of</strong><br />
primary anastomosis (RR 0.67; 95% CI: 0.31-1.45) <strong>with</strong> a marked reducti<strong>on</strong> in complicati<strong>on</strong><br />
rates (RR 0.73; 95% CI: 0.52-1.02). The risk <strong>of</strong> intraabdominal infecti<strong>on</strong>s could possibly be<br />
reduced by 23% through primary anastomosis (RR 0.77; 95% CI: 0.55-1.06) even though clear<br />
scientific pro<strong>of</strong> from an appropriately designed r<strong>and</strong>omized study is unavailable. Current data<br />
from the US Iraq operati<strong>on</strong>s support the trends in favor <strong>of</strong> primary anastomosis [93]. It is unclear<br />
whether the available data can be transferred to blunt injuries. In this situati<strong>on</strong>, however, biologic<br />
<strong>and</strong> clinical c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s argue more in favor <strong>of</strong> maintaining c<strong>on</strong>tinuity.<br />
Stapling instruments represent a major valuable additi<strong>on</strong> to the equipment for elective<br />
gastrointestinal interventi<strong>on</strong>s. Deep colorectal anastomoses were first made possible through the<br />
availability <strong>of</strong> circular staplers; laparoscopic intestinal surgery also gained from the opti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
stapled anastomoses.<br />
In a meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 9 r<strong>and</strong>omized studies (1,233 patients), however, there was no evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
advantage from staplers compared to a h<strong>and</strong> suture in the endpoints mortality, anastomosis<br />
failure, wound infecti<strong>on</strong>, re-operati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> stay in hospital [94]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
there was a significantly increased risk <strong>of</strong> strictures after stapled anastomosis (Peto OR 3.59;<br />
95% CI: 2.02–6.35). The multicenter studies <strong>of</strong> the Western Trauma Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> AAST<br />
have produced evidence <strong>of</strong> a possible disadvantage from stapled col<strong>on</strong> anastomoses in the<br />
trauma situati<strong>on</strong> [95, 96]. The weighted relative risk for all complicati<strong>on</strong>s after h<strong>and</strong> suture<br />
compared to stapled anastomosis from both studies is 0.72 (95% CI: 0.45-1.15). For anastomosis<br />
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failures <strong>and</strong> intraabdominal abscesses, the comm<strong>on</strong> RR can be estimated at 0.90 (95% CI: 0.36-<br />
2.28) <strong>and</strong> 0.74 (95% CI: 0.42-1.28).<br />
Two multicenter studies yielded similar, again n<strong>on</strong>-significant trends for small intestine<br />
anastomoses [95, 97]. The h<strong>and</strong> suture is possibly associated <strong>with</strong> a reducti<strong>on</strong> in all<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s (RR 0.75; 95% CI: 0.31-1.82). Anastomosis failures <strong>and</strong> intraabdominal abscesses<br />
were also observed less frequently after h<strong>and</strong> suturing (RR 0.43; 95% CI: 0.08–2.42 <strong>and</strong> RR<br />
0.54; 95% CI: 0.18–1.64).<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> a r<strong>and</strong>omized trial c<strong>on</strong>ducted under elective c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s suggest that a single-layer,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuous h<strong>and</strong> suture can be carried out <strong>with</strong>out risk. In this study [98], no difference could be<br />
detected in the failure rates between a single-layer (2/65) <strong>and</strong> a two-layer/Lembert suture (1/67).<br />
The observed frequency <strong>of</strong> abscesses was also identical between the two treatment arms (2/65<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2/67). Nineteen <strong>and</strong> 12 trauma patients were also included in the study.<br />
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Table 22: Primary anastomosis versus ileostomy after penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injury<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Nels<strong>on</strong> et al.<br />
2009 [91]<br />
Demetriades<br />
et al. 2001<br />
[92]<br />
Vertrees et<br />
al. 2009 [93]<br />
1a Meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> 6<br />
RCTs (n = 707)<br />
2b 297 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating col<strong>on</strong><br />
injuries<br />
2b 65 wounded (Enduring<br />
Freedom/ Iraqi<br />
Freedom) <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating col<strong>on</strong><br />
injuries<br />
Primary anastomosis<br />
(n = 361)<br />
Ileostomy<br />
(n = 344)<br />
Case fatality rate: 7/361 (2%) Case fatality rate: 6/344 (2%)<br />
All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 135/361 (37%) All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 173/346 (50%)<br />
Infecti<strong>on</strong>s: 120/361 (33%) Infecti<strong>on</strong>s: 144/346 (42%)<br />
Primary anastomosis<br />
(n = 197)<br />
Ileostomy<br />
(n = 100)<br />
Case fatality rate: 8/197 (4%) Case fatality rate: 10/100 (10%)<br />
All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 44/197 (22%) All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 27/100 (27%)<br />
Infecti<strong>on</strong>s: 33/197 (17%) Infecti<strong>on</strong>s: 21/100 (21%)<br />
Primary anastomosis<br />
(n = 38)<br />
Ileostomy<br />
(n = 27)<br />
Case fatality rate: 1/38 (2%) Case fatality rate: 0/27 (0%)<br />
all col<strong>on</strong>-associated complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 11/38 (29%) all col<strong>on</strong>-associated complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 10/27 (37%)<br />
Infecti<strong>on</strong>s: 5/38 (13%) Infecti<strong>on</strong>s: 9/27 (33%)<br />
Emergency surgery phase - Abdomen 329
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 23: H<strong>and</strong> suture versus stapler after penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injury<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Brundage et<br />
al. 2001<br />
[95]<br />
Demetriades<br />
et al. 2002<br />
[96]<br />
2b 29 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt <strong>and</strong><br />
penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injuries<br />
2b 207 patients <strong>with</strong><br />
penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injuries<br />
H<strong>and</strong> suture<br />
(n = 12)<br />
Emergency surgery phase - Abdomen 330<br />
Stapler<br />
(n = 17)<br />
All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 2/12 (16%) All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 6/17 (35%)<br />
Anastomosis failure: 0/12 (0%) Anastomosis failure: 3/17 (18%)<br />
Abscess: 2/12 (17%) Abscess: 5/17 (29%)<br />
H<strong>and</strong> suture:<br />
(n = 128)<br />
Stapler:<br />
(n = 79)<br />
All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 26/128 (20%) All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 21/79 (27%)<br />
Anastomosis failure: 10/128 (8%) Anastomosis failure: 5/79 (6%)<br />
Abscess: 20/128 (16%) Abscess: 16/79 (20%)
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Table 24: H<strong>and</strong> suture versus stapler after penetrating col<strong>on</strong> injury<br />
Study LoE <strong>Patients</strong> Result<br />
Brundage<br />
et al. 1999<br />
[95]<br />
Kirkpatrick<br />
AW et al.<br />
2003 [97]<br />
2b 117 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
<strong>and</strong> penetrating small<br />
intestine injuries<br />
2b 232 patients <strong>with</strong> blunt<br />
<strong>and</strong> penetrating small<br />
intestine injuries<br />
H<strong>and</strong> suture<br />
(n = 44)<br />
Emergency surgery phase - Abdomen 331<br />
Stapler<br />
(n = 70)<br />
All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 2/44 (5%) All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 8/70 (11%)<br />
Anastomosis failure: 0/44 (0%) Anastomosis failure: 3/70 (4%)<br />
Abscess: 0/44 (0%) Abscess: 6/70 (9%)<br />
H<strong>and</strong> suture<br />
(n = 25)<br />
Stapler<br />
(n = 55)<br />
All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 4/25 (16%) All complicati<strong>on</strong>s: 7/55 (13%)<br />
Anastomosis failure: 1/25 (4%) Anastomosis failure: 3/55 (6%)<br />
Abscess: 3/25 (12%) Abscess: 6/55 (11%)
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
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73. Peitzman AB, Ford HR, Harbrecht BG, Potoka DA,<br />
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75. Gauer JM, Gerber-Paulet S, Seiler C, Schweizer WP.<br />
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76. Kaseje N, Agarwal S, Burch M et al. Short-term<br />
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77. Feliciano DV, Bit<strong>on</strong>do CG, Mattox KL et al. A fouryear<br />
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78. Hunt JP, Lentz CW, Cairns BA et al. Management<br />
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80. Aid<strong>on</strong>opoulos AP, Papavramidis ST, Goutzamanis<br />
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82. Gauer JM, Gerber-Paulet S, Seiler C, Schweizer WP.<br />
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83. Kaseje N, Agarwal S, Burch M et al. Short-term<br />
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84. Velmahos GC, Demetriades D, Toutouzas KG et al.<br />
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96. Demetriades D, Murray JA, Chan LS et al. H<strong>and</strong>sewn<br />
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97. Kirkpatrick AW, Baxter KA, Sim<strong>on</strong>s RK et al. Intraabdominal<br />
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3.5 Traumatic brain injury<br />
Surgical management<br />
Emergency surgical management<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Compressive intracranial injuries must be surgically managed as an<br />
emergency.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
The goal <strong>of</strong> the treatment after a TBI is to limit the extent <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary brain damage <strong>and</strong> to<br />
provide the brain cells whose functi<strong>on</strong> is impaired but not destroyed <strong>with</strong> the best c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al regenerati<strong>on</strong>. Injury sequelae requiring surgery must be treated in a timely manner.<br />
The indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> traumatic intracranial compressi<strong>on</strong> has never been<br />
tested in prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials. There are several retrospective analyses [3-9,<br />
13] from which the benefit <strong>of</strong> surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong> can be derived. Due to the decades <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensual experience, the need for a surgical procedure can be regarded as a basic<br />
inc<strong>on</strong>trovertible assumpti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> good clinical practice.<br />
Compressive intracranial injuries represent an absolute urgent indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery. This<br />
applies both to traumatic intracranial bleeding (epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma,<br />
intracerebral hematoma/c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> to compressive impressi<strong>on</strong> fractures. The definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
compressi<strong>on</strong> refers to the shift <strong>of</strong> cerebral structures, particularly the 3rd ventricle normally<br />
located at the midline. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the finding in the computed tomography (layer thickness,<br />
volume, <strong>and</strong> locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> hematoma, extent <strong>of</strong> midline shift), the clinical finding is key to<br />
establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the speed <strong>with</strong> which surgical management should be carried out.<br />
If there are signs <strong>of</strong> a transtentorial herniati<strong>on</strong>, every minute can make a difference to the clinical<br />
outcome. It is not c<strong>on</strong>sidered meaningful to indicate the volumes at which an interventi<strong>on</strong> should<br />
be performed as the individual situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient (age, possible pre-existing brain atrophy<br />
inter alia) must be taken into account in establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> deferred urgency<br />
Open or closed impressi<strong>on</strong> fractures <strong>with</strong>out shift <strong>of</strong> midline structures, penetrating injuries or<br />
basal fractures <strong>with</strong> liquorrhea c<strong>on</strong>stitute operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> deferred urgency. Their surgical<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct requires neurosurgical competence. The timing <strong>of</strong> the surgical interventi<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong><br />
many factors <strong>and</strong> must be decided <strong>on</strong> an individual basis.<br />
Decompressive craniectomy<br />
An effective opti<strong>on</strong> for lowering elevated intracranial pressure is surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong> by<br />
craniectomy <strong>and</strong>, if necessary, expansive duraplasty. The necessity mainly arises from the<br />
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development <strong>of</strong> marked (sec<strong>on</strong>dary) brain edema <strong>and</strong> thus frequently has several days’ latency.<br />
According to a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial, the method shows good treatment<br />
success despite an increased complicati<strong>on</strong> rate [23]. Further prospective studies [10, 18] are<br />
<strong>on</strong>going so that no final recommendati<strong>on</strong> can yet be made [26].<br />
N<strong>on</strong>operative treatment <strong>of</strong> intracranial bleeding<br />
In n<strong>on</strong>compressive bleeding <strong>and</strong> stable neurologic finding, a n<strong>on</strong>operative procedure can be<br />
justified in individual cases [5, 7]. However, these patients must undergo close clinical <strong>and</strong><br />
computed tomography follow-up observati<strong>on</strong>. In the event <strong>of</strong> clinical deteriorati<strong>on</strong> or increase in<br />
compressi<strong>on</strong>, it must be possible to carry out immediate surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Measuring intracranial pressure<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Intracranial pressure can be measured in unc<strong>on</strong>scious brain-damaged<br />
patients.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>ally in recent decades, the measurement <strong>of</strong> intracranial pressure has found its way into<br />
the acute management <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>scious brain-damaged patients <strong>and</strong> has meanwhile been adopted<br />
in several internati<strong>on</strong>al guidelines [2, 21, 30]. For pathophysiologic reas<strong>on</strong>s, this seems sensible<br />
as clinical m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> many cerebral functi<strong>on</strong>s is <strong>on</strong>ly possible to a limited extent. As a<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itoring instrument in sedated patients, it can indicate imminent midbrain incarcerati<strong>on</strong> due to<br />
progressive brain swelling or compressive intracranial hematomas <strong>and</strong> thus permits early<br />
counter-measures to be taken. Even if there is currently no prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
trial that compares the clinical outcome <strong>with</strong> carrying out ICP m<strong>on</strong>itoring [15], several cohort<br />
studies in recent years as well as clinical practice indicate its value in neurosurgical intensive<br />
medicine [1, 17, 20, 22]. The introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> guidelines which, inter alia, stipulate this type <strong>of</strong><br />
ICP m<strong>on</strong>itoring has also led to an increase in favorable courses in TBI patients [24, 11].<br />
Intracranial measurement is used for m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>and</strong> treatment c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>of</strong> unc<strong>on</strong>scious patients<br />
while taking into account the clinical course <strong>and</strong> morphologic image findings after TBI.<br />
However, it is not required in every unc<strong>on</strong>scious patient.<br />
The prerequisite for adequate brain perfusi<strong>on</strong> is adequate cerebral perfusi<strong>on</strong> pressure (CPP),<br />
which can be calculated simply from the difference between the mean arterial blood pressure <strong>and</strong><br />
the mean ICP. The literature c<strong>on</strong>tains divergent opini<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> whether lowering the ICP or<br />
maintaining the CPP should be the focus <strong>of</strong> the treatment in the case <strong>of</strong> elevated ICP. The<br />
currently available evidence argues in favor that,<br />
� <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>, the CPP should not fall below 50 mmHg if possible [30].<br />
� <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, the CPP should not be raised to above 70 mmHg by aggressive treatment<br />
[30].<br />
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Invasive ICP measurement is necessary for c<strong>on</strong>tinuous determinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the CPP. Provided the<br />
ventricles are not completely compressed, ICP m<strong>on</strong>itoring via a ventricle drain <strong>of</strong>fers the<br />
possibility <strong>of</strong> lowering elevated ICP through draining cerebrospinal fluid.<br />
Determining the individual optimum CPP requires simultaneous knowledge <strong>of</strong> brain blood<br />
supply, oxygen supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or brain metabolism. Regi<strong>on</strong>al measurements (using<br />
brain tissue probes, transcranial Doppler examinati<strong>on</strong>s or perfusi<strong>on</strong>-weighted imaging) for<br />
estimating this value are currently the subject <strong>of</strong> scientific studies [19, 27].<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Traumatic brain injury 338
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Ding M, Sun L, Jiang Q, Wang W. Effects <strong>of</strong><br />
unilateral decompressive craniectomy <strong>on</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
Emergency surgery phase – Traumatic brain injury 339
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unilateral acute post‐traumatic brain swelling after<br />
severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care.<br />
2009;13(6):R185. Epub 2009 Nov 23.<br />
24. Palmer S, Bader MK, Qureshi A, et al: The impact <strong>on</strong><br />
outcomes in a community hospital setting <strong>of</strong> using the<br />
AANS traumatic brain injury guidelines. Americans<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>s for Neurologic Surge<strong>on</strong>s. J.Trauma<br />
50:657-664, 2001 [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
25. Rot<strong>on</strong>do MF, Schwab CW, McG<strong>on</strong>igal MD, et al.:<br />
“Damage c<strong>on</strong>trol”: an approach for improved survival<br />
in exsanguinating penetrating abdominal injury. J<br />
Trauma 1993, 35:375–382.<br />
26. Sahuquillo J, Arikan F. Decompressive craniectomy<br />
for the treatment <strong>of</strong> refractory high intracranial<br />
pressure in traumatic brain injury. The Cochrane<br />
Database <strong>of</strong> Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 1.<br />
27. Steiner LA, Czosnyka M, Piechnik SK, et al:<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tinuous m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> cerebrovascular pressure<br />
reactivity allows determinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> optimal cerebral<br />
perfusi<strong>on</strong> pressure in patients <strong>with</strong> traumatic brain<br />
injury. Crit Care Med. 30:733-738, 2002.<br />
28. The Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. The American<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Neurological Surge<strong>on</strong>s. The Joint<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Neurotrauma <strong>and</strong> Critical Care.<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> Prognosis <strong>of</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> Traumatic<br />
Brain Injury. 2000<br />
http://www2.braintrauma.org/guidelines/downloads/bt<br />
f_guidelines_management.pdf [Evidenzbasierte<br />
Leitlinie]<br />
29. The Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. The American<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Neurological Surge<strong>on</strong>s. The Joint<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Neurotrauma <strong>and</strong> Critical Care.<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> Prognosis <strong>of</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> Traumatic<br />
Brain Injury. Update 2003<br />
http://www2.braintrauma.org/guidelines/downloads/bt<br />
f_guidelines_cpp_u1.pdf.<br />
30. The Brain Trauma Foundati<strong>on</strong>. The American<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Neurological Surge<strong>on</strong>s. The Joint<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Neurotrauma <strong>and</strong> Critical Care. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
for the Management <strong>of</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> Traumatic Brain<br />
Injury. 3 rd Editi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
http://braintrauma.org/guidelines/downloads/JON_24<br />
_Supp1.pdf [Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie]<br />
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3.6 Genitourinary tract<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Critical renal injuries (grade 5 according to the AAST classificati<strong>on</strong>) should<br />
be surgically explored.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> renal injuries < grade 5, a primary c<strong>on</strong>servative procedure<br />
should be introduced in stable circulati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
If other injuries necessitate a laparotomy, renal injuries <strong>of</strong> average severity<br />
grade 3 or 4 can be surgically explored.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
The indicati<strong>on</strong> to operate <strong>on</strong> renal injuries is now regarded <strong>with</strong> more restraint than a few years ago. In most<br />
cases, the decisi<strong>on</strong> to perform a laparotomy is already dictated by the intraabdominal c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries.<br />
However, life-threatening renal bleeding also represents an absolute indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery [116]. The injury<br />
severity score according to AAST (American Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong> Trauma) [117] has established<br />
itself as the basis <strong>of</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>-making as this classificati<strong>on</strong> is closely correlated to the need for surgery <strong>and</strong><br />
the possibility <strong>of</strong> salvaging the kidney [118]. Grade 5 renal injuries represent an indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the blood loss <strong>and</strong>/or threatening loss <strong>of</strong> renal functi<strong>on</strong>. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, it is usually the case that<br />
grade 2 to grade 4 injuries can definitely be managed c<strong>on</strong>servatively unless the patient has unstable<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> due to their renal injury; then the kidney should be surgically freed [119–133]. In the meantime,<br />
there are even individual reports by authors who have successfully treated grade 5 injuries c<strong>on</strong>servatively<br />
[134, 135]. Provided pelvic or abdominal injuries require a laparotomy anyway, n<strong>on</strong>-trivial renal injuries (><br />
grade 2) can be surgically explored as this increases therapeutic certainty <strong>and</strong> may even make sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s superfluous.<br />
In particular, c<strong>on</strong>troversy has l<strong>on</strong>g surrounded the procedure for severe renal injuries <strong>with</strong> urine discharge<br />
<strong>and</strong> devitalized fragments. However, individual smaller studies have shown that even here n<strong>on</strong>-surgical<br />
management is possible [136–138] even if the complicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> revisi<strong>on</strong> rate here turns out to be markedly<br />
higher [139].<br />
Pathologic pyelogram findings <strong>with</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al evidence <strong>of</strong> a pulsating or exp<strong>and</strong>ing retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal<br />
hematoma should be surgically explored in cases where <strong>on</strong>ly i.v. pyelography can be carried out because <strong>of</strong><br />
prioritizing. The evidence <strong>of</strong> hematuria <strong>and</strong> ideally also the ultrasound finding should be used here in the<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>. Ichigi et al. showed that the size <strong>of</strong> the perirenal hematoma is closely linked to the severity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
renal injury [140] so that this criteri<strong>on</strong> can also be used in the decisi<strong>on</strong> between a surgical or c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
procedure [4, 6, 9].<br />
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Table 25: Grading classificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> renal trauma according to the American Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery <strong>of</strong><br />
Trauma (AAST) [117]<br />
Grade Properties<br />
1 Renal c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>, perirenal or subcapsular hematoma, no other lesi<strong>on</strong> in the imaging<br />
2 Grade I lesi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> lacerati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the parenchyma up to 1 cm, collecting system not involved<br />
3 Lacerati<strong>on</strong> > 1 cm <strong>with</strong>out urine extravasati<strong>on</strong><br />
4 Penetrating parenchymal lesi<strong>on</strong> involving collecting system <strong>and</strong>/or hilar vessels<br />
5 Shattered kidney <strong>and</strong>/or renal vascular pedicle avulsi<strong>on</strong>, bleeding/sequestrati<strong>on</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Selective angiographic embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a renal artery injury can be attempted<br />
as a therapeutic opti<strong>on</strong> in the patient <strong>with</strong> stable circulati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
Up till now, the importance <strong>of</strong> angiographic embolizati<strong>on</strong> has been documented in a few case series <strong>and</strong> case<br />
reports [95, 141, 142] but which also partly include n<strong>on</strong>-traumatic bleeding <strong>of</strong> the renal arteries [143–145]).<br />
These studies also refer partly not <strong>on</strong>ly to the primary phase <strong>of</strong> polytrauma management but also describe<br />
the treatment <strong>of</strong> pseudoaneurysms or arteriovenous fistulas in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase [94, 146, 147]. According<br />
to these case series, bleeding is successfully arrested in about 82% [94] to 94% [95] <strong>of</strong> patients. In more<br />
recent review papers as well, the angiographic embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> renal injuries in patients <strong>with</strong> stable<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> is increasingly accepted as the first interventi<strong>on</strong> step albeit <strong>with</strong> reference to the m<strong>on</strong>otrauma<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> [9, 41, 47]. Usually, it involved branches <strong>of</strong> the renal artery which required embolizati<strong>on</strong>. It is<br />
undisputed that the selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> patients, the technical equipment, <strong>and</strong> the individual medical experience<br />
have a decisive influence <strong>on</strong> the success rate. Primarily because <strong>of</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>siderable amount <strong>of</strong> time required<br />
for embolizati<strong>on</strong>, selective angiographic embolizati<strong>on</strong> can <strong>on</strong>ly be successfully incorporated into the overall<br />
management in individual cases <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the type <strong>and</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> injury <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, a renal<br />
injury can be surgically managed by oversewing or, if necessary, by partial<br />
renal resecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> other procedures to salvage the organ.<br />
GoR 0<br />
Primary nephrectomy should be reserved for grade 5 injuries. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the multiply injured patient <strong>with</strong> renal injury, the surgical approach is usually determined by the overall<br />
injury pattern <strong>and</strong> then normally c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> a midline laparotomy. In order to c<strong>on</strong>trol renal bleeding, the<br />
renal pedicle is generally prepared before opening Gerota’s fascia. Individual zig-zag sutures <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinuous<br />
sutures are then used to arrest the bleeding [116]. Fibrin adhesives can be advantageous here [148]. The<br />
surgical procedure for the multiply injured patient is largely identical to that for the m<strong>on</strong>otrauma patient <strong>and</strong><br />
there is no need to go into detail here.<br />
The effort expended in rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> attempts should be based <strong>on</strong> the overall situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient.<br />
Primary nephrectomy should be reserved for grade 5 injuries [9]. No l<strong>on</strong>g-term rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> attempts<br />
should be undertaken unless both kidneys are at risk. For reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> time <strong>and</strong> the fewer complicati<strong>on</strong><br />
possibilities, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for nephrectomy in the multiply injured patient should be made so<strong>on</strong>er than for<br />
the m<strong>on</strong>otrauma patient [9, 41].<br />
Ureter injuries<br />
As ureter injuries are difficult to diagnose, if a laparotomy is being performed for another reas<strong>on</strong>, it should<br />
be used for examining the ureters if such an injury is suspected [7]. Although macroscopic evaluati<strong>on</strong> is also<br />
unreliable [102], it presents a huge advantage in that it allows a ureter injury to be treated early. Untreated<br />
ureter injuries lead to urine fistulas, urinomas, <strong>and</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong>s so that the goal here should also be surgical<br />
management at the earliest opportunity [101]. The lesi<strong>on</strong>s are most frequently located in the proximal ureter<br />
[149]. A wide range <strong>of</strong> surgical procedures can be used [7].<br />
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Bladder injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Intraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder ruptures should be surgically explored. GoR B<br />
Extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder ruptures <strong>with</strong>out involvement <strong>of</strong> the neck <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bladder can be c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated through suprapubic urinary diversi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
In most cases, the management <strong>of</strong> frequently numerous c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries should be given priority over a<br />
bladder injury. Numerically, extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder ruptures are roughly twice comm<strong>on</strong> as intraperit<strong>on</strong>eal<br />
bladder ruptures [11, 60]. Combined extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal <strong>and</strong> intraperit<strong>on</strong>eal ruptures are markedly less<br />
frequently observed. Even taken <strong>on</strong> their own, intraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder ruptures represent a surgical<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> since large tears are <strong>of</strong>ten found which can then lead to perit<strong>on</strong>itis <strong>and</strong> urinomas [150, 151]. The<br />
bladder should be closed <strong>and</strong> any urinomas drained.<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder injuries can be treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively by means <strong>of</strong> a catheter drain,<br />
even if large retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal or scrotal extravasates are present [150]. Based <strong>on</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> 30 extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal<br />
ruptures, Cass <strong>and</strong> Luxemberg report <strong>on</strong> a 93% success rate <strong>with</strong> this n<strong>on</strong>-surgical method [152]. In another<br />
series <strong>of</strong> 41 patients, almost all extraperit<strong>on</strong>eal bladder ruptures healed successfully <strong>with</strong>in 3 weeks [153].<br />
However, if the bladder neck is injured [11], b<strong>on</strong>y fragments lie in the bladder or the bladder is clamped<br />
between b<strong>on</strong>y pelvic fragments, a primary surgical procedure is necessary [1]. In the sequence <strong>of</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
osteosynthesis <strong>of</strong> the pelvis comes first followed by urological management [38]. Routt et al. also emphasize<br />
that good cooperati<strong>on</strong> between the trauma surge<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the urologist is essential here [38].<br />
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Urethral injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Complete ruptures <strong>of</strong> the urethra should be treated in the emergency surgery<br />
phase by suprapubic urinary diversi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
GoR B<br />
Urinary diversi<strong>on</strong> can be supplemented by urethral re-alignment. GoR 0<br />
Provided a pelvic fracture or another intraabdominal injury necessitates<br />
surgery anyway, urethral ruptures should be managed in the same sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
It should be particularly menti<strong>on</strong>ed in the management <strong>of</strong> urethral injuries that the method described here<br />
refers explicitly <strong>on</strong>ly to the emergency surgery phase as other principles also apply in the further<br />
management.<br />
To date, there has been insufficient evidence as to whether primary, delayed or sec<strong>on</strong>dary re-anastomosing<br />
should be preferred in complete ruptures <strong>of</strong> the posterior urethra. In additi<strong>on</strong>, primary <strong>and</strong> delayed urethral<br />
re-alignment is proposed [8]. The main problems in the post-traumatic course are urethral strictures,<br />
inc<strong>on</strong>tinence, <strong>and</strong> impotence so the treatment goal is to avoid them.<br />
In a literature review summarizing several case series <strong>and</strong> comparative studies [20, 154–163] <strong>on</strong> the<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> the urethral rupture, Koraitim [31, 164] describes the following rates <strong>of</strong> stricture, inc<strong>on</strong>tinence,<br />
<strong>and</strong> impotence: suprapubic diversi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> its own 97%, 4% <strong>and</strong> 19%; primary re-alignment 53%, 5% <strong>and</strong><br />
36%; primary suture 49%, 21% <strong>and</strong> 56%. Accordingly, in the case <strong>of</strong> a complete urethral rupture in the<br />
male, he recommends suprapubic diversi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> its own or re-alignment if there is a large gap between the<br />
ends <strong>of</strong> the urethra. However, as this literature review spans back more than 50 years, more recent studies <strong>on</strong><br />
urethral re-alignment <strong>with</strong> better results are perhaps not sufficiently taken into account. Nevertheless, even<br />
current studies find both treatment opti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> equal value [165]. Accordingly, the EAST <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> also<br />
comes to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that both primary re-alignment <strong>and</strong> also suprapubic diversi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
surgery are equally worthy <strong>of</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong> [10].<br />
In the cases where surgery is necessary anyway due to other adjacent lesi<strong>on</strong>s, it appears expedient to manage<br />
the urethral rupture at the same time to avoid two-step management [166]. Particularly if the abdominal<br />
cavity is c<strong>on</strong>taminated by large intestine injuries, primary suture <strong>of</strong> the urethra over a splinting catheter<br />
appears advisable to avoid complicating infecti<strong>on</strong>s. Even if a c<strong>on</strong>servative procedure actually appears to be<br />
possible, urethral injuries should be managed by primary surgery if the definitive osteosynthesis <strong>of</strong> the b<strong>on</strong>y<br />
pelvis cannot otherwise be carried out [167].<br />
Ruptures <strong>of</strong> the anterior urethra in the male are somewhat rarer than those <strong>of</strong> the posterior urethra. Primary<br />
surgical rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> may be necessary in open injuries. In the majority <strong>of</strong> cases, however, preference<br />
should also be given here to suprapubic urinary diversi<strong>on</strong> followed by later rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> as rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the anterior urethra <strong>and</strong> the external male genitals, which are <strong>of</strong>ten injured as well, is usually difficult <strong>and</strong><br />
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time-c<strong>on</strong>suming. However, in the case <strong>of</strong> a penile fracture <strong>with</strong> injury to the corpus sp<strong>on</strong>giosum, it is<br />
recommended that the urethral injury also undergoes primary surgery [8, 168, 169]. The severity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
urological injury [170] <strong>and</strong> the overall severity <strong>of</strong> all injuries are crucial in deciding between primary<br />
surgery <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment.<br />
Urethral injuries occur markedly less frequently in women than in men. However, when they occur, they are<br />
mostly very pr<strong>on</strong>ounced <strong>and</strong> associated <strong>with</strong> bladder injuries. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, primary treatment should<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sist <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>of</strong> suprapubic urinary diversi<strong>on</strong> if the patient has unstable circulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or other injuries<br />
require more urgent surgical management [67]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, in women <strong>with</strong> less severe polytrauma,<br />
ruptures in the proximal urethra can undergo primary rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> via retropubic approach [69, 70, 171].<br />
These recommendati<strong>on</strong>s apply similarly to children as well, whereby again a distincti<strong>on</strong> should be made<br />
between the sexes. In a series <strong>of</strong> 35 boys <strong>with</strong> posterior urethra tears, Podestá et al. (1997) compared<br />
suprapubic diversi<strong>on</strong> (<strong>with</strong> later urethroplasty), suprapubic diversi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> urethral catheter alignment, <strong>and</strong><br />
primary anastomosis [172]. As the c<strong>on</strong>tinence rate after primary anastomosis <strong>on</strong>ly reached 50%, <strong>and</strong> in the<br />
group <strong>with</strong> catheter alignment all 10 patients still required urethroplasty later, the authors recommend<br />
suprapubic urinary diversi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> its own followed by sec<strong>on</strong>dary urethroplasty. In a study <strong>on</strong> urethral injuries<br />
in girls <strong>with</strong> pelvic fracture <strong>and</strong> other c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, the same authors found deferred management to<br />
be advantageous as good results could be observed despite vesical <strong>and</strong> vaginal c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries.<br />
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Figure 5: Algorithm <strong>on</strong> the diagnostic <strong>and</strong> therapeutic procedure for suspected renal injuries<br />
Grade 5<br />
Gross or microscopic<br />
Grade 3-<br />
hematuria?<br />
Computer<br />
tomography<br />
yes<br />
no<br />
yes<br />
(or other procedures)<br />
Severity grade<br />
<strong>of</strong> renal trauma<br />
according to<br />
AAST?<br />
Laparotomy necessary for<br />
another reas<strong>on</strong>?<br />
5<br />
8<br />
9<br />
4<br />
Suspected<br />
blunt renal trauma<br />
Circulatory shock due to<br />
abdominal bleeding?<br />
no<br />
Primary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
treatment<br />
Surgical explorati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> renal injury<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Genitourinary tract 347<br />
1<br />
6<br />
2<br />
10<br />
no<br />
yes<br />
Emergency laparotomy<br />
Pulsating<br />
retroperit<strong>on</strong>eal<br />
hematoma?<br />
yes<br />
3<br />
7
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References<br />
1 Cass AS, Cass BP. Immediate surgical management<br />
<strong>of</strong> severe renal injuries in multiple-injured patients.<br />
Urology 1983: 21(2):140-145 [LoE 4].<br />
2 Zink RA, Muller-Mattheis V, Oberneder R. [Results<br />
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Emergency surgery phase – Genitourinary tract 353
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3.7 Spine<br />
Indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Unstable spinal injuries <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed or assumed neurologic deficits, <strong>with</strong><br />
malpositi<strong>on</strong>s in which neurologic deficits can probably be prevented or<br />
improved by reducti<strong>on</strong>, decompressi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong>, should be operated<br />
<strong>on</strong> as early as possible (“day 1 surgery”).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
After life-threatening injuries to the body cavities <strong>and</strong> the head, <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es, spinal<br />
injuries occupy third place, or sec<strong>on</strong>d place if there is a spinal cord injury, in management<br />
priority [1].<br />
Surgical indicati<strong>on</strong>s are atlanto-occipital dislocati<strong>on</strong>, translatory atlanto-axial dislocati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
unstable Jeffers<strong>on</strong> fracture, unstable Dens fracture (particularly type II), Hangman fracture (rib<br />
fracture C2 <strong>and</strong> invertebral disc injury C2/C3), C3 to C7 fractures (A3, B <strong>and</strong> C types) also in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> T1 to L5 fractures (A3, B <strong>and</strong> C types) also in terms <strong>of</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
According to prevailing opini<strong>on</strong>, an absolute primary surgical indicati<strong>on</strong> exists even if there is an<br />
open spinal injury [2, 3].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for primary management <strong>of</strong> a spinal injury in polytrauma is assisted by<br />
the classificati<strong>on</strong> according to Blauth et al. (1998) into a) complex spinal injuries <strong>with</strong> an injury<br />
to essential neural pathways <strong>and</strong> organs such as the spinal cord, lung, great vessels <strong>and</strong><br />
abdominal organs, b) unstable spinal injuries (type A3, B <strong>and</strong> C - in this case, functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
treatment can lead to severe malpositi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> neurologic damage), <strong>and</strong> c) stable spinal injuries.<br />
If a complex spinal injury or an unstable spinal injury is involved, the goal should be surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> at the earliest possible opportunity - in other words, <strong>on</strong> the day <strong>of</strong> the accident if<br />
n<strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s menti<strong>on</strong>ed below are present [4].<br />
According to Blauth et al. (1998), a complex spinal injury is a multi-level spinal injury or <strong>on</strong>e<br />
accompanied by intrathoracic or intraabdominal injury or polytrauma. The fact that polytrauma<br />
makes a spinal injury a “complex” injury is substantiated inter alia by studies by Hebert <strong>and</strong><br />
Burnham [5] which established that the length <strong>of</strong> stay in hospital was extended <strong>and</strong> the number<br />
<strong>of</strong> surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>s increased in these patients <strong>and</strong> that the combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> spinal<br />
injury/polytrauma is associated <strong>with</strong> an increased morbidity <strong>and</strong> mortality <strong>and</strong> an increased<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> disability. Nevertheless, according to a survey in North America by Tator et al. (1999),<br />
1/3 <strong>of</strong> spinal injuries <strong>with</strong> neurologic injuries were still c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> those<br />
operated <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 60% received surgery before the 5th day <strong>and</strong> 40% after [6].<br />
The goal <strong>of</strong> primary surgical management in unstable spinal injuries <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed or assumed<br />
neurologic deficits or <strong>with</strong> malpositi<strong>on</strong>s is firstly early spinal decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the avoidance<br />
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<strong>of</strong> neurologic sec<strong>on</strong>dary damage <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dly to achieve positi<strong>on</strong>ing stability for the intensive<br />
treatment [1].<br />
The indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgery to avoid neurologic damage is relatively clear in unstable fractures<br />
<strong>with</strong>out spinal cord lesi<strong>on</strong>. If there are spinal injuries which are unstable <strong>and</strong> which could be<br />
displaced by necessary positi<strong>on</strong>ing measures such as in chest trauma, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for primary<br />
spinal stabilizati<strong>on</strong> should be made [4, 7-9]. However, c<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounds the issue <strong>of</strong><br />
whether early or later fracture management is advantageous in fractures where spinal cord injury<br />
has already occurred. As far as neurologic symptoms are c<strong>on</strong>cerned, animal experiments show<br />
advantages in spinal stabilizati<strong>on</strong> being carried out as early as possible [10, 11]. However, in the<br />
field <strong>of</strong> clinical research, several large systematic reviews (some <strong>with</strong> meta-analysis) could<br />
detect no clear correlati<strong>on</strong> between the timing <strong>of</strong> surgery <strong>and</strong> the neurologic outcome [12-15].<br />
Only the most recent meta-analysis by La Rosa et al. [12] revealed that early surgical<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong> has advantages compared to late decompressi<strong>on</strong> or c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment. In the<br />
early group (17 studies), an improvement in neurology could be found in 42% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong><br />
complete deficit, <strong>and</strong> in 90% <strong>with</strong> incomplete deficit. In the late group, the improvement quotas<br />
were 8% <strong>and</strong> 59%, in the c<strong>on</strong>servative group 25% <strong>and</strong> 59%. However, as the results from the<br />
studies differ greatly, La Rosa et al. also describe early surgery <strong>on</strong>ly as a “practical opti<strong>on</strong>”.<br />
The <strong>on</strong>ly r<strong>and</strong>omized c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial <strong>on</strong> this was c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>on</strong> 62 patients <strong>with</strong> cervical spinal<br />
injury <strong>on</strong>ly [16]. Although the authors found no difference between early (< 72 hours) versus late<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (> 5 days) in the neurologic outcome, they still recommended early stabilizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Levi et al. also found indifferent results c<strong>on</strong>cerning the early (< 24 hours) <strong>and</strong> late (> 24 hours)<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> in the cervical spine injury but ultimately also recommend early surgery [17]. After<br />
Wagner <strong>and</strong> Chehrazi also found no correlati<strong>on</strong> between the timing <strong>of</strong> surgery <strong>and</strong> neurologic<br />
outcome in cervical spine injuries, they c<strong>on</strong>cluded [18] that primary medullary damage<br />
determines the prognosis. McKinley et al. draw a similar c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> [19]. In c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
Papadopoulos et al. observed improved neurologic outcomes after early surgery [20]. Mirz et al.<br />
also described in 1999 [21] that early stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (< 72 hours) <strong>of</strong> a cervical spine injury is more<br />
favorable for the neurologic outcome than later stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (> 72 hours). However, all these are<br />
data from studies that did not study exclusively multiply injured patients.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to these studies focusing primarily <strong>on</strong> the neurologic outcome, there is a series <strong>of</strong><br />
studies which have c<strong>on</strong>centrated mainly <strong>on</strong> the n<strong>on</strong>-neurologic effects <strong>of</strong> early stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. A<br />
study by Croce et al. found evidence in 2001 [7] that, in c<strong>on</strong>trast to late stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (> 3 days<br />
after trauma), early stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (< 3 days after trauma) <strong>of</strong> the spinal injury <strong>of</strong>fers advantages,<br />
especially in polytrauma (mean ISS 24) <strong>with</strong> thoracic spine injury, as the intensive care period,<br />
pneum<strong>on</strong>ia rate, costs, <strong>and</strong> ventilati<strong>on</strong> time can be reduced. The studies by Johns<strong>on</strong> et al. [8] also<br />
argue in favor <strong>of</strong> primary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> unstable spinal fractures as this can lower the ARDS<br />
rate especially in multiply injured patients. Dai et al. also observed a reducti<strong>on</strong> in pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s after early management [22]. According to results by Aebi et al. [23], the<br />
immediate surgical management <strong>of</strong> a cervical spine injury is more important for neurologic<br />
outcome than improved surgical techniques. In a study published in 2005, Kerwin et al. [24]<br />
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found that primary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spine in critically injured patients (ISS > 25) shortened the<br />
length <strong>of</strong> hospital stay from 29 to 20 days.<br />
The above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed indicati<strong>on</strong>s presume that a diagnostic study which adequately balances the<br />
injury could be performed in the emergency room phase. The patient should have stable<br />
cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary parameters, <strong>and</strong> surgical bleeding sources should be excluded. Additi<strong>on</strong>al vital<br />
parameters such as intracranial pressure, core body temperature, <strong>and</strong> coagulatory functi<strong>on</strong> should<br />
lie <strong>with</strong>in the normal range. If there is a substantiated risk that the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the casualty will<br />
worsen in a significantly (life-) threatening way by primary reducti<strong>on</strong>, decompressi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the spine, then spine stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is relatively c<strong>on</strong>traindicated.<br />
If the patient has stable intracranial pressure, pulm<strong>on</strong>ary, cardiac, <strong>and</strong> circulatory functi<strong>on</strong>, this<br />
multiply injured patient benefits especially from early management <strong>of</strong> the spinal injury:<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>ing stability is achieved, thereby avoiding sec<strong>on</strong>d hits through subsequent surgery <strong>and</strong><br />
also reducing the antigenic load through the instability <strong>of</strong> a fracture in proximity to the trunk. On<br />
the other h<strong>and</strong>, critical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> hypothermia, massive transfusi<strong>on</strong>, coagulati<strong>on</strong><br />
derangement, lung failure, <strong>and</strong> high catecholamine dependency c<strong>on</strong>stitute relative<br />
c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s for immediate spine stabilizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In this c<strong>on</strong>text, McLain <strong>and</strong> Bens<strong>on</strong> (1999) [25] ascertained that immediate (< 24 hours after<br />
trauma) stabilizati<strong>on</strong> had the same outcomes as early stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (24-72 hours after trauma) <strong>of</strong><br />
an unstable spinal fracture if the patients had multiple injuries, neurologic symptoms, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>comitant thoracic-abdominal injury. Nevertheless, the authors recommend that stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
carried out as early as possible. Schlegel et al. [26] <strong>and</strong> Chipman et al. [27] also ascertained that<br />
surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> unstable spinal fractures <strong>with</strong>in 72 hours especially in polytrauma was<br />
associated <strong>with</strong> lower morbidity (fewer lung complicati<strong>on</strong>s, fewer urinary tract infecti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
shorter hospitalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> intensive care stay). If there is an abdominal injury, which leads to<br />
laparotomy in up to 38% <strong>of</strong> patients <strong>with</strong> a spinal fracture [28], it must be weighed up after<br />
surgical management <strong>of</strong> the abdomen whether the unstable spinal fracture must or can be<br />
stabilized during the same sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, in the case <strong>of</strong> a hemothorax, the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> bleeding in the ribcage al<strong>on</strong>e supports<br />
early stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a thoracic spine injury [29]. The results from the study by Petitjean et al.<br />
[30] also argue in favor <strong>of</strong> early stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the thoracic spine fracture inter alia sec<strong>on</strong>dary to<br />
simultaneous chest trauma <strong>with</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>. If there is a primary transverse lesi<strong>on</strong> or<br />
irreducible dislocati<strong>on</strong>, surgery can be postp<strong>on</strong>ed until organ functi<strong>on</strong>s are stabilized during<br />
intensive care treatment.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, therefore, there is an advantage in early surgery for the multiply injured patient<br />
particularly against the background <strong>of</strong> the publicati<strong>on</strong>s in recent years between 2006 <strong>and</strong> 2008<br />
[31–45] Although the neurologic outcomes appear relatively unaffected by the timing <strong>of</strong> surgery,<br />
early fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong> helps to minimize general complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the length <strong>of</strong> hospital<br />
stay. As general complicati<strong>on</strong>s, particularly lung-related, are comm<strong>on</strong> in the multiply injured<br />
patient, the result is the above recommendati<strong>on</strong> for surgery at the earliest possible opportunity.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
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Unstable thoracolumbar spine injuries <strong>with</strong>out neurologic deficit should be<br />
surgically managed.<br />
Surgery should be performed <strong>on</strong> the day <strong>of</strong> the accident or alternatively later<br />
during the course.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Apart from the B <strong>and</strong> C injuries, this applies particularly to A2 <strong>and</strong> A3 fractures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
thoracolumbar spine which are not displaced by positi<strong>on</strong>ing measures during intensive care.<br />
There is no reas<strong>on</strong> here for urgently stabilizing such an injury <strong>on</strong> the day <strong>of</strong> the accident.<br />
However, according to results from Jacobs et al. [46], it generally applies that the successes <strong>of</strong><br />
surgical treatment <strong>on</strong> unstable thoracic <strong>and</strong> lumbar spine fractures are better than those <strong>of</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment in respect <strong>of</strong> reducti<strong>on</strong>, neurology, mobilizati<strong>on</strong>, rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> period,<br />
<strong>and</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s [47].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Stable spinal injuries <strong>with</strong>out neurologic deficit should be treated<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servatively.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The fracture type A1, if applicable also A2, which does not benefit from surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong>, is<br />
regarded as stable [48, 49], particularly if the adjacent vertebral discs remain intact. Surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is not indicated in polytrauma [50].<br />
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Surgery technique<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
For injuries to the cervical spine, primary surgical methods that can be used<br />
are: 1) halo fixator, 2) ventral stabilizati<strong>on</strong> procedure.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
The halo fixator is indicated if there are c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s to definitive internal osteosynthesis,<br />
which is actually necessary, <strong>and</strong> a s<strong>of</strong>t cervical collar is insufficient for temporary stabilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
[51, 52, 53, 54].<br />
Ventral sp<strong>on</strong>dylodesis is indicated particularly in C3-C7 dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures. Generally, the<br />
first-line choice is corpectomy - removal <strong>of</strong> the invertebral disc, replacement <strong>with</strong> iliac crest<br />
b<strong>on</strong>e graft, if necessary, a cage, <strong>and</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> using a plate, if necessary, a fixed-angle <strong>on</strong>e<br />
[55]. In polytrauma, preference should be given to the ventral management <strong>of</strong> unstable cervical<br />
spine fractures over the dorsal stabilizing procedure particularly <strong>on</strong> the day <strong>of</strong> the accident [56].<br />
According to Brodke et al. [57], there are no significant differences in the knitting, in the success<br />
<strong>of</strong> reducti<strong>on</strong>, in neurology, <strong>and</strong> in the l<strong>on</strong>g-term symptoms for ventral versus dorsal cervical<br />
spine procedures but the latter requires much more effort <strong>and</strong> time, which is why it should not be<br />
recommended in polytrauma. If there is an unstable Dens fracture, ventral screwing is generally<br />
indicated; if there is an unstable Jeffers<strong>on</strong> fracture, dorsal screwing or occipitocervical fusi<strong>on</strong> can<br />
be indicated. However, the latter procedure does not represent a good indicati<strong>on</strong> for Day 1<br />
Surgery <strong>and</strong> should be performed as an electively planned procedure.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
For injuries to the thoracolumbar spine, the dorsal internal fixator should be<br />
used as the primary surgical method.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Only the dorsal internal fixator can be recommended for the primary management <strong>of</strong> fractures to<br />
the thoracolumbar spine [59-61]. This procedure can achieve good reducti<strong>on</strong>, decompressi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong>, sufficient for all positi<strong>on</strong>ing measures in intensive care. According to<br />
Kossmann et al., this measure is understood as damage c<strong>on</strong>trol for the spine in polytrauma [62].<br />
Ventral fusi<strong>on</strong>s are recommended <strong>on</strong>ly electively <strong>and</strong> then in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary surgery phase if they<br />
are necessary. Moreover, according to Been <strong>and</strong> Bouma, dorsal stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> its own can be<br />
sufficient in burst fractures <strong>of</strong> the thoracic/lumbar spine [63]. The logistic <strong>and</strong> technical effort<br />
plus surgery time must be taken into account for the various surgical methods <strong>on</strong> the spine.<br />
Laminectomy increases instability [23, 65–68] <strong>and</strong> at best can serve as access for dorsal<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong> to push forward posterior edge fragments. There is dispute over whether<br />
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removing b<strong>on</strong>e fragments from the spinal canal (spinal clearance) is really clinically<br />
advantageous [69-71]. Ins<strong>of</strong>ar as there is an indicati<strong>on</strong> for laminectomy, it should be made very<br />
narrowly <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>sidered if there is neurologic deficit <strong>and</strong> compressi<strong>on</strong> caused by b<strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong><br />
invertebral disc fragments which cannot be removed ventrally.<br />
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3.8 Upper extremity<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Surgical management <strong>of</strong> fractures to the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es in the upper extremities<br />
should be carried out early.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
There are no prospective comparative studies <strong>on</strong> the determinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the optimum timing for the<br />
surgical management <strong>of</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es in the upper extremity in multiply injured<br />
patients. The data is based <strong>on</strong> studies which either focus <strong>on</strong> primary shaft fractures <strong>of</strong> the lower<br />
extremity in polytrauma or analyze multiply injured patients in the total collective <strong>with</strong> single<br />
fractures <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>of</strong> the upper extremity.<br />
Shaft fractures <strong>of</strong> the upper extremity must be surgically managed early, if possible directly after<br />
cardio-respiratory stabilizati<strong>on</strong> [1].<br />
If c<strong>on</strong>cerns exist over primary internal fixati<strong>on</strong>, the alternative opti<strong>on</strong> is provided by the external<br />
fixator or, in excepti<strong>on</strong>al cases, even primary plaster cast <strong>and</strong> later change in procedure [2].<br />
After initial stabilizati<strong>on</strong> by external fixator, plaster cast or re-applied dressing, even fractures<br />
close to the joint can be managed well by sec<strong>on</strong>dary surgery if planned, if the acute problems <strong>of</strong><br />
other injuries make this necessary [3].<br />
Open fractures are best operated <strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in the first 6 hours, if necessary <strong>with</strong> temporary<br />
stabilizing measures.<br />
In the hierarchy <strong>of</strong> urgency, however, there is also a correlati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> other<br />
fractures. In multiply injured patients, therefore, the priority <strong>of</strong> fractures in the upper extremity<br />
follows management <strong>of</strong> tibia, femur, pelvis, <strong>and</strong> spine but precedes complex joint<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s, definitive treatment <strong>of</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial injuries, <strong>and</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s [4].<br />
There are no comparative studies that deal specifically <strong>with</strong> the most suitable procedure in<br />
fractures <strong>of</strong> the upper extremity in multiply injured patients. The multiply injured patient is<br />
always included in heterogeneous groups as an important indicati<strong>on</strong> for the surgical procedure.<br />
Thus, the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> by analogy is generally drawn from the totality <strong>of</strong> the patients <strong>with</strong><br />
fractures <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>of</strong> the upper extremity.<br />
However, there are no large studies here either that reflect a high level <strong>of</strong> evidence. The AO<br />
multicenter study <strong>on</strong> the humerus shaft fracture also no l<strong>on</strong>ger represents all current procedures<br />
[5].<br />
In the management <strong>of</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the upper extremity in multiply injured patients, the focus lies<br />
<strong>on</strong> the rapid but safe stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the fracture to the upper extremity. Within this c<strong>on</strong>text,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounds the ranking between medullary nailing <strong>and</strong> plate osteosynthesis as the<br />
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competence <strong>of</strong> the surge<strong>on</strong> in <strong>on</strong>e or the other procedure appears to be more important than the<br />
procedure itself [3, 6–12].<br />
In metaphyseal fractures to the humerus, radius, <strong>and</strong> ulna, specific intramedullary procedures are<br />
now also used; studies <strong>with</strong> informative value <strong>on</strong> their use in multiply injured patients are not<br />
available.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
The decisi<strong>on</strong> to amputate or to salvage the extremity in the critical injury to<br />
the upper extremity should be made <strong>on</strong> an individual basis. The local <strong>and</strong><br />
general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient plays a crucial role here.<br />
In rare cases <strong>and</strong> in extremely severe injuries, an amputati<strong>on</strong> can be<br />
recommended.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR 0<br />
In subtotal amputati<strong>on</strong> injuries, fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> nerves, vessels, <strong>and</strong><br />
s<strong>of</strong>t tissues should be carried out immediately after the resuscitati<strong>on</strong> phase <strong>and</strong> management <strong>of</strong><br />
vital sign injuries, if necessary also while shortening the extremity.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> total amputati<strong>on</strong> injuries, the availability <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the lost extremity are<br />
key to deciding whether it makes sense to replant or definitively amputate to create a vital stump.<br />
Even extremely c<strong>on</strong>taminated, severe open fractures do not represent per se an indicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
primary amputati<strong>on</strong> in multiply injured patients. Stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> debridement are important in<br />
this instance [15]. The literature c<strong>on</strong>tains mainly case histories <strong>on</strong> this subject [16].<br />
The Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS) developed for the lower extremities [17] cannot<br />
be simply transferred to the upper extremity.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Provided the severity <strong>of</strong> the overall injury permits, the surgical management<br />
<strong>of</strong> vascular injuries should be carried out at the earliest possible opportunity,<br />
i.e. directly after treating the injuries threatening the vital functi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Due to the rapid <strong>on</strong>set <strong>and</strong> poor prognosis associated <strong>with</strong> ischemic sequelae, vascular<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> must be carried out rapidly in polytrauma as well [18–20].<br />
Absent pulses in the pendant parts <strong>of</strong> the extremity affected can give informati<strong>on</strong> about an<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al vascular injury or even a vascular injury <strong>with</strong>out a fracture; Doppler <strong>and</strong> duplex<br />
supplement the diagnostic study [18, 19].<br />
Schlickewei et al. recommend the generous use <strong>of</strong> preoperative angiography in injuries to the<br />
upper extremity <strong>and</strong> the urgent surgical restorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> perfusi<strong>on</strong> to the extremities to reduce the<br />
period <strong>of</strong> ischemia [20]. In the case <strong>of</strong> those injuries that required sec<strong>on</strong>dary amputati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> the vascular injury, the period <strong>of</strong> ischemia exceeded 6 hours in 51.8% <strong>of</strong> cases,<br />
there was severe s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage in 81.4%, <strong>and</strong> a grade III open fracture in 85.2%. However,<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structive interventi<strong>on</strong>s are put to <strong>on</strong>e side if vital functi<strong>on</strong>s are at risk. Due to low case<br />
numbers, there are <strong>on</strong>ly isolated case series <strong>on</strong> this [18–20].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the type <strong>of</strong> nerve damage, injuries <strong>with</strong> nerve involvement<br />
should be managed together <strong>with</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients are ventilated <strong>and</strong> intubated <strong>on</strong> admissi<strong>on</strong> to hospital<br />
but the sensitivity <strong>and</strong> motor functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the fractured upper extremity <strong>of</strong>ten cannot be clearly<br />
examined at the accident scene. The rate <strong>of</strong> primary n<strong>on</strong>-discovered c<strong>on</strong>comitant nerve damage<br />
is unclear. Provided it is not simply a questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> decompressi<strong>on</strong> as part <strong>of</strong> the fracture<br />
management, the correct rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> peripheral nerve lesi<strong>on</strong>s in the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>e regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
upper extremity is time-c<strong>on</strong>suming <strong>and</strong> complex <strong>and</strong> should be planned <strong>and</strong> carried out in a<br />
stable envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Thus, this should <strong>on</strong>ly be integrated into the primary management <strong>of</strong><br />
multiply injured patients in excepti<strong>on</strong>al cases. This does not <strong>on</strong>ly apply to the injury to isolated<br />
peripheral nerves but also to brachial plexus injuries [21–25].<br />
Due to low case numbers, there are <strong>on</strong>ly isolated case series which are not exclusively limited to<br />
polytrauma.<br />
Compartment syndromes associated <strong>with</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es in the upper extremity are rare.<br />
Due to deleterious sequelae occurring <strong>with</strong>in a few hours, however, they require rapid<br />
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decompressi<strong>on</strong> during fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. This applies equally to multiply injured <strong>and</strong> to n<strong>on</strong>multiply<br />
injured patients <strong>and</strong> should take place <strong>with</strong>in the first few hours after trauma <strong>and</strong><br />
compartment syndrome development. Wippermann et al. [26] showed for the upper arm <strong>and</strong><br />
Schmidt et al. [27] showed for the forearm that the prognosis depends <strong>on</strong> the totality <strong>of</strong> the<br />
injuries <strong>and</strong> is most favorable in the case <strong>of</strong> isolated compartment syndrome <strong>with</strong>out fracture.<br />
Nevertheless, the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> rapid acti<strong>on</strong> is based less <strong>on</strong> specific studies <strong>on</strong> compartment<br />
syndrome in the upper extremity in polytrauma but rather much more <strong>on</strong> the experiences <strong>with</strong> the<br />
lower extremity (Evidence Level 5). Open fractures <strong>and</strong> those <strong>with</strong> vascular injuries should thus<br />
undergo rapid surgical revisi<strong>on</strong> after restorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary stability. In closed fractures,<br />
those <strong>with</strong> impairment <strong>of</strong> the epiphyseal gaps represent an urgent surgical indicati<strong>on</strong> after<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the vital functi<strong>on</strong>s. For logical reas<strong>on</strong>s, shaft fractures in the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>e in<br />
multiply injured children are fixed outside the epiphyseal gaps by means <strong>of</strong> elastic<br />
intramedullary splinting[28]; alternatively, the external fixator can be used. Bennek [29]<br />
envisages its use particularly in open <strong>and</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-segment fractures. As <strong>with</strong> Schranz [30], the case<br />
numbers are very small in this respect. Nevertheless, the procedure should be adapted to the age<br />
<strong>of</strong> the child as well as to his c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries [31, 32]. Due to low case numbers, there are<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly isolated case series which are not exclusively limited to polytrauma.<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Upper extremity 366
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References<br />
1. Rommens, P.M., et al., [Indicati<strong>on</strong>s, dangers <strong>and</strong><br />
results <strong>of</strong> surgical treatment <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft<br />
fractures]. Unfallchirurg, 1989. 92(12): p. 565-70<br />
[LoE 3b].<br />
2. Weise, K., S. Weller, <strong>and</strong> U. Ochs, [Change in<br />
treatment procedure after primary external fixator<br />
osteosynthesis in polytrauma patients]. Aktuelle<br />
Traumatol, 1993. 23(4): p. 149-68.<br />
3. Bleeker, W.A., M.W. Nijsten, <strong>and</strong> H.J. ten Duis,<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft fractures related to<br />
associated injuries. A retrospective study <strong>of</strong> 237<br />
patients. Acta Orthop Sc<strong>and</strong>, 1991. 62(2): p. 148-53.<br />
4. Tscherne, H., et al., Internal fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> multiple<br />
fractures in patients <strong>with</strong> polytrauma. Clin Orthop<br />
Relat Res, 1998(347): p. 62-78 [LoE 2a].<br />
5. Nast-Kolb, D., W.T. Knoefel, <strong>and</strong> L. Schweiberer,<br />
[The treatment <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft fractures. Results <strong>of</strong> a<br />
prospective AO multicenter study]. Unfallchirurg,<br />
1991. 94(9): p. 447-54.<br />
6. Bell, M.J., et al., The results <strong>of</strong> plating humeral shaft<br />
fractures in patients <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries. The<br />
Sunnybrook experience. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Br, 1985.<br />
67(2): p. 293-6.<br />
7. Blum, J., et al., [Retrograde nailing <strong>of</strong> humerus shaft<br />
fractures <strong>with</strong> the unreamed humerus nail. An<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al multicenter study]. Unfallchirurg, 1998.<br />
101(5): p. 342-52.<br />
8. B<strong>on</strong>naire, F. <strong>and</strong> M. Seif El Nasr, Indikati<strong>on</strong> und<br />
Technik der Plattenosteosynthese am Oberarmschaft.<br />
Aktuelle Traumatol, 1997. 27: p. 86-90.<br />
9. Brumback, R.J., et al., Intramedullary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
humeral shaft fractures in patients <strong>with</strong> multiple<br />
trauma. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Am, 1986. 68(7): p. 960-70.<br />
10. Rommens, P.M., J. Blum, <strong>and</strong> M. Runkel, Retrograde<br />
nailing <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft fractures. Clin Orthop Relat<br />
Res, 1998(350): p. 26-39.<br />
11. Rommens, P.M., J. Verbruggen, <strong>and</strong> P.L. Broos,<br />
Retrograde locked nailing <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft fractures.<br />
A review <strong>of</strong> 39 patients. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Br, 1995.<br />
77(1): p. 84-9.<br />
12. V<strong>and</strong>er Griend, R., J. Tomasin, <strong>and</strong> E.F. Ward, Open<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> internal fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft<br />
fractures. Results using AO plating techniques. J B<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Joint Surg Am, 1986. 68(3): p. 430-3.<br />
13. Knopp, W., K. Neumann, <strong>and</strong> G. Muhr, [Management<br />
<strong>of</strong> complicated fractures <strong>of</strong> the forearm. External<br />
fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> early changes in procedures].<br />
Unfallchirurg, 1988. 91(12): p. 539-44.<br />
14. Hinsenkamp, M., F. Burny, <strong>and</strong> Y. Adrianne, External<br />
fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the fracture <strong>of</strong> the humerus. A review <strong>of</strong><br />
164 cases. Orthopaedics, 1984. 7: p. 1309-14.<br />
15. Levin, L.S., et al., Management <strong>of</strong> severe<br />
musculoskeletal injuries <strong>of</strong> the upper extremity. J<br />
Orthop Trauma, 1990. 4(4): p. 432-40.<br />
16. Kaleli, T. <strong>and</strong> R.A. Ozerdemoglu, Traumatic forearm<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> avulsi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the ulnar <strong>and</strong> median<br />
nerves from the brachial plexus. Arch Orthop Trauma<br />
Surg, 1998. 118(1-2): p. 119-20.<br />
17. Johansen, K., et al., Objective criteria accurately<br />
predict amputati<strong>on</strong> following lower extremity trauma.<br />
J Trauma, 1990. 30(5): p. 568-72; discussi<strong>on</strong> 572-3.<br />
18. Karas, E.H., E. Strauss, <strong>and</strong> S. Sohail, Surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> humeral shaft fractures due to gunshot<br />
wounds. Orthop Clin North Am, 1995. 26(1): p. 65-73<br />
[LoE 4].<br />
19. Richter, A., et al., [Peripheral vascular injuries in<br />
polytrauma]. Unfallchirurg, 1995. 98(9): p. 464-7<br />
[LoE 4].<br />
20. Schlickewei, W., et al., Upper <strong>and</strong> lower limb<br />
fractures <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant arterial injury. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint<br />
Surg Br, 1992. 74(2): p. 181-8 [LoE 4].<br />
21. Dabezies, E.J., et al., Plate fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the humeral<br />
shaft for acute fractures, <strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out radial nerve<br />
injuries. J Orthop Trauma, 1992. 6(1): p. 10-3.<br />
22. Kwasny, O. <strong>and</strong> R. Maier, [The significance <strong>of</strong> nerve<br />
damage in upper arm fractures]. Unfallchirurg, 1991.<br />
94(9): p. 461-7.<br />
23. Nast-Kolb, D., S. Ruchholtz, <strong>and</strong> L. Schweiberer, Die<br />
Bedeutung der Radialisparese für die Wahl des<br />
Beh<strong>and</strong>lungsverfahrens der Humerusschaftfraktur.<br />
Aktuelle Traumatol, 1997. 27: p. 100-4.<br />
24. Pollock, F.H., et al., <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> radial neuropathy<br />
associated <strong>with</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the humerus. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint<br />
Surg Am, 1981. 63(2): p. 239-43.<br />
25. S<strong>on</strong>neveld, G.J., et al., <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
shaft <strong>of</strong> the humerus accompanied by paralysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
radial nerve. Injury, 1987. 18(6): p. 404-6.<br />
26. Wippermann, B., U. Schmidt, <strong>and</strong> M. Nerlich,<br />
[Results <strong>of</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome <strong>of</strong> the<br />
upper arm]. Unfallchirurg, 1991. 94(5): p. 231-5 [LoE<br />
4].<br />
27. Schmidt, U., A. Tempka, <strong>and</strong> M. Nerlich,<br />
[Compartment syndrome <strong>of</strong> the forearm].<br />
Unfallchirurg, 1991. 94(5): p. 236-9 [LoE 4].<br />
28. Verstreken, L., [Orthopedic treatment <strong>of</strong> the child<br />
<strong>with</strong> multiple injuries <strong>and</strong> its current progress]. Acta<br />
Chir Belg, 1990. 90(4): p. 177-84 [LoE 4].<br />
29. Bennek, J., The use <strong>of</strong> upper limb external fixati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
paediatric trauma. Injury, 2000. 31 Suppl 1: p. 21-6<br />
[LoE 4].<br />
30. Schranz, P.J., C. Gultekin, <strong>and</strong> C.L. Colt<strong>on</strong>, External<br />
fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fractures in children. Injury, 1992. 23(2): p.<br />
80-2 [LoE 4].<br />
31. Machan, F.G. <strong>and</strong> H. Vinz, [Humeral shaft fracture in<br />
childhood]. Unfallchirurgie, 1993. 19(3): p. 166-74<br />
[LoE 4].<br />
32. V<strong>on</strong> Laer, L., Frakturen und Luxati<strong>on</strong>en im<br />
Wachstumsalter. 1996, Stuttgart, New York: Thieme<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
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3.9 H<strong>and</strong><br />
Fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the distal forearm, the carpals, metacarpals, <strong>and</strong> phalanges<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Closed fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s should be c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated in the<br />
emergency surgery phase.<br />
GoR B<br />
Dislocati<strong>on</strong>s must be reduced <strong>and</strong> stabilized in the emergency surgery phase. GoR A<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In polytrauma, 75% <strong>of</strong> h<strong>and</strong> injuries are closed fractures [2, 91]. In principle, closed fractures<br />
<strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s can be reduced according to clinical criteria <strong>with</strong>out too much effort <strong>and</strong><br />
immobilized by simple means (plaster, splints). However, in unstable, extremely dislocated<br />
fractures <strong>of</strong> the distal radius, metacarpals, <strong>and</strong> phalanges, primary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> via an external<br />
fixator <strong>and</strong> Kirschner wires is indicated after closed reducti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase (5th-12th day), the following injuries should be definitively operated <strong>on</strong>:<br />
unstable fractures <strong>and</strong> those remaining in intolerable malpositi<strong>on</strong>s, ligament injuries temporarily<br />
managed during the emergency surgery phase, <strong>and</strong> fractures.<br />
Dislocati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the finger joints represent important injuries in the prognosis <strong>of</strong> h<strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
principle, reducti<strong>on</strong> must be carried out immediately [23, 69]. If closed reducti<strong>on</strong> is not possible,<br />
then open reducti<strong>on</strong> must be carried out in the emergency surgery phase. After primary<br />
successful reducti<strong>on</strong>, a stable closed finger joint dislocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out articular fracture can be<br />
treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively [4, 23, 45, 64, 66, 99, 105, 126, 134].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> open fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s, primary debridement <strong>and</strong><br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> by wires or external fixator should be carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Open fractures <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>s should be managed in the emergency surgery phase. Here, the<br />
main procedure corresp<strong>on</strong>ds to the usual procedure for open b<strong>on</strong>y injuries (dressing kept <strong>on</strong> until<br />
in surgery, wound cleaning, debridement, irrigati<strong>on</strong>, fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong>, s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>). Fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong> using the external fixator or Kirschner wires should be<br />
given preference over time-c<strong>on</strong>suming primary definitive osteosynthesis (plates, screws) [5, 16,<br />
17, 38, 81, 101]. Wound irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> careful debridement make a crucial c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> [49, 112]. Carrying out a sec<strong>on</strong>d look after 2-3 days depends <strong>on</strong> the primary<br />
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local injury pattern <strong>and</strong> the clinical situati<strong>on</strong> [49]. See the secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> “Drug <strong>Treatment</strong>” for<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antibiotics.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> perilunar dislocati<strong>on</strong>/perilunar dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures, reducti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
if necessary open, must be undertaken in the emergency surgery phase.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
The l<strong>on</strong>g-term outcomes after perilunar dislocati<strong>on</strong>s/dislocati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the lunate b<strong>on</strong>e depend <strong>on</strong><br />
early diagnosis <strong>and</strong> correct treatment. Reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the dislocated carpals is undertaken early in<br />
the emergency surgery phase either closed or, if this is not possible, open. After primary closed<br />
or open reducti<strong>on</strong>, stabilizati<strong>on</strong> must be undertaken using Kirschner wires <strong>and</strong>/or an external<br />
fixator [40, 53, 83, 95].<br />
Definitive open reducti<strong>on</strong>, internal fixati<strong>on</strong> using drill wires <strong>and</strong>/or rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the torn<br />
ligaments should be undertaken in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase. Fractures as part <strong>of</strong> perilunar dislocati<strong>on</strong><br />
injuries should be managed osteosynthetically <strong>with</strong> screws or drill wires [39, 53, 56]. Whereas<br />
the injury morphology (course <strong>of</strong> fracture <strong>and</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong> line, extent <strong>of</strong> dislocati<strong>on</strong>) is not<br />
important for the clinical <strong>and</strong> radiologic l<strong>on</strong>g-term outcome, the time until diagnosis <strong>and</strong> the<br />
accuracy <strong>and</strong> immobilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the reducti<strong>on</strong> represent relevant prognosis factors [40, 53].<br />
Amputati<strong>on</strong> injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong> for replantati<strong>on</strong> must be based <strong>on</strong> the overall<br />
injury severity according to the “life before limb” principle.<br />
In establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong>, the local finding <strong>and</strong> patient-related factors<br />
should be taken into account.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
Replantati<strong>on</strong>s in the h<strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> are possible <strong>and</strong> advisable in the multiply injured provided the<br />
severity score is 1-2 (polytrauma score [PTS]) [15, 111]. However, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
replantati<strong>on</strong> should be kept very narrow for all those <strong>with</strong> life-threatening injuries as the surgery<br />
time is c<strong>on</strong>siderably extended <strong>and</strong> morbidity increased [13, 82].<br />
Negative predictors are Crush or avulsi<strong>on</strong> injuries, severe c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>, warm ischemia over<br />
12 hours or cold ischemia over 24 hours, arteriosclerosis, <strong>and</strong> smoking [3, 8, 13, 24, 32, 37, 48,<br />
82, 92, 120, 121]. In the case <strong>of</strong> replantati<strong>on</strong>s at the level <strong>of</strong> the wrist <strong>and</strong> proximal thereto, the<br />
serum potassium c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> measured 30 minutes after reperfusi<strong>on</strong> in the amputated part can<br />
be used as a prognosis indicator (critical value 6.5 mmol/l) [129].<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
As <strong>with</strong> isolated h<strong>and</strong> injuries, the goal should be replantati<strong>on</strong> particularly in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> thumb or several fingers, amputati<strong>on</strong> at the level <strong>of</strong><br />
metacarpals/carpals/wrist, <strong>and</strong> all amputati<strong>on</strong> injuries in children.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Replantati<strong>on</strong>s for amputati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the thumb, several fingers, metacarpals, <strong>and</strong> wrist are priority<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s [13, 32, 46, 48, 82, 92, 130, 135]. Revascularizati<strong>on</strong>s have a somewhat more<br />
favorable prognosis as tissue bridges still in place <strong>of</strong>ten improve the venous outflow [90, 100].<br />
Provided the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> allows it, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for replantati<strong>on</strong> should also be made in<br />
children since good functi<strong>on</strong>al results can be expected [28, 48, 90, 116, 136]. Positive predictors<br />
here are smooth-edged separati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a body weight exceeding 11 kg [7]. Children’s fingers<br />
tolerate markedly l<strong>on</strong>ger ischemic periods than those <strong>of</strong> adults [22].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Individual fingers should not be replanted if amputati<strong>on</strong>s are proximal <strong>of</strong> the<br />
superficial tend<strong>on</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong> (middle phalanx base).<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The amputati<strong>on</strong> level <strong>of</strong> a finger is crucial in establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong> for replantati<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> an individual finger proximal <strong>of</strong> the superficial tend<strong>on</strong> inserti<strong>on</strong>, no replantati<strong>on</strong><br />
is indicated because <strong>of</strong> the poor functi<strong>on</strong>al result expected as a c<strong>on</strong>sequence <strong>of</strong> the severe<br />
mobility restricti<strong>on</strong> [24, 120, 135]. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, replantati<strong>on</strong>s are expedient in amputati<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
are distally further away provided the dorsal veins can be rec<strong>on</strong>structed. Good results can be<br />
achieved <strong>on</strong> the distal phalanx even <strong>with</strong>out venous rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> [21, 37, 47, 48, 60, 68, 113].<br />
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Complex h<strong>and</strong> injury<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Carrying out time-c<strong>on</strong>suming salvage attempts <strong>on</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> is an individual<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>. It must take into account the overall injury severity <strong>and</strong> the severity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> injury.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
If there are complex h<strong>and</strong> injuries <strong>with</strong> involvement <strong>of</strong> b<strong>on</strong>es, tend<strong>on</strong>s, nerves, <strong>and</strong> skin, the<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al strains <strong>on</strong> the patient caused by the rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> must be weighed up against the<br />
outlook for success <strong>and</strong> the functi<strong>on</strong>al gain that can be expected. Time-c<strong>on</strong>suming salvage<br />
attempts in the h<strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> are indicated <strong>on</strong>ly in PTS severity grades 1 <strong>and</strong> 2 [111]. Establishing<br />
the indicati<strong>on</strong> for or against salvaging the h<strong>and</strong> must always take into account the individual<br />
circumstances <strong>of</strong> each patient. MESS (Mangled Extremity Severity Score), which was originally<br />
developed for the lower extremity, can serve as an additi<strong>on</strong>al decisi<strong>on</strong> aid. In prospective <strong>and</strong><br />
retrospective studies, a positive predictor value <strong>of</strong> 100% for an amputati<strong>on</strong> was also obtained for<br />
the upper extremity <strong>with</strong> a MESS value <strong>of</strong> at least 7 points [31, 52, 96].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Debridement <strong>and</strong> b<strong>on</strong>y stabilizati<strong>on</strong> should be carried out in the emergency<br />
surgery phase.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Debridement <strong>and</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> skelet<strong>on</strong> have priority in an open injury whereas<br />
nerve, tend<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> skin rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> can be carried out at a later time [17, 34, 81, 102, 114].<br />
Time-c<strong>on</strong>suming definitive rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue structures should be carried out in the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase. The advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages (time required, operative traumatizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
mobilizati<strong>on</strong>) <strong>of</strong> drill wire osteosyntheses should be weighed up against those <strong>of</strong> stable<br />
osteosyntheses by plates <strong>and</strong> screws [19, 20, 34].<br />
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Skin/s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injury including thermal/chemical damage<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The initial treatment <strong>of</strong> circumferential skin-s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage should<br />
comprise thorough debridement followed by keeping moist the wound<br />
surfaces that cannot be closed in primary management.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
During the emergency surgery phase, debridement <strong>of</strong> devitalized <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>taminated tissue parts<br />
should be carried out [20, 101]. Keeping the wound surfaces <strong>and</strong> deeper structures moist by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> suitable dressing techniques is more important than attempting a s<strong>of</strong>t tissue graft during<br />
the initial management [17].<br />
If the wounds are clean <strong>and</strong> free <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong>, the definitive defect covering should be carried out<br />
during the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase (5th-12th day). In so doing, the procedure selected should always be<br />
the least technically dem<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>on</strong>e <strong>with</strong> a good outlook for success, i.e. free flaps are always the<br />
last treatment opti<strong>on</strong> [43, 72].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Thermally/chemically damaged, fully devitalized skin areas should initially be<br />
debrided.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> deep-reaching <strong>and</strong> circumferential thermal/chemical damage, an<br />
escharotomy should be carried out similar to the procedure for compartment<br />
syndrome.<br />
For the c<strong>on</strong>servative wound treatment <strong>of</strong> superficial burns (1-2a degree),<br />
preference should be given to sulfadiazine silver ointments or synthetic<br />
dressing materials <strong>and</strong> for the temporary treatment <strong>of</strong> deep burns (2b-3<br />
degree) preference should be given to hydrocolloid dressings or vacuum<br />
sealing.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
GoR B<br />
Burns require initial debridement by removing all definitely devitalized areas to prevent<br />
circulatory disorders <strong>and</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong>s. If full skin loss is subsequently present, a primary meshed<br />
graft covering should be given preference over sec<strong>on</strong>dary skin grafting. The primary grafting<br />
shortens the treatment period <strong>and</strong> reduces the frequency <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary rec<strong>on</strong>structive operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
[14, 67]. In the case <strong>of</strong> deep burns, the indicati<strong>on</strong> for escharotomy must be m<strong>on</strong>itored <strong>with</strong>in the<br />
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first 36 hours by regularly m<strong>on</strong>itoring local perfusi<strong>on</strong> [1] (see secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Compartment<br />
Syndrome for indicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> technique).<br />
Silver sulfadiazine cream is suitable for treating superficial areas not requiring debridement; it<br />
should be re-applied each time after daily wound cleaning. Alternatively, synthetic dressings can<br />
be used. In the case <strong>of</strong> deeper burns, preference should be given to hydrocolloid dressings or<br />
vacuum seals as these lead to shorter healing courses <strong>and</strong> a reducti<strong>on</strong> in pain [6, 93, 94, 98, 117].<br />
In a c<strong>on</strong>trolled trial, faster healing <strong>of</strong> partial burns could be achieved through the use <strong>of</strong><br />
collagenase <strong>with</strong> local antibiotics than through c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al treatment <strong>with</strong> sulfadiazine [50]. If<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary demarcated necroses occur under this treatment, they must also be removed. If healing<br />
is uncertain after 3 weeks, a skin graft, possibly after debridement again, should be carried out to<br />
avoid hypertrophic scarring <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tractures [14, 67].<br />
Tend<strong>on</strong> injuries (flexor tend<strong>on</strong>s, extensor tend<strong>on</strong>s)<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Time-c<strong>on</strong>suming tend<strong>on</strong> sutures should not be carried out as a primary<br />
procedure.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Whether a severed flexor tend<strong>on</strong> should be managed by primary or delayed primary suture is<br />
surrounded by c<strong>on</strong>troversy [61, 62, 65, 106–110]. However, time-c<strong>on</strong>suming tend<strong>on</strong> sutures can<br />
be carried out in multiply injured patients in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase (5th-7th day) <strong>with</strong>out<br />
disadvantages being expected [20, 101, 102, 104, 107, 109, 131]. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
flexor tend<strong>on</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s are disadvantageous (after weeks) [125].<br />
The same recommendati<strong>on</strong>s apply in principle to the timetable for rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> extensor<br />
tend<strong>on</strong> injuries as for flexor tend<strong>on</strong> injuries. However, the extent <strong>of</strong> damage to the s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
sheath <strong>and</strong> open joint injuries can necessitate primary definitive management [30, 124].<br />
The choice <strong>of</strong> flexor tend<strong>on</strong> suture technique to be used depends <strong>on</strong> the preference <strong>of</strong> the surge<strong>on</strong><br />
as individual experience <strong>and</strong> executi<strong>on</strong> are more important than the choice <strong>of</strong> suturing technique<br />
[109].<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> both flexor tend<strong>on</strong>s being severed, rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> both tend<strong>on</strong>s is favored [61,<br />
62, 71, 102, 106–110]. However, various authors prefer the sole rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the deep<br />
tend<strong>on</strong> in z<strong>on</strong>e 2 because <strong>of</strong> better functi<strong>on</strong>al results [25, 57, 65]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there was evidence<br />
in a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized study that preference should be given to resecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the superficial<br />
flexor tend<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>of</strong> the deep flexor tend<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in z<strong>on</strong>e 2 (Tang’s<br />
subdivisi<strong>on</strong> 2C), particularly in delayed primary management [115]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong>ly the<br />
deep tend<strong>on</strong> is to be rec<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>with</strong>in z<strong>on</strong>e 2 particularly in delayed primary flexor tend<strong>on</strong><br />
suture.<br />
Routine administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antibiotics is also not indicated in delayed primary flexor tend<strong>on</strong><br />
suture. In a retrospective cohort study, St<strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> Davids<strong>on</strong> [104] showed that not giving<br />
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antibiotics in primary or delayed primary flexor tend<strong>on</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> does not increase the risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong>s occurring [104]. The administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antibiotics to the multiply injured patient<br />
depends much more <strong>on</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> other injuries or the occurrence <strong>of</strong> infectious<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Nerve injuries <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong><br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In assumed closed nerve injuries, time-c<strong>on</strong>suming diagnostic procedures or<br />
surgical release can be dispensed <strong>with</strong> in the primary phase.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
Closed nerve damage to the h<strong>and</strong> is the result <strong>of</strong> the effect <strong>of</strong> pressure or extensi<strong>on</strong> forces. A<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuity disrupti<strong>on</strong> to the nerves is not to be expected. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, primary surgical<br />
revisi<strong>on</strong> is not indicated here. The <strong>on</strong>ly excepti<strong>on</strong>s are nerve lesi<strong>on</strong>s due to fractures or<br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong>s, where the nerve can be located <strong>and</strong> decompressed during surgical management <strong>of</strong><br />
the skeletal injury. Thus, there is also no necessity to carry out time-c<strong>on</strong>suming diagnostic<br />
measures to reveal assumed lesi<strong>on</strong>s while the patient is still unc<strong>on</strong>scious [20]. The development<br />
<strong>of</strong> clinical symptoms <strong>and</strong> neurophysiologic parameters should be awaited.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Surgical rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> open nerve injuries should be carried out as a<br />
delayed primary suture.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Open nerve injuries require time-c<strong>on</strong>suming microsurgical rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. The best possible<br />
outcome must be achieved by initial nerve restorati<strong>on</strong> [27]. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, these interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
should be undertaken as delayed primary surgery in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase <strong>on</strong> 5th-7th day [18, 101,<br />
131]. Later sec<strong>on</strong>dary rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> leads to poorer outcomes [9, 58, 59, 70, 122]. It is helpful<br />
to identify the nerve stumps <strong>and</strong> mark as atraumatic during emergency surgery [20].<br />
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Compartment syndrome<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If there is clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome in the h<strong>and</strong>, a pressure<br />
measurement device can be used to take a measurement.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
If there is compartment syndrome, it is crucial to establish an early diagnosis because irreversible<br />
damage is d<strong>on</strong>e to musculature <strong>and</strong> nerves after 8 hours at the latest [133]. The diagnosis is made<br />
in the primary phase according to clinical criteria [54, 55]. Normal pallor <strong>and</strong> temperature in the<br />
fingers <strong>and</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> distal pulses [10, 33, 51, 54, 77, 133] do not exclude compartment<br />
syndrome. The cardinal symptom <strong>of</strong> pain <strong>and</strong> pain-provoking muscle extensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> sensitivity<br />
tests cannot be used in the multiply injured patient who is generally unc<strong>on</strong>scious or analgesic<br />
sedated. Provided compartment syndrome has not already been clinically diagnosed, the<br />
definitive diagnosis can be established using a pressure measurement device [79, 89].<br />
Compartment pressures exceeding 30 mmHg or, in the case <strong>of</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong>, exceeding the<br />
difference pdiastolic - 30 mmHg are classed as critical values <strong>and</strong> indicati<strong>on</strong> for a fasciotomy in the<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>scious patient [51, 73, 77, 133].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
If manifest compartment syndrome is present in the h<strong>and</strong>, fasciotomy must be<br />
performed immediately.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
If the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome has been established, an immediate fasciotomy is<br />
indicated. An early adequate dermat<strong>of</strong>asciotomy prevents ischemic c<strong>on</strong>tractures <strong>and</strong> represents<br />
an emergency interventi<strong>on</strong> [33, 51, 54, 77, 133].<br />
If compartment syndrome has been detected clinically or by using a device, all 10 compartments<br />
in the h<strong>and</strong> should be decompressed via 4 incisi<strong>on</strong>s whereas in the forearm a palmar fasciotomy<br />
is generally sufficient. In the forearm, the palmar fasciotomy is started as a parathenar carpal<br />
tunnel incisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued up to the elbow by dividing the bicipital ap<strong>on</strong>eurosis, whereby a<br />
median arch-shaped <strong>and</strong> a palmar-ulnar incisi<strong>on</strong> line are both equally effective [42, 133]. If this<br />
does not lead to a sufficient lowering in pressure in the dorsal compartment, additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong> via a straight median incisi<strong>on</strong> line is required in the dorsal forearm [42, 89]. The<br />
10 compartments in the h<strong>and</strong> must be decompressed via several incisi<strong>on</strong>s. The dorsal <strong>and</strong> palmar<br />
interosseous compartments can be accessed by dorsal incisi<strong>on</strong>s over metacarpals 2 <strong>and</strong> 4. The<br />
incisi<strong>on</strong> line for the thenar <strong>and</strong> hypothenar compartments is <strong>on</strong> the radial side <strong>of</strong> metacarpal 1<br />
<strong>and</strong> the ulnar side <strong>of</strong> metacarpal 5, respectively [89].<br />
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The indicati<strong>on</strong> for fasciotomy <strong>on</strong> the fingers is made according to clinical criteria. As a pressure<br />
measurement device is not expedient for the fingers, the degree <strong>of</strong> swelling is used for<br />
establishing the indicati<strong>on</strong> for fasciotomy. The incisi<strong>on</strong> is made unilaterally, radial for the thumb<br />
<strong>and</strong> little finger <strong>and</strong> ulnar for the other fingers. Preference should be given to a mid-lateral<br />
incisi<strong>on</strong> line from the fingertip to the interdigital crease. While protecting the neurovascular<br />
bundle, the Clel<strong>and</strong> ligaments should be divided <strong>on</strong> both sides in the palmar flexor tend<strong>on</strong> canal<br />
[89].<br />
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106. Strickl<strong>and</strong>, JW., [Delayed treatment <strong>of</strong> flexor<br />
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108. Strickl<strong>and</strong> JW., [Flexor tend<strong>on</strong> repair]. H<strong>and</strong><br />
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111. Südkamp N, Haas N, Flory PJ, Tscherne H,<br />
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114. Swans<strong>on</strong> TV, Szabo RM, Anders<strong>on</strong> DD, [Open<br />
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115. Tang JB, [Flexor tend<strong>on</strong> repair in z<strong>on</strong>e 2C]. J<br />
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116. Taras JS, Nunley JA, Urbaniak JR, Goldner RD,<br />
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119. Tscherne H, Regel G, Sturm JA, Friedl HP,<br />
[Schweregrad und Prioritäten bei<br />
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631-640<br />
120. Urbaniak JR, Roth JH, Nunley JA, Goldner RD,<br />
Koman LA, [The results <strong>of</strong> replantati<strong>on</strong> after<br />
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121. Van Adrichem LN, Hovius SE, van Strik R, van<br />
der Meulen JC, [The acute effect <strong>of</strong> cigarette<br />
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digit]. J H<strong>and</strong> Surg [Am], 1992. 17(2): p. 230-4<br />
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122. Vastamäki M, Kallio PK, Sol<strong>on</strong>en KA, [The<br />
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nerve injury]. J H<strong>and</strong> Surg [Br], 1993. 18(3): p.<br />
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123. Verdan CE, [Practical c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s for primary<br />
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124. Verdan CE, [Primary <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary repair <strong>of</strong><br />
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125. Verdan CE, [Primary repair <strong>of</strong> flexor tend<strong>on</strong>s]. J<br />
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126. Vicar AJ, [Proximal interphalangeal joint<br />
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4(1): p. 5-13 [LoE 5]<br />
127. Vloemans AF, Soesman AM, Suijker M, Kreis<br />
RW, Middelkoop E, [A r<strong>and</strong>omised clinical trial<br />
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2003. 29(7): p. 702-10 [LoE 1b]<br />
128. Vossoughi, F., B. Krantz, et al, [H<strong>and</strong> injuries as<br />
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129. Waikakul S, Vanadur<strong>on</strong>gwan V, Unnanuntana A,<br />
[Prognostic factors for major limb reimplantati<strong>on</strong><br />
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follow-up]. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Br, 1998. 80(6): p.<br />
1024-30 [LoE 2b]<br />
130. Ward WA, Tsai TM, Breidenbach W, [Per<br />
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p. 90-5 [LoE 2b]<br />
131. Wehner W, [Mittelh<strong>and</strong>- und Fingerfrakturen bei<br />
Mehrfachschwerverletzten]. Hefte Unfallheilkd,<br />
1980. 141: p. 59-64 [LoE 5]<br />
132. Welkerling H, Wening JV, Langendorff HU,<br />
Jungbluth KH, [Computergestützte Datenanalyse<br />
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Bewegungsapparates beim polytraumatisierten<br />
Patienten]. Zbl Chir, 1991. 116: p. 1263-1272<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
133. Whitesides TE, Heckman MM, [Acute<br />
Compartment Syndrome: Update <strong>on</strong> Diagnosis<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong>]. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 1996.<br />
4(4): p. 209-218 [LoE 5]<br />
134. Wolff G, Dittmann M, Frede KD, [Klinische<br />
Versorgung des Polytraumatisierten:<br />
Indikati<strong>on</strong>sprioritäten und Therapieplan].<br />
Chirurg, 1978. 49: p. 737-744 [LoE 4]<br />
135. Zh<strong>on</strong>g-Wei C, Meyer VE, Kleinert HE, Beasley<br />
RW, [Present indicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for replantati<strong>on</strong> as reflected by l<strong>on</strong>g-term<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al results]. Orthop Clin North Am, 1981.<br />
12: p. 849-70 [LoE 5]<br />
136. Zuker RM, Stevens<strong>on</strong> JH, [Proximal upper limb<br />
replantati<strong>on</strong> in children]. J Trauma, 1988. 28(4):<br />
p. 544-7 [LoE 4]<br />
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3.10 Lower extremity<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
In polytrauma am<strong>on</strong>g adults, isolated <strong>and</strong> multiple shaft fractures <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
b<strong>on</strong>es in the lower extremity can be managed both <strong>with</strong> primary definitive as<br />
well as primary temporary <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary definitive osteosynthesis.<br />
As an excepti<strong>on</strong>, isolated closed shaft fractures <strong>of</strong> the tibia can also receive<br />
primary temporary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> a plaster cast.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
GoR 0<br />
There are 2 c<strong>on</strong>tradictory treatment strategies for isolated shaft fractures <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es in the<br />
lower extremities: a) primary definitive osteosynthesis <strong>and</strong> b) the two-step osteosynthesis <strong>with</strong><br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary definitive management. Out <strong>of</strong> 65 c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies published <strong>on</strong> the femoral shaft<br />
fracture in polytrauma (from 1964 through 2008; <strong>with</strong> n = 18 to n = 1582 documented patients),<br />
there were 10 studies <strong>with</strong> prospective or r<strong>and</strong>omized study design. However, the majority <strong>of</strong><br />
papers were based <strong>on</strong> retrospective-clinical data. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the main endpoint <strong>of</strong> case fatality<br />
rate, there were numerous subsidiary endpoints: complicati<strong>on</strong> rates (from pseudarthrosis rate to<br />
incidence <strong>of</strong> sepsis <strong>and</strong> organ failure), number <strong>of</strong> days in situ in the intensive care unit,<br />
ventilati<strong>on</strong> parameters, cardiopulm<strong>on</strong>ary changes, <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> stay in hospital. Only a few<br />
authors substantiated their treatment regimens <strong>with</strong> prospectively collected laboratory chemical<br />
findings. No paper focused <strong>on</strong> the later quality <strong>of</strong> life <strong>of</strong> the patient in the decisi<strong>on</strong> criteria. A late<br />
management <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es was preferred in 20 papers whereas 37 publicati<strong>on</strong>s regarded early<br />
management as better. Eight authors were undecided. In additi<strong>on</strong>, many authors emphasized that<br />
there are certain patient groups (patients <strong>with</strong> chest <strong>and</strong>/or brain injuries) in which a method is<br />
specifically indicated or c<strong>on</strong>traindicated. Specific c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the isolated lower leg<br />
fracture management strategy in polytrauma were not identified. In summary, it must be stated<br />
that the results <strong>of</strong> the literature analysis <strong>on</strong> isolated upper <strong>and</strong> lower leg shaft fractures are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tradictory <strong>and</strong> do not permit any generally valid c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
To date, there have been few scientific studies <strong>on</strong> the management strategy for multiple femur<br />
<strong>and</strong> lower leg shaft fractures in multiply injured patients. Although the alleged incidence <strong>of</strong><br />
multiple femur <strong>and</strong> lower leg shaft fractures <strong>of</strong> 2-7% is suggestive <strong>of</strong> its clinical importance,<br />
there are few references to this in the literature. There was <strong>on</strong>ly 1 study <strong>with</strong> a prospective design<br />
(8 patients) out <strong>of</strong> 72 papers listed in the databases (MEDLINE, The Cochrane Library, <strong>and</strong><br />
Knowledge Finder, as at 1/2004) <strong>on</strong> the research questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the surgical strategy for bilateral<br />
fracture <strong>of</strong> the lower extremity. The majority <strong>of</strong> papers were based <strong>on</strong> retrospective-clinical data<br />
(n = 42, 4–222 patients) <strong>and</strong> also case reports (n = 29). In additi<strong>on</strong> to the main endpoint <strong>of</strong> case<br />
fatality rate, there were numerous subsidiary endpoints such as complicati<strong>on</strong> rates, number <strong>of</strong><br />
days in situ, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries. The vast majority <strong>of</strong> authors see the advantages <strong>of</strong> early<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> fractures but the procedure <strong>and</strong> timing still remain under dispute. The high<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary complicati<strong>on</strong>s in the group <strong>of</strong> multiple medullary nailing (8.2% versus<br />
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62.5%) was noticeable in the <strong>on</strong>ly prospective study to date [206]. As a c<strong>on</strong>sequence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
results <strong>of</strong> this paper, the author recommends a multi-step management strategy. In their<br />
retrospectively collected data, other authors were unable to document any increased pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
risk such as that <strong>of</strong> (fat) lung embolism following multiple medullary nailings. On the other<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, others revealed a shortened c<strong>on</strong>valescence <strong>and</strong> lower complicati<strong>on</strong> rate in surgically<br />
stabilized (pediatric) patients <strong>and</strong> advocate primary definitive stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. In summary, surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is increasingly favored in the literature but the type <strong>and</strong> timing <strong>of</strong> surgical<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> still remains a matter <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>troversy; a generally-valid c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> cannot be made.<br />
Within the c<strong>on</strong>text <strong>of</strong> polytrauma management, both isolated <strong>and</strong> multiple fractures <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>of</strong> the lower extremity involve a clinically relevant research questi<strong>on</strong> which <strong>of</strong>ten has to be<br />
decided in everyday practice. Thus, there is an urgent necessity for additi<strong>on</strong>al prospective studies<br />
<strong>with</strong> appropriate study design to clarify the treatment strategy.<br />
Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment<br />
(damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management<br />
strategy.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Proximal femoral fractures in polytrauma can be stabilized by primary<br />
osteosynthesis.<br />
GoR 0<br />
In justified cases, a temporary joint-bridging external fixator can be indicated. GoR 0<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> the proximal femoral fracture specifically in<br />
multiply injured patients. Studies cited below c<strong>on</strong>tain both patients <strong>with</strong> isolated femoral fracture<br />
<strong>and</strong> multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> proximal femoral fracture [37, 103, 104]. Proximal femoral<br />
fractures are subdivided according to their locati<strong>on</strong> into intracapsular, extracapsular<br />
(trochanteric), <strong>and</strong> subtrochanteric fractures.<br />
Femoral head fractures (Pipkin fractures) are rare <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten associated <strong>with</strong> hip dislocati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or acetabular fractures. Surgical management ranges from removal <strong>of</strong> small osteoch<strong>on</strong>dral<br />
fragments to refixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the femoral head. Although femoral neck fractures<br />
are comm<strong>on</strong> in elderly people after relatively trivial trauma, in young people they are mostly<br />
caused by a high energy trauma which is <strong>of</strong>ten associated <strong>with</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al multiple injuries. The<br />
favored head salvage procedure is (cannulated) screw osteosynthesis [12, 93, 131, 133–135].<br />
Prosthetic management is listed as equivalent [86, 133-135, 140, 152, 188]. In the meta-analyses<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted by Bh<strong>and</strong>ari et al. [13] <strong>and</strong> Parker et al. [132, 136, 137], the osteosynthetic<br />
management <strong>of</strong> the isolated femoral neck fracture led to a c<strong>on</strong>siderably higher revisi<strong>on</strong> rate but<br />
the infecti<strong>on</strong> rate, blood loss, operating time, <strong>and</strong> trend in mortality [13] were higher in the group<br />
<strong>with</strong> joint replacement. To date, no advantage has been found for the bipolar prosthesis<br />
compared to total hip replacement [34, 39, 132, 136, 137].<br />
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The extracapsular fracture can be managed <strong>with</strong> extramedullary, fixed plate sliding hip screw<br />
(dynamic hip screw, Med<strong>of</strong>f sliding plate, etc.) or intramedullary procedure (proximal femur<br />
nail, gamma nail, etc.) [9, 29, 30, 38, 52, 65, 72, 73, 89, 99, 100, 102, 122, 130, 132–137, 139,<br />
144, 194]. In general, surgical management <strong>of</strong> the proximal femoral fracture is regarded as the<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment [9, 24, 43, 54, 64, 101, 132, 136–138, 199].<br />
There is no evidence in r<strong>and</strong>omized studies <strong>on</strong> the timing <strong>of</strong> fracture management, <strong>and</strong><br />
observati<strong>on</strong>al studies lead to differing c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s [23, 45, 71, 138, 191]. Early surgical<br />
management (<strong>with</strong>in 24-36 hours) after physiologic stabilizati<strong>on</strong> is recommended for most<br />
patients. The unnecessary delay in operating can increase the complicati<strong>on</strong> rate (decubitus rate,<br />
pneum<strong>on</strong>ia). Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s for surgery are: open fracture; fracture <strong>with</strong> vascular injury;<br />
fracture <strong>with</strong> compartment syndrome. If surgery has to be significantly delayed (> 48 hours), a<br />
joint-bridging external fixator can be temporarily (or, if applicable, permanently) attached.<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities: bleeding, infecti<strong>on</strong>, wound healing disorder, avascular necrosis in the<br />
femoral head, pseudarthrosis, rotati<strong>on</strong>al malpositi<strong>on</strong>, mobility restricti<strong>on</strong>, prosthesis dislocati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
thrombosis, embolism [128].<br />
Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment<br />
(damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management<br />
strategy.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
For definitive management <strong>of</strong> a femoral shaft fracture in multiply injured<br />
patients, the first-line choice <strong>of</strong> surgical procedure should be locking<br />
medullary nailing.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the femoral shaft fracture is regarded as the st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment (see Key<br />
Recommendati<strong>on</strong> 1). Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s for surgery are: open fracture; fracture <strong>with</strong><br />
vascular injury; fracture <strong>with</strong> compartment syndrome. In a hemodynamically stable situati<strong>on</strong> (see<br />
“Emergency room management”), the focus is <strong>on</strong> early definitive osteosynthesis <strong>with</strong> the<br />
intramedullary nail being preferred by most authors as the gold st<strong>and</strong>ard [27, 33, 96, 198]. The<br />
central argument <strong>of</strong> the prop<strong>on</strong>ents <strong>of</strong> the medullary nail is the early weight-bearing capacity.<br />
Nevertheless, in a retrospective study <strong>on</strong> 255 multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> femoral fracture,<br />
Neudeck et al. [119] showed that, taking account <strong>of</strong> injury severity, injury pattern, <strong>and</strong> clinical<br />
course, <strong>on</strong>ly 29% <strong>of</strong> these patients could benefit from the advantage <strong>of</strong> early weight-bearing<br />
capacity after primary medullary nailing. Thus, the choice <strong>of</strong> primary surgical procedure (nailing<br />
versus plate osteosynthesis) in the multiply injured patient is also treated as a matter for debate<br />
by a few authors [6, 18, 20, 83, 90, 126, 159, 168, 174]. B<strong>on</strong>e et al. [18] showed that the<br />
incidence <strong>of</strong> pulm<strong>on</strong>ary complicati<strong>on</strong>s does not depend <strong>on</strong> the type <strong>of</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (nail/plate) <strong>of</strong><br />
the femoral fracture but is solely caused by the lung injury. In a retrospective study <strong>on</strong> 217<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> drilled femur nailing <strong>and</strong> 206 patients <strong>with</strong> plate osteosynthesis, Bosse et al. [20]<br />
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likewise found no differences in the incidence <strong>of</strong> lung failure (ARDS) in multiply injured<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out chest trauma. In a retrospective study for primary plate osteosynthesis,<br />
Auf´m Kolk et al. [6] also found evidence <strong>of</strong> no increase in case fatality rate <strong>and</strong> morbidity in<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong>out chest trauma (AIS thorax ≥ 3). In support <strong>of</strong> this, several animal<br />
models, including <strong>on</strong>e by Wozasek et al. [200], found evidence <strong>of</strong> no significant pulm<strong>on</strong>aryhemodynamic<br />
effect between medullary nailing <strong>and</strong> plate osteosynthesis. There is no dispute<br />
surrounding the issue <strong>of</strong> fat embolizati<strong>on</strong> due to elevated intramedullary pressure as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
medullary nailing, <strong>and</strong> there is evidence <strong>of</strong> this, particularly by echocardiography, in many<br />
clinical <strong>and</strong> animal experimental studies [145]. Ultimately, the questi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> clinical relevance still<br />
remains unclarified <strong>and</strong> thus also the questi<strong>on</strong> whether preference should be given to (n<strong>on</strong>)drilled<br />
medullary nailing. Accordingly, several prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized studies comparing drilled <strong>and</strong><br />
n<strong>on</strong>drilled medullary nailing found evidence <strong>of</strong> no differences in the ARDS rate, pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> the survival rate [5, 35].<br />
Open grade 3 femoral fractures <strong>with</strong> vascular involvement are regarded as c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
primary medullary nailing in hemodynamically stable patients [51, 119, 182]. In these cases,<br />
alternative procedures such as the external fixator are used as a type <strong>of</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> [166].<br />
Femoral shaft fractures are characterized by good callus formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> a low complicati<strong>on</strong> rate<br />
[26]. Ten to twenty percent <strong>of</strong> femoral shaft fractures are associated <strong>with</strong> ligamentous injuries in<br />
the knee joint. Complicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities are: bleeding, infecti<strong>on</strong>, wound healing disorder,<br />
avascular necrosis in the femoral head, pseudarthrosis, rotati<strong>on</strong>al malpositi<strong>on</strong>, mobility<br />
restricti<strong>on</strong>, thrombosis, embolism.<br />
Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment<br />
(damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management<br />
strategy.<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Unstable distal femoral fractures in polytrauma can be stabilized by primary<br />
surgery.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> the distal femoral fracture specifically in<br />
polytrauma. Studies cited below c<strong>on</strong>tain both patients <strong>with</strong> isolated femoral fracture <strong>and</strong> multiply<br />
injured patients <strong>with</strong> distal femoral fracture. Surgical management <strong>of</strong> the distal femoral fracture<br />
is regarded as the st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment. Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s for surgery are: open fracture;<br />
fracture <strong>with</strong> vascular injury; fracture <strong>with</strong> compartment syndrome. In a hemodynamically stable<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>, the focus is <strong>on</strong> early definitive osteosynthesis. Depending <strong>on</strong> the fracture type, both<br />
intra-articular fractures <strong>and</strong> fractures <strong>with</strong>out intra-articular involvement <strong>of</strong> the distal femur can<br />
be managed by open or closed reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> osteosynthesis by means <strong>of</strong> a plate (Less Invasive<br />
Stabilizati<strong>on</strong> System [LISS], angled plate, etc.) or retrograde nailing [67, 79, 88, 125, 169, 179,<br />
207]. A joint-bridging external fixator can be temporarily attached in a hemodynamically<br />
unstable situati<strong>on</strong> or as part <strong>of</strong> a damage c<strong>on</strong>trol strategy.<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities: bleeding, infecti<strong>on</strong>, wound healing disorder, pseudarthrosis,<br />
rotati<strong>on</strong>al malpositi<strong>on</strong>, mobility restricti<strong>on</strong>, thrombosis, embolism, early arthrosis.<br />
Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment<br />
(damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management<br />
strategy.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Knee dislocati<strong>on</strong>s must be reduced at the earliest possible opportunity. GoR A<br />
Knee dislocati<strong>on</strong>s must be stabilized at the earliest possible opportunity. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> knee dislocati<strong>on</strong> specifically in polytrauma.<br />
Studies cited below c<strong>on</strong>tain both patients <strong>with</strong> isolated knee dislocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> multiply injured<br />
patients <strong>with</strong> knee dislocati<strong>on</strong>. The highest management priority is given to any vascular injury<br />
(popliteal artery), which must be treated. The study by Green <strong>and</strong> Allen [56] <strong>with</strong> 245 patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> knee dislocati<strong>on</strong> showed a vascular injury in 32% <strong>of</strong> cases. In 86% <strong>of</strong> patients who received<br />
vascular rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> bey<strong>on</strong>d the 8-hour period, an amputati<strong>on</strong> had to be performed; 2/3 <strong>of</strong> the<br />
remaining patients retained an ischemic c<strong>on</strong>tracture. Compartment release is recommended if the<br />
ischemia period exceeds the 6-hour limit <strong>and</strong> if there is a threat <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome.<br />
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In the hemodynamically stable <strong>and</strong> unstable multiply injured patient, the knee dislocati<strong>on</strong> should<br />
be reduced at the earliest possible opportunity. If closed reducti<strong>on</strong> is not successful, the<br />
dislocated joint is open reduced [77]. In planned c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment <strong>and</strong> in planned early<br />
cruciate ligament rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, the stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the reducti<strong>on</strong> result can be carried out by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> external fixator <strong>and</strong> transfixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> Steinmann nail or <strong>with</strong> brace/plaster. According<br />
to expert opini<strong>on</strong>, the external fixator reveals advantages over other methods [91].<br />
Ligamentous injuries after knee dislocati<strong>on</strong> can be treated by surgery or c<strong>on</strong>servatively. The<br />
meta-analysis by Dedm<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> Almekinders [40] studied the results from 12 retrospective <strong>and</strong> 3<br />
prospective studies <strong>on</strong> 132 surgically treated <strong>and</strong> 74 c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated knee dislocati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>with</strong> respect to the clinical outcome. The surgically managed patients showed significantly better<br />
results in range <strong>of</strong> moti<strong>on</strong> (123 ° versus 108 °), in the Lysholm score (85.2 versus 66.5), <strong>and</strong> a<br />
reduced flexi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tracture (0.5 ° versus 3.5 °). R<strong>and</strong>omizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the treatment groups did not<br />
take place <strong>and</strong> the indicati<strong>on</strong> for surgical or c<strong>on</strong>servative procedure is not substantiated. Two<br />
more retrospective studies also showed superiority in surgical compared to n<strong>on</strong>-surgical<br />
treatment [113, 158].<br />
Direct suture or cruciate ligament replacement is available for the surgical management <strong>of</strong><br />
cruciate ligaments after knee dislocati<strong>on</strong>. Regarding stability <strong>and</strong> range <strong>of</strong> moti<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
retrospective study by Mariani et al. [105] <strong>with</strong> a small number <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> knee dislocati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
showed superiority in anterior <strong>and</strong> posterior cruciate ligament rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> patellar tend<strong>on</strong><br />
or semitendinosus tend<strong>on</strong> compared to direct suture [105].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Unstable proximal tibial fractures <strong>and</strong> tibial head fractures can undergo<br />
primary stabilizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> proximal tibial fracture specifically in<br />
polytrauma. Studies cited below c<strong>on</strong>tain both patients <strong>with</strong> isolated proximal tibial fracture <strong>and</strong><br />
multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> proximal tibial fracture.<br />
Primary management can be carried out by splint immobilizati<strong>on</strong>. N<strong>on</strong>-dislocated fractures are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated by decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al treatment. If necessary, surgical fixati<strong>on</strong><br />
can be performed to prevent sec<strong>on</strong>dary dislocati<strong>on</strong>. Surgical management <strong>of</strong> the dislocated<br />
proximal tibial fracture is regarded as the st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment [75, 114]. Rival procedures are<br />
plate systems (c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al, fixed-angle Less Invasive Stabilizati<strong>on</strong> System – LISS, etc.), tibia<br />
nails, screws, <strong>and</strong> fixator systems [10, 84, 121, 153], which are used depending <strong>on</strong> the<br />
complexity <strong>and</strong> joint surface involvement <strong>of</strong> the fracture. Requirements <strong>of</strong> osteosynthesis are the<br />
opti<strong>on</strong> for joint surface rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> permanent fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong> al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>with</strong><br />
mobilizati<strong>on</strong> treatment while minimizing the perioperative s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage. In the case <strong>of</strong><br />
minor dislocati<strong>on</strong>, arthroscopically assisted, radiologically c<strong>on</strong>trolled reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> percutaneous<br />
screw fixing can be carried out [58]. Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s for surgery are: open fracture;<br />
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fracture <strong>with</strong> vascular injury; fracture <strong>with</strong> compartment syndrome. If necessary, an external<br />
fixator can be attached until the s<strong>of</strong>t tissue c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s permit definitive management. In the<br />
hemodynamically stable situati<strong>on</strong>, the focus is <strong>on</strong> early definitive elective osteosynthesis after<br />
initial subsidence in swelling (e.g., after 3-5 days). Tibial plateau fractures are associated <strong>with</strong><br />
meniscus injuries in up to 50% <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>and</strong> <strong>with</strong> ligamentous injuries in up to 25% <strong>of</strong> cases [11].<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities [205]: bleeding, infecti<strong>on</strong>, wound healing disorder, pseudarthrosis,<br />
rotati<strong>on</strong>al malalignment, mobility restricti<strong>on</strong>, thrombosis, embolism, early arthrosis.<br />
Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment<br />
(damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management<br />
strategy.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Tibial shaft fractures should undergo surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the best management procedure specifically for a tibial shaft<br />
fracture occurring in polytrauma. The core requirement is adapted management in relati<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
overall c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Due to the marginal s<strong>of</strong>t tissue situati<strong>on</strong> in the distal half <strong>of</strong> the tibia, the<br />
treatment strategy is <strong>of</strong>ten not dictated by the fracture per se but by the existing s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Stable fractures <strong>with</strong> minimum dislocati<strong>on</strong> can be c<strong>on</strong>servatively treated <strong>with</strong> plaster<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong> [164]. Surgical management <strong>of</strong> the unstable tibial shaft fracture is regarded as the<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment, usually by intramedullary nailing [159, 197, 201]. Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
surgery are: open fracture; fracture <strong>with</strong> vascular injury; fracture <strong>with</strong> compartment syndrome. In<br />
a hemodynamically stable situati<strong>on</strong>, the focus is <strong>on</strong> early definitive osteosynthesis. If surgery has<br />
to be significantly delayed (> 48 hours) or there is an extensive open injury <strong>with</strong> severe<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>, an external fixator can be temporarily (or if necessary permanently) attached<br />
[80].<br />
In a meta-analysis by Bh<strong>and</strong>ari et al. [15], the treatment <strong>of</strong> open tibial shaft fractures was<br />
studied. The results showed that, compared to the external fixator, n<strong>on</strong>-drilled medullary nails<br />
reduced the risk <strong>of</strong> re-operati<strong>on</strong>, pseudarthrosis, <strong>and</strong> superficial infecti<strong>on</strong>. A smaller re-operati<strong>on</strong><br />
risk was revealed <strong>with</strong> drilled nails in comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-drilled nails. In a prospective<br />
r<strong>and</strong>omized study, evidence was also found in closed fractures <strong>of</strong> a lower rate <strong>of</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> pseudarthroses after a drilled medullary nail compared to a n<strong>on</strong>-drilled medullary<br />
nail [94]. Tibial shaft fractures are associated <strong>with</strong> ligamentous injuries in up to 22% <strong>of</strong> cases.<br />
Complicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities: bleeding, infecti<strong>on</strong>, wound healing disorder, s<strong>of</strong>t tissue necrosis <strong>with</strong><br />
the necessity <strong>of</strong> a skin graft (dermatoplasty), pseudarthrosis, rotati<strong>on</strong>al malalignment, mobility<br />
restricti<strong>on</strong>, thrombosis, embolism. Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency<br />
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surgery phase for the risk assessment (damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
aid in the fracture management strategy.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Distal lower leg fractures including articular distal tibial fractures should<br />
undergo surgical stabilizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the isolated treatment <strong>of</strong> the distal tibial fracture specifically<br />
in polytrauma. Studies cited below c<strong>on</strong>tain both patients <strong>with</strong> isolated distal tibial fracture <strong>and</strong><br />
multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong> distal tibial fracture.<br />
Surgical management <strong>of</strong> the distal tibial fracture is regarded as the st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment. Due to the<br />
marginal s<strong>of</strong>t tissue situati<strong>on</strong> in the distal tibia (<strong>and</strong> in the pil<strong>on</strong>), the treatment strategy is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
not dictated by the fracture per se but by the existing s<strong>of</strong>t tissue situati<strong>on</strong>. Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for surgery are: open fracture; fracture <strong>with</strong> vascular injury; fracture <strong>with</strong> compartment<br />
syndrome. In a hemodynamically stable situati<strong>on</strong>, the focus is <strong>on</strong> early definitive osteosynthesis.<br />
Distal tibial fractures <strong>with</strong>out pil<strong>on</strong> involvement can be managed by medullary nail<br />
osteosynthesis. In additi<strong>on</strong> to medullary nailing, fixed-angle plate osteosynthesis should be<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed as a procedure opti<strong>on</strong>, particularly as an inserted plate. In the case <strong>of</strong> a distal fibular<br />
fracture as well, additi<strong>on</strong>al plate osteosynthesis <strong>of</strong> the fibula is recommended (in order to build a<br />
frame <strong>and</strong> to prevent distal axial deviati<strong>on</strong>) [19, 41, 63, 97, 151, 155, 176, 186, 195]. In the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> pil<strong>on</strong> involvement, open reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> osteosynthesis are regarded as the st<strong>and</strong>ard treatment<br />
[26, 69, 184, 202]. If the operati<strong>on</strong> has to be significantly delayed (> 48 hours) (e.g., if there is<br />
severe swelling or open c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>), a joint-bridging external fixator can also be attached<br />
temporarily (or if necessary permanently), if necessary <strong>with</strong> percutaneous fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the joint<br />
surface (screws, K wires). Complicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities are: bleeding, infecti<strong>on</strong>, wound healing<br />
disorder, s<strong>of</strong>t tissue necrosis <strong>with</strong> the necessity <strong>of</strong> a skin graft (dermatoplasty), pseudarthrosis,<br />
rotati<strong>on</strong>al malalignment, mobility restricti<strong>on</strong>, thrombosis, embolism, early arthrosis. Please refer<br />
to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment (damage<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management strategy.<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Ankle fractures should undergo primary stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
There are no c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies <strong>on</strong> the isolated treatment <strong>of</strong> ankle fractures specifically in<br />
polytrauma. Studies cited below c<strong>on</strong>tain both patients <strong>with</strong> isolated ankle fracture <strong>and</strong> multiply<br />
injured patients <strong>with</strong> ankle fracture.<br />
Surgical management in general <strong>and</strong> the type <strong>of</strong> osteosynthetic management <strong>of</strong> the fibula fracture<br />
depend not least <strong>on</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the injury pattern in the multiply injured patient. Thus, some<br />
authors prefer external fixati<strong>on</strong> at an injury severity <strong>of</strong> ISS > 25 or 29 points <strong>and</strong>/or <strong>with</strong> a chest<br />
trauma <strong>of</strong> AIS > 3 [4, 118, 164]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the type <strong>of</strong> fracture determines the choice <strong>of</strong><br />
osteosynthesis material.<br />
Proximal fibula: In Mais<strong>on</strong>neuve injuries, the distal fibula should be surgically fixed to the tibia<br />
in the upper ankle [47]. Here, 2 syndesmotic screws should be attached as, being tricortical, these<br />
screws have 5-fold greater tear <strong>and</strong> rotati<strong>on</strong>al strength than the sole suture <strong>of</strong> the syndesmosis<br />
[55, 203].<br />
Fibula shaft: High fibula fractures in terms <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>-eversi<strong>on</strong> injury according to Lauge-<br />
Hansen type III or IV should be surgically managed (plate osteosynthesis). The complex<br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong> mechanism may have additi<strong>on</strong>ally led to other b<strong>on</strong>y (medial malleolus fractures) <strong>and</strong><br />
ligamentous injuries (syndesmoses, medial/lateral capsular ligament apparatus) [157].<br />
Distal fibula: “Stable” <strong>and</strong> “unstable” fractures must be differentiated between in isolated lateral<br />
malleolus fractures. “Stable” fractures are those at the level <strong>of</strong> the syndesmosis (Weber B1) <strong>and</strong><br />
supinati<strong>on</strong>-eversi<strong>on</strong> fractures type SE II according to Lauge-Hansen [25, 44, 156, 204]. A stable<br />
lateral malleolus fracture exists if there is no fibula shortening, no fracture dislocati<strong>on</strong> > 2 mm,<br />
no axis deflecti<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> an intact posterior syndesmosis [44, 156]. Stable lateral malleolus<br />
fractures can be c<strong>on</strong>servatively immobilized, e.g., in a plaster cast or orthotic device<br />
manufactured from synthetic material. Types <strong>of</strong> fracture that deviate from this must be surgically<br />
managed.<br />
The type <strong>of</strong> osteosynthesis also depends <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>comitant s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injury (c<strong>on</strong>tusi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
swelling, compartment syndrome) [146]. In the case <strong>of</strong> relatively severe s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage or<br />
more complex types <strong>of</strong> fracture (e.g., dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures), the first goal must be external<br />
fixati<strong>on</strong> irrespective <strong>of</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> the remaining injuries in order to prevent imminent<br />
neurovascular damage [22]. In the case <strong>of</strong> stable lateral malleolus fractures <strong>and</strong> lateral malleolus<br />
fractures that have been made stable by osteosynthesis, a follow-up treatment strategy that<br />
provides early functi<strong>on</strong>ality <strong>and</strong> early weight-bearing capacity shows a significant improvement<br />
in the ankle’s range <strong>of</strong> moti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> requires a shorter rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> phase [148].<br />
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S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Please refer to the introductory secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the emergency surgery phase for the risk assessment<br />
(damage c<strong>on</strong>trol) <strong>of</strong> a multiply injured patient as a decisi<strong>on</strong> aid in the fracture management<br />
strategy.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis must be carried out in the surgical<br />
management <strong>of</strong> both close <strong>and</strong> open fractures <strong>of</strong> the lower extremity.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
In open fractures, there is preoperative bacterial c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> in 48-60% <strong>of</strong> all wounds <strong>and</strong> in<br />
100% <strong>of</strong> all severe wounds [98].<br />
Antibiotic administrati<strong>on</strong> in closed fractures:<br />
In the surgical management <strong>of</strong> closed fractures, the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antimicrobial prophylaxis<br />
(normally a single shot <strong>of</strong> a l<strong>on</strong>g-acting first-generati<strong>on</strong> cephalosporin) is generally<br />
recommended when implanting foreign material [3, 78]. There is EL 1 data <strong>on</strong> the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> femoral neck fractures which c<strong>on</strong>firm a significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in postoperative wound<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>s through perioperative antibiotic treatment [21, 31, 32, 78]. The Cochrane Review <strong>of</strong><br />
2003, which analyzes data from 8,307 patients from 22 studies, reveals a significant reducti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
postoperative wound infecti<strong>on</strong>s as well as also in infecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the genitourinary <strong>and</strong> respiratory<br />
tracts by preoperative single shot antibiosis during the surgical management <strong>of</strong> fractures to the<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es. Both in the Cochrane Review by Gillespie et al. [53] <strong>and</strong> in the meta-analysis by<br />
Slobogean et al. [173], no evidence could be found <strong>of</strong> further advantages from multi-dose<br />
compared to single shot antibiosis.<br />
Antibiotic administrati<strong>on</strong> in open fractures:<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> open fractures provides sufficient evidence that antimicrobial prophylaxis<br />
should be carried out. According to the guideline <strong>of</strong> EAST (Eastern Associati<strong>on</strong> for the Surgery<br />
<strong>of</strong> Trauma), in additi<strong>on</strong> to careful wound debridement - if possible <strong>with</strong>in 6 hours <strong>of</strong> the trauma -<br />
it is recommended that coverage <strong>of</strong> gram-positive organisms is also started as early as possible.<br />
For fractures <strong>of</strong> grade 3 according to Gustilo, additi<strong>on</strong>al treatment for gram-negative triggers <strong>and</strong><br />
also high-dose penicillin should be administered for farm-related injuries as a prophylaxis<br />
against clostridial infecti<strong>on</strong>s. The treatment should be c<strong>on</strong>tinued up to 24 hours after primary<br />
defect covering. With grade 3 fractures, the antibiotic treatment should be c<strong>on</strong>tinued up to 72<br />
hours after the trauma <strong>and</strong> not more than 24 hours after s<strong>of</strong>t tissue has been covered [98]. As<br />
<strong>with</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> other studies [68], Dellinger et al. [42] could not show any significant difference<br />
in infecti<strong>on</strong> rate in 248 patients in relati<strong>on</strong> to the period <strong>of</strong> antibiotic prophylaxis (1 versus 5<br />
days).<br />
Although some authors recommend the administrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> antibiotic-impregnated beads for local<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong> prophylaxis in additi<strong>on</strong> to i.v. antibiosis, there is no supporting literature <strong>of</strong> EL 1 <strong>on</strong><br />
this either [68, 70, 124, 170].<br />
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Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Provided the severity <strong>of</strong> the overall injury permits, the surgical management<br />
<strong>of</strong> vascular injuries in the lower extremity should be carried out at the earliest<br />
possible opportunity, i.e. directly after treating the injuries threatening the<br />
vital functi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
There are <strong>on</strong>ly few c<strong>on</strong>firmed data <strong>on</strong> the incidence <strong>of</strong> arterial <strong>and</strong> venous vascular injuries <strong>of</strong><br />
the lower extremity in multiply injured patients. There is wide variati<strong>on</strong> worldwide am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
individual collectives in degree <strong>of</strong> severity, the mechanism <strong>of</strong> generati<strong>on</strong>, the locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
vascular injury (<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the other injuries), <strong>and</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> the preoperative diagnostic study<br />
<strong>and</strong> management [147, 177, 181, 185, 190]. The morphologic damage to the vessels in relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
the mechanism <strong>of</strong> generati<strong>on</strong> is accurately described in its importance for the type <strong>of</strong><br />
management [192].<br />
The management recommendati<strong>on</strong>s listed here are based predominantly <strong>on</strong> the experiences <strong>and</strong><br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> experts who have published their results <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s from individual<br />
collectives. Only <strong>on</strong>e publicati<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>trolled r<strong>and</strong>omized trial [193]. However, the<br />
published recommendati<strong>on</strong>s from different subdivisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> trauma surgery <strong>and</strong> vascular surgery<br />
permit <strong>on</strong>ly qualified c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the treatment <strong>of</strong> severe injuries in the lower extremity <strong>with</strong><br />
vascular involvement in multiply injured patients. Ultimately, therefore, it is an individual<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong> for the individual patient.<br />
Provided the severity <strong>of</strong> the overall injury permits, the surgical management <strong>of</strong> arterial <strong>and</strong><br />
venous injuries in the lower extremity should also be carried out in multiply injured patients at<br />
the earliest possible opportunity, i.e. directly after treating the injuries threatening the vital<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s. There is no c<strong>on</strong>sensus in the literature <strong>on</strong> whether a fracture must be stabilized first<br />
followed by vascular rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> or whether the reverse sequence is advantageous. Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
also surrounds interim soluti<strong>on</strong>s (primary shunt inserti<strong>on</strong> to preserve blood supply, fracture<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> later definitive vascular rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> or in terms <strong>of</strong> damage c<strong>on</strong>trol through to<br />
physiologic recompensati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient after severe trauma) [81, 108, 117, 120, 123, 127, 143,<br />
180]. In complex trauma <strong>with</strong> a high predicti<strong>on</strong> probability <strong>of</strong> vascular injury, primary vascular<br />
revisi<strong>on</strong> should be carried out <strong>with</strong>, if necessary, immediate vascular rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> [193]. The<br />
resources, principles <strong>of</strong> surgery, <strong>and</strong> operative techniques available corresp<strong>on</strong>d to those for n<strong>on</strong>trauma-induced<br />
management <strong>of</strong> arterial <strong>and</strong> venous rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> partly exceed the<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> range.<br />
Arterial injuries <strong>of</strong> the iliac <strong>and</strong> femoral vessels should be rec<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>and</strong> are usually<br />
technically easily accessible. An isolated crural artery injury can be ligated if the openness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
other distal main arteries is c<strong>on</strong>firmed. If at least 2 vessels are affected, there is almost always a<br />
critical vascular disorder which requires primary revascularizati<strong>on</strong>. The combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> venous<br />
injuries increases the amputati<strong>on</strong> rate, which is why the indicati<strong>on</strong> for venous rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
should be made broadly in combinati<strong>on</strong> injuries [50, 177, 181]. Arterial injuries <strong>of</strong> the lower<br />
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extremity should be managed (in descending order) by means <strong>of</strong> direct suture, inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuity-preserving anastomosis, patch angioplasty (autologous, synthetic material) or bypass<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> (autologous, synthetic material, composite) [46, 190]. Venous injuries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lower extremity should be managed (in descending order) by means <strong>of</strong> patch graft, autologous<br />
vein interpositi<strong>on</strong> graft, PTFE (polytetrafluorethylene) interpositi<strong>on</strong> graft or primary ligature [1,<br />
111, 129, 141, 142, 154, 183].<br />
The indicati<strong>on</strong> for fasciotomy should be made early; if necessary it should be carried out even<br />
before vascular rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> [49, 177].<br />
Endovascular treatment <strong>of</strong> arterial injuries represents another opti<strong>on</strong> for managing arterial<br />
injuries <strong>of</strong> the lower extremity even in the multiply injured patient. Established procedures<br />
applied proximal to the extremity (coiling, covered stents) can also be used peripherally in<br />
individual cases. The goal can even be temporary revascularizati<strong>on</strong>s until definitive surgical<br />
management [106, 116, 149, 167].<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome in the lower extremity, immediate<br />
compartment decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>comitant fracture must be<br />
carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
Compartment syndromes in relati<strong>on</strong> to fractures <strong>of</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>es in the lower extremity <strong>and</strong><br />
particularly in the tibia are not rare. Due to the deleterious sequelae <strong>with</strong>in a few hours, however,<br />
they require rapid decompressi<strong>on</strong> (fasciotomy) during fracture stabilizati<strong>on</strong>. Van den Br<strong>and</strong> et al.<br />
[187] even support prophylactic versus therapeutic fasciotomy. Establishing an early diagnosis is<br />
essential if there is compartment syndrome because irreversible damage to musculature <strong>and</strong><br />
nerves results after 8 hours at the latest [196]. The diagnosis is made in the primary phase<br />
according to clinical criteria [74]. Normal pallor <strong>and</strong> skin temperature <strong>and</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> distal<br />
pulses [66, 74, 115, 196] do not exclude a compartment syndrome. The cardinal symptom <strong>of</strong><br />
pain <strong>and</strong> pain-provoking muscle extensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> sensitivity tests are not usable in the multiply<br />
injured patient who is generally unc<strong>on</strong>scious or analgesic sedated. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, according to<br />
Rowl<strong>and</strong> et al. [162], the definitive diagnosis must be established using a pressure measurement<br />
device. Compartment pressures exceeding 30 mmHg or, in the case <strong>of</strong> hypotensi<strong>on</strong>, exceeding<br />
the difference pdiastolic - 30 mmHg are classed as critical values <strong>and</strong> indicati<strong>on</strong> for fasciotomy [66,<br />
92, 110, 115, 196]. If the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome has been established, immediate<br />
fasciotomy (emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>) is indicated [66, 74, 115, 196]. All 4 compartments in the<br />
lower leg should be opened. The prognosis depends <strong>on</strong> the totality <strong>of</strong> the injuries <strong>and</strong> is most<br />
favorable in the case <strong>of</strong> isolated compartment <strong>with</strong>out fracture. If there is a c<strong>on</strong>comitant fracture,<br />
stable osteosynthesis should be carried out in additi<strong>on</strong> to the fasciotomy. The preferred stable<br />
osteosynthesis is intramedullary nailing [48, 189] as, compared to other procedures, it causes the<br />
least irritati<strong>on</strong> to the s<strong>of</strong>t tissue <strong>and</strong> avoids the necessity <strong>of</strong> pin transfixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the tissue. In a<br />
meta-analysis by Bh<strong>and</strong>ari et al. [14], the drilled medullary nail was compared to the n<strong>on</strong>-drilled<br />
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medullary nail <strong>with</strong> regard to the relative risk <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome. Although not<br />
significant (relative risk 0.45; 95% CI: 0.13-1.56), the authors c<strong>on</strong>cluded that the drilling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
medullary nail appears to lower the risk <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome. Nevertheless, the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> rapid acti<strong>on</strong> is based less <strong>on</strong> specific studies <strong>on</strong> compartment syndrome in polytrauma but<br />
rather much more <strong>on</strong> experience.<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The decisi<strong>on</strong> to amputate or to salvage the extremity in the critical injury to<br />
the lower extremity should be made <strong>on</strong> an individual basis. The local <strong>and</strong><br />
general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient plays a crucial role here.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The critical injury to the lower extremity can represent a complex problem in the treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
polytrauma. The critical decisi<strong>on</strong> between amputati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> salvaging the extremity can be<br />
necessary here. The literature shows that loss <strong>of</strong> neurologic functi<strong>on</strong> is correlated <strong>with</strong> delayed<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> increased morbidity as well as mortality [2]. Early amputati<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered if there is a loss <strong>of</strong> functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> sensitivity in the foot/extremity. C<strong>on</strong>versely, if there<br />
is functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> sensitivity in the foot/extremity, the goal should be to salvage [2]. Thus, the focus<br />
should be <strong>on</strong> amputati<strong>on</strong> for all patients, for example, <strong>with</strong> a type III-C fracture <strong>and</strong> a completely<br />
severed sciatic or tibial nerve. In the case <strong>of</strong> significant nerve severance, no studies have shown<br />
an advantage in salvaging the extremity compared to early amputati<strong>on</strong> [17, 109, 163].<br />
Vascular integrity increases the probability <strong>of</strong> salvaging the extremity [161]. The vascular<br />
disorder should be remedied as quickly as possible. An ischemic period <strong>of</strong> > 6 hours was<br />
correlated <strong>with</strong> irreversible nerve damage <strong>and</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> functi<strong>on</strong> [95, 178]. For logical reas<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
necrotic extremities (or parts there<strong>of</strong>) should be amputated. A delay in amputati<strong>on</strong> leads to a<br />
significant increase in sepsis, immobility, number <strong>of</strong> surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>s required, mortality,<br />
<strong>and</strong> costs [17, 109, 163].<br />
Many reports have been published about objective criteria for the decisi<strong>on</strong> to amputate or<br />
salvage the extremity [36, 57, 76, 85]. However, to date, no study could define guaranteed<br />
predicti<strong>on</strong> instruments for this decisi<strong>on</strong>. Scoring systems (e.g., Predictive Salvage Index,<br />
Mangled Extremity Severity Score [MESS], Limb Salvage Score, NISSSA [Nerve Injury,<br />
Ischemia, S<strong>of</strong>t Tissue injury, Skeletal injury, Shock <strong>and</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> Patient] Scoring Index) can be<br />
used to supplement the clinical assessment. Thus, it is absolutely essential that an individual<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong> is taken for each patient <strong>and</strong> for each injury. The decisi<strong>on</strong> to amputate or to salvage the<br />
extremity should never be taken solely <strong>on</strong> the basis <strong>of</strong> a protocol or algorithm [16].<br />
In summary, the primary <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary amputati<strong>on</strong> rate in injuries <strong>of</strong> the lower extremity<br />
(<strong>with</strong>out them being predictable, e.g.,, through scoring systems) thus depends <strong>on</strong> the number <strong>and</strong><br />
locati<strong>on</strong> level <strong>of</strong> the simultaneously injured arterial <strong>and</strong> venous vessels, the injured nerves, the<br />
overall severity <strong>of</strong> the injuries, <strong>and</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>comitant s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage [7, 49, 50,<br />
82, 87, 107, 112, 123, 150, 171, 172, 175, 177, 181, 190].<br />
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Foot Ankle Surg 1995;34:329-346 [LoE 5]<br />
197. Whittle AP, Russell TA, Taylor JC, Lavelle DG.<br />
<strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> open fractures <strong>of</strong> the tibial shaft <strong>with</strong> the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> interlocking nailing <strong>with</strong>out reaming. J B<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Joint Surg 1992;74A:1162-1171 [LoE 2b]<br />
198. Winquist RA, Hansen ST, Claws<strong>on</strong> DK. Closed<br />
intramedullary nailing <strong>of</strong> femoral fractures: a report<br />
<strong>of</strong> five hundred <strong>and</strong> twenty cases. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg<br />
1984;66A:529-539.<br />
199. Wiss DA, Brien WW. Subtrochanteric fractures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
femur: results <strong>of</strong> treatment by interlocking nailing.<br />
Clin Orthop 1992;283:231-236<br />
200. Wozasek GE, Sim<strong>on</strong> P, Redl H et al.: intramedullary<br />
pressure changes <strong>and</strong> fat intravasati<strong>on</strong> during<br />
intramedullary nailing: An experimental study in<br />
sheep. J Trauma 1994; 36:202-207 [LoE 5]<br />
201. Wu CC, Shih CH. Complicated open fractures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
distal tibia treated by sec<strong>on</strong>dary interlocking nailing.<br />
J Trauma 1993;34:792-796 [LoE 2b]<br />
202. Wyrsch B, McFerran MA, McAndrew M, Limbird<br />
TJ, Harper MC, Johns<strong>on</strong> KD, Schwartz HS.<br />
Operative treatment <strong>of</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the tibial plaf<strong>on</strong>d.<br />
A r<strong>and</strong>omized, prospective study. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg<br />
Am 1996. 78:1646-1657 [LoE 1b]<br />
203. Xenos JS, Hopkins<strong>on</strong> WJ, Mulligan ME,Ols<strong>on</strong> EJ,<br />
Popovic DM. The tibi<strong>of</strong>ibular syndesmosis.<br />
Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the ligamentous structures. Methods <strong>of</strong><br />
fixati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> radiographic assessment. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint<br />
Surg Am (1995) 77:847–856<br />
204. Yde J, Kristensen KD. Ankle fractures. Supinati<strong>on</strong>eversi<strong>on</strong><br />
fractures stage II. Primary <strong>and</strong> late results <strong>of</strong><br />
operative <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-operative treatment. Acta Orthop<br />
Sc<strong>and</strong> (1981) 51: 695-702<br />
205. Young MJ, Barrack RL. Complicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> internal<br />
fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> tibial plateau fractures. Orthop Rev<br />
1994;23:149-154 [LoE 3]<br />
206. Zalavras C, Velmahos G, Tan Chan L, Patzakis MJ,<br />
Demetriades D: <strong>Multiple</strong> intramedullary nailing: A<br />
risk factor for respiratory compromise following<br />
femur fractures; Abstract (Paper No.: 249) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Annual Meeting <strong>of</strong> AAOS February 2003 in New<br />
Orleans [LoE 2b]<br />
207. Zehntner MK, Marchesi DG, Burch H, Ganz R.<br />
Alignment <strong>of</strong> suprac<strong>on</strong>dylar /intrac<strong>on</strong>dylar fractures<br />
<strong>of</strong> the femur after internal fixati<strong>on</strong> by AO /ASIF<br />
technique. J Orthop Trauma 1992;6:318-326 [LoE<br />
2b]<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Lower extremity 401
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3.11 Foot<br />
The affected patients <strong>of</strong>ten have residual pains <strong>and</strong> restricted functi<strong>on</strong> in the foot after<br />
polytrauma management requiring a high level <strong>of</strong> staff <strong>and</strong> material resources. The reas<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
foot injuries in polytrauma being missed or underestimated are more eye-catching <strong>and</strong> lifethreatening<br />
injuries, deficient radiography technique in the emergency situati<strong>on</strong>, extremely<br />
variable clinical st<strong>and</strong>ards in the analgesic sedated patient, lack <strong>of</strong> experience <strong>on</strong> the part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
examiner in less comm<strong>on</strong> foot injuries, <strong>and</strong> breakdown in communicati<strong>on</strong> in the treatment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
multiply injured due to several teams working together [45, 60].<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>with</strong> relatively high evidence <strong>on</strong> the topic <strong>of</strong> management <strong>of</strong> foot injuries<br />
in the multiply injured patient is remarkably small. This is all the more remarkable as the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> foot injuries has a significant negative influence <strong>on</strong> the prognosis <strong>of</strong> multiply injured<br />
patients [84]. For the reas<strong>on</strong>s cited, repeated attempts have been made to compile experiencebased<br />
treatment guidelines for these patient groups [52, 60, 76, 77, 92, 93], which, in the absence<br />
<strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trolled studies, form the basis <strong>of</strong> the following draft. The aim <strong>of</strong> this guideline secti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
therefore to provide an aid based <strong>on</strong> the available study data for the timely <strong>and</strong> appropriate<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> foot injuries which is adapted to the extent <strong>of</strong> injury in the multiply injured patient.<br />
Emergency indicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The necessity <strong>of</strong> emergency management <strong>of</strong> open fractures, neurovascular injuries, compartment<br />
syndrome, <strong>and</strong> an extreme s<strong>of</strong>t tissue hazard is no different from the emergency indicati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
remaining skeletal secti<strong>on</strong>s [16, 76, 77]. Accordingly, reference is made to the appropriate<br />
guideline parts.<br />
Topographic features in the foot arise from the danger <strong>of</strong> avascular necrosis even in closed<br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the talus [15, 25, 34, 77], to a lesser degree also <strong>of</strong> the navicular b<strong>on</strong>e<br />
[70], <strong>and</strong> in Lisfranc dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures <strong>and</strong> calcaneus fractures, which hold an increased<br />
danger <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome [46, 51, 54, 64, 94]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the closed reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the talus <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Chopart <strong>and</strong> Lisfranc joint is <strong>on</strong>ly possible in<br />
excepti<strong>on</strong>al cases. The cited injuries should be managed immediately following the initial<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patient.<br />
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Compartment syndrome in the foot<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
If a manifest compartment syndrome is present in the foot, a fasciotomy must<br />
be performed immediately.<br />
If there is clinical suspici<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome in the foot, a pressure<br />
measurement device can be used to take a measurement.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR 0<br />
Calcaneus fractures, Lisfranc dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures, <strong>and</strong> in general severe crush injuries are<br />
particularly at risk from compartment syndrome [39, 46, 51, 54, 76]. Most authors recommend a<br />
fasciotomy from a threshold <strong>of</strong> 30 mmHg [47, 50, 51, 87]. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the lower leg, other<br />
authors recommend compartment splitting even from a threshold <strong>of</strong> 25 mmHg as blisters develop<br />
more rapidly <strong>on</strong> the foot <strong>and</strong> the tolerance <strong>of</strong> the small foot muscles <strong>and</strong> terminal branches <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nerves <strong>and</strong> vessels is less compared to comparable pressures in the lower leg [93, 94].<br />
In compartment syndrome <strong>of</strong> the lower leg, attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid to a c<strong>on</strong>comitant foot<br />
compartment syndrome as established by Manoli et al. [40] in a series <strong>of</strong> 8 cases. There were<br />
multiple injuries in 7 out <strong>of</strong> 8 cases. In experimental <strong>and</strong> clinical studies, both the dorsomedial<br />
<strong>and</strong> the medial fasciotomy (modified Henry approach) permit sufficient decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> all<br />
foot compartments [40, 50]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, 2 parallel dorsal incisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a “three-incisi<strong>on</strong><br />
decompressi<strong>on</strong>” <strong>with</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al plantar fasciotomy are described which, however, <strong>of</strong>fer no<br />
obvious advantage.<br />
Open injuries<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage in the foot has a crucial effect <strong>on</strong> the functi<strong>on</strong>al outcome [26, 27, 86].<br />
Aggressive debridement <strong>of</strong> c<strong>on</strong>taminated <strong>and</strong> hypoperfused tissue <strong>and</strong> early s<strong>of</strong>t tissue covering<br />
are essential in the treatment <strong>of</strong> open fractures in the foot in order to prevent prol<strong>on</strong>ged infecti<strong>on</strong><br />
courses [12, 16, 27, 35, 74, 75, 96].<br />
B<strong>on</strong>es, joint cartilage, <strong>and</strong> tend<strong>on</strong>s are at risk even if there is primary vitality if they are not<br />
sufficiently covered by tissue. Artificial skin products can guarantee a temporary closure if a<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary skin closure is expected after swelling has subsided <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the s<strong>of</strong>t<br />
tissues or an additi<strong>on</strong>al sec<strong>on</strong>d look is necessary due to severe c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> (farm-related<br />
injuries) [29]. Sec<strong>on</strong>dary split thickness skin grafts are suitable for superficial defects in n<strong>on</strong>weight-bearing<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s. These require a clean (not sterile) wound surface <strong>with</strong>out exposed b<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
joint cartilage or tend<strong>on</strong>s. In children, the requirements for the wound surface are<br />
disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately less [1]. The problems <strong>of</strong> marginal hyperkeratosis in the border regi<strong>on</strong><br />
between transplant <strong>and</strong> local foot skin are still unresolved [13]. In degloving injuries, the upper<br />
layer (approx. 0.3 mm) <strong>of</strong> the hypoperfused <strong>and</strong> potentially avitalized abraded skin can be<br />
detached <strong>with</strong> the dermatome <strong>and</strong> be used for covering adjacent secti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> vitalized wound<br />
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substrate (split-thickness skin excisi<strong>on</strong> [89]). In additi<strong>on</strong>, the extent <strong>of</strong> bleeding after raising the<br />
transplant permits a reliable c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> to be made <strong>on</strong> its viability.<br />
Multi-layer defects require a local or free flap transfer [35, 44, 68]. The flap choice here depends<br />
<strong>on</strong> the size <strong>of</strong> defect <strong>and</strong> the blood supply pattern <strong>and</strong> takes into account the functi<strong>on</strong>al-anatomic<br />
foot z<strong>on</strong>e divisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the like <strong>with</strong> like principle [1, 28, 44]. Local pedicled flaps are suitable<br />
for covering smaller lateral, medial or plantar defects due to their limited acti<strong>on</strong> range [20]. Free<br />
flaps <strong>with</strong> microvascular anastomosis require an intact attachment point <strong>and</strong> attenti<strong>on</strong> must be<br />
paid to the type <strong>of</strong> shoe <strong>and</strong> cosmetic aspects in additi<strong>on</strong> to technical feasibility [66].<br />
Preoperative angiography (if necessary also phlebography) should generally be carried out [35].<br />
More extensive defects <strong>on</strong> the flat dorsum <strong>of</strong> foot benefit from free fasciocutaneous flaps<br />
whereas deep, c<strong>on</strong>taminated defect cavities need to be filled <strong>with</strong> muscle flaps covered <strong>with</strong> split<br />
thickness skin grafts (e.g., latissimus dorsi). The latter are less bulky than myocutaneous flaps<br />
[41]. The pedicle-rotated sural flap is a suitable salvage procedure in inadequate main vessels [6,<br />
12, 38].<br />
Even in successful extremity salvage, c<strong>on</strong>siderable functi<strong>on</strong>al deficits <strong>of</strong>ten remain after open<br />
pil<strong>on</strong>, talus, <strong>and</strong> calcaneus fractures [27, 68, 73]. This is partly explained by arthrogenous <strong>and</strong><br />
tendogenic fibroses <strong>with</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding mobility deficit after the necessary l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
immobilizati<strong>on</strong>. In open grade 2 <strong>and</strong> grade 3 lower leg fractures, early defect covering <strong>with</strong> free<br />
flap transfer is a proven technique compared to delayed covering [11, 17, 19]. In this regard,<br />
reference is made to the secti<strong>on</strong> “Open <strong>and</strong> closed s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage to the extremities”.<br />
The experiences <strong>with</strong> the foot are fewer due to smaller patient numbers. In initial series, patients<br />
<strong>with</strong> larger, c<strong>on</strong>taminated defects due to open foot trauma achieved good functi<strong>on</strong>al outcomes<br />
through early flap coverage <strong>with</strong>in 24-120 hours <strong>with</strong> primary stable osteosynthesis [12, 48].<br />
However, this procedure is <strong>on</strong>ly possible in a patient in a stable general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>; in terms <strong>of</strong> an<br />
optimum functi<strong>on</strong>al outcome, all rec<strong>on</strong>structive opti<strong>on</strong>s should then be exhausted for the<br />
multiply injured patient as well [56].<br />
As <strong>with</strong> open fractures in other extremity secti<strong>on</strong>s, a single shot antibiotic prophylaxis is also<br />
recommended for open fracture in the foot to supplement the surgical debridement; depending <strong>on</strong><br />
the expected, predominantly gram-positive bacteria range, first or sec<strong>on</strong>d generati<strong>on</strong><br />
cephalosporins or an antibiotic <strong>with</strong> comparable effect range in terms <strong>of</strong> the calculated antibiosis<br />
are used [10, 14, 24, 27, 52, 53].<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Foot 404
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Complex trauma <strong>of</strong> the foot<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
The decisi<strong>on</strong> to amputate the foot should be made <strong>on</strong> an individual basis. GoR B<br />
Replantati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the foot generally cannot be recommended in polytrauma. GoR 0<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> complex foot trauma is based both <strong>on</strong> the regi<strong>on</strong>al extent <strong>of</strong> the injury across<br />
the 5 anatomic-functi<strong>on</strong>al levels <strong>of</strong> the foot <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage [92].<br />
According to Tscherne und Oestern [81], 1 point is awarded for each injured foot regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> for<br />
each grade <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage; the definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a complex foot trauma is when 5 or more<br />
points are awarded. The absolute score simultaneously permits a prognostic statement [92].<br />
If there is complex foot trauma, the criteria for amputati<strong>on</strong> in relati<strong>on</strong> to the overall injury<br />
severity in polytrauma are not defined precisely. Tscherne [81] recommends primary amputati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>with</strong> a PTS value (Hannover polytrauma key [65]) <strong>of</strong> 3-4, <strong>and</strong> an individual decisi<strong>on</strong> if the PTS<br />
is 2. Validated scores such as the Hannover fracture scale (HFS [83]), the MESS (Mangled<br />
Extremity Severity Score [32]) <strong>and</strong> the NISSSA Score (Nerve Injury, Ischemia, S<strong>of</strong>t Tissue<br />
Injury, Skeletal Injury, Shock <strong>and</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> Patient Score [43]), the Predictive Salvage Index (PSI)<br />
[30], <strong>and</strong> the Limb Salvage Index (LSI) [67] <strong>of</strong>fer a certain amount <strong>of</strong> help in decisi<strong>on</strong>-making.<br />
In a prospective multicenter study <strong>on</strong> 601 patients <strong>with</strong> complex injuries <strong>of</strong> the lower extremity<br />
(Lower Extremity Assessment Project [LEAP]), a high specificity <strong>of</strong> all scores (HFS, MESS,<br />
NISSSA, PSI, LSI) was found but <strong>with</strong> low to moderate sensitivity [7]. This means that a low<br />
score can certainly reliably predict limb salvage but a high score is not predictive for an<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong>. The authors therefore warn against an uncritical applicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the scores in deciding<br />
in favor <strong>of</strong> amputati<strong>on</strong> [7]. In additi<strong>on</strong>, such scores cannot replace in particular individual<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the overall course in the polytrauma <strong>and</strong> the specific local injury pattern in the<br />
foot [94, 95].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to general criteria such as age, c<strong>on</strong>comitant diseases, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries, the<br />
following points regarding the foot are important in the decisi<strong>on</strong> to amputate: the loss <strong>of</strong> large<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the sole <strong>of</strong> the foot <strong>with</strong> its unique chambered pr<strong>of</strong>ile cannot be replaced by equivalent<br />
tissue <strong>and</strong> is potentially more serious than defects <strong>on</strong> the dorsum <strong>of</strong> foot. Vascular injuries<br />
endanger the vitality <strong>of</strong> distal foot secti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> make the restorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> foot functi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderably more difficult [8, 23, 72, 94]. The loss <strong>of</strong> the protective sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the sole <strong>of</strong> the<br />
foot due to a traumatic tibial nerve lesi<strong>on</strong> involves a greater potential for s<strong>of</strong>t tissue-induced late<br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s even if sensitivity can be regained <strong>with</strong>in 2 years in about half the cases <strong>of</strong> blunt<br />
injury <strong>of</strong> the tibial nerve [9].<br />
<strong>Severe</strong> comminuti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the b<strong>on</strong>y foot skelet<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> joint destructi<strong>on</strong> which necessitate primary<br />
arthrodesis to support osteosynthesis potentially lead to a more rigid foot <strong>with</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-physiologic<br />
pressure distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the sole <strong>of</strong> the foot, which is <strong>of</strong>ten compromised by the trauma anyway.<br />
The traumatic loss <strong>of</strong> the talus or its joint surfaces through the necessary tibiotalar,<br />
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tibiotalocalcaneous or pantalar arthrodesis leads to a rigid foot <strong>with</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderable functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
impairment even if b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>and</strong> wounds heal <strong>with</strong>out problems [21, 68, 70]. In all cited cases, the<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> for amputati<strong>on</strong> should be verified early even if there are no life-threatening<br />
c<strong>on</strong>comitant injuries [23, 52, 68]. In these cases, the Pirog<strong>of</strong>f amputati<strong>on</strong> at least still permits the<br />
original sole <strong>of</strong> the foot to bear weight; it is also suitable in critical blood supply c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s [92].<br />
In the LEAP Study <strong>on</strong> 8 North American Level I trauma centers, the most important amputati<strong>on</strong><br />
criteria in severe high-energy injuries <strong>of</strong> the lower leg <strong>and</strong> foot were severe muscle injury (OR<br />
8.74), severe vein injury (OR 5.72), absence <strong>of</strong> plantar sensitivity (OR 5.26), open foot fracture<br />
(OR 3.12), <strong>and</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> foot pulses (OR 2.02). Patient-related factors that influenced the<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong> in favor <strong>of</strong> amputati<strong>on</strong> were hemorrhagic shock <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>comitant diseases whereas the<br />
general injury severity (ISS) had no significant influence in this series [78].<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the vascular-surgical principles <strong>of</strong> waiting until hypoperfused extremity secti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are demarcated, an early decisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the final amputati<strong>on</strong> level is recommended in fresh trauma<br />
for an early definitive s<strong>of</strong>t tissue closure [92, 93]. In principle, there should be no blood arrest<br />
during surgery in order to assess correctly the vitality <strong>of</strong> b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>and</strong> musculature [52, 63].<br />
The experiences <strong>with</strong> replantati<strong>on</strong> are disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately fewer in the foot than in the h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
are restricted to case reports <strong>and</strong> small case series [4, 5, 18, 88]. The outlook for successful<br />
replantati<strong>on</strong> is markedly greater in children than in adults [3, 31]. Essentially, the attempt should<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be undertaken if a plantigrade, stable foot <strong>with</strong> protective sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the sole <strong>of</strong> the foot<br />
can be regarded as a realistic endpoint <strong>of</strong> treatment <strong>with</strong>out endangering the patient. Important<br />
criteria for successful replantati<strong>on</strong> are an anoxia period <strong>of</strong> less than 6 hours <strong>and</strong> high patient<br />
compliance in the face <strong>of</strong> slow, difficult rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> [18]. It is almost impossible to estimate<br />
these criteria in the multiply injured patient <strong>and</strong> replantati<strong>on</strong> that lasts several hours <strong>with</strong>in the<br />
critical ischemia period is generally not indicated due to the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient [72].<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Foot 406
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Specific injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Dislocati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> dislocated fractures <strong>of</strong> the tarsal b<strong>on</strong>es <strong>and</strong> metatarsals<br />
should be reduced <strong>and</strong> stabilized as so<strong>on</strong> as possible.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
Central dislocati<strong>on</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the talus (aviator’s astragalus) are associated <strong>with</strong> a polytrauma<br />
<strong>with</strong> above-average frequency (according to the AO multicenter study in 52% <strong>of</strong> cases [34]). The<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the occurrence <strong>of</strong> avascular necrosis <strong>of</strong> the talus <strong>and</strong> initial dislocati<strong>on</strong><br />
extent has been c<strong>on</strong>firmed in several large clinical series [15, 25, 34]. Closed reducti<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
rarely possible in dislocated fractures <strong>of</strong> the talus, <strong>and</strong> repeated attempts damage the s<strong>of</strong>t tissues<br />
which are compromised anyway. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, the goal is immediate open reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
(mostly minimally invasive) stabilizati<strong>on</strong> in dislocated fractures <strong>of</strong> the talus (if permitted by the<br />
general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patient) in order not to endanger further the vitality <strong>of</strong><br />
the skin <strong>and</strong> the talus itself [15, 25, 62, 79]. The definitive management <strong>and</strong> osteosynthesis <strong>of</strong><br />
minor dislocated talus fractures can be carried out later if the patient is in a stable general<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>out there being an increased risk <strong>of</strong> avascular necrosis <strong>of</strong> the talus developing [36,<br />
85, 86].<br />
Calcaneus fractures <strong>with</strong> open wound, manifest compartment syndrome, <strong>and</strong> incarcerated s<strong>of</strong>t<br />
tissues should be managed by emergency surgery. After the diagnostic study in the case <strong>of</strong> open<br />
injuries, initial debridement, if necessary artificial skin covering, temporary percutaneous<br />
Kirschner wire osteosynthesis or medial transfixati<strong>on</strong> (each <strong>with</strong> a Schanz screw in the distal<br />
tibia, in the tuber calcanei <strong>and</strong> metatarsal I) are carried out to prevent s<strong>of</strong>t tissue retracti<strong>on</strong> [27,<br />
63, 95]. In extensive, b<strong>on</strong>y defects, inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) beads is<br />
recommended. A sec<strong>on</strong>d look operati<strong>on</strong> must generally be carried out <strong>with</strong>in 48-72 hours. The<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> for early flap coverage should be made broadly [12, 48].<br />
In closed grade 3 fractures <strong>with</strong> manifest compartment syndrome, the emergency<br />
dermat<strong>of</strong>asciotomy is performed in polytrauma via an extended dorsomedial approach <strong>with</strong><br />
inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a triangular medial external fixator [63, 95]. The clinical relevance <strong>of</strong> the plantar<br />
calcaneal compartment, which has been presented in injecti<strong>on</strong> studies <strong>and</strong> in which an isolated<br />
increase in pressure can occur, is not finally clarified but the occurrence <strong>of</strong> hammer toe<br />
malalignments after isolated calcaneal fractures indicates this problem [39, 54, 96].<br />
In the vast majority <strong>of</strong> fractures (closed s<strong>of</strong>t tissue damage grade 1 <strong>and</strong> 2), osteosynthesis is<br />
recommended 6-10 days later after the swelling in the s<strong>of</strong>t tissue has subsided [2, 58, 68, 71, 91,<br />
95]. Elevating the extremity by more than 10 cm above the level <strong>of</strong> the heart is not recommended<br />
so as to prevent ischemia [16]. A good indicator for surgery time is the <strong>on</strong>set <strong>of</strong> skin creasing due<br />
to the subsiding edematous swelling [68]. A surgery time bey<strong>on</strong>d the 14th day is associated <strong>with</strong><br />
an increased risk <strong>of</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s if no reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> transfixing has been carried out initially<br />
[58, 80]. Local c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s for osteosynthesis exist if there are critical s<strong>of</strong>t tissue<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Foot 407
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>with</strong> high risk <strong>of</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong> such as tensi<strong>on</strong> blisters <strong>and</strong> skin necroses <strong>and</strong> advanced<br />
arterial or venous vascular disorders; general c<strong>on</strong>traindicati<strong>on</strong>s are lack <strong>of</strong> compliance <strong>and</strong> a<br />
manifest immune weakness [58, 92, 95]. C<strong>on</strong>servative treatment is indicated in these cases due<br />
to the risk <strong>of</strong> wound healing disorders <strong>and</strong> deep infecti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Injuries at the level <strong>of</strong> the Chopart <strong>and</strong> Lisfranc joint are associated <strong>with</strong> multiple injuries <strong>with</strong><br />
an above-average frequency (50-80%) [33, 64, 90]. They bel<strong>on</strong>g to the most comm<strong>on</strong>ly missed<br />
injuries <strong>of</strong> all, particularly in polytrauma [22, 33, 37, 57, 92].<br />
The closed reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chopart <strong>and</strong> Lisfranc dislocated fractures is generally not possible so<br />
that there is an indicati<strong>on</strong> for emergency surgery in most cases [37, 49]. Lisfranc dislocated<br />
fractures are also associated <strong>with</strong> an increased risk <strong>of</strong> compartment syndrome in the foot [51,<br />
64]. If the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the patient permits no definitive osteosynthesis, the goal is<br />
Kirschner wire transfixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a tibiometatarsal external fixator; definitive<br />
management should be carried out later [57, 61, 63, 93].<br />
After stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the multiply injured patient, fractures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
metatarsals <strong>and</strong> toes can be managed later by osteosynthesis according to the general treatment<br />
principles; the above-cited general principles apply to open injuries <strong>of</strong> the forefoot [59].<br />
Emergency surgery phase – Foot 408
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
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salvage <strong>of</strong> open grade IIIB ankle <strong>and</strong> talus fractures. J<br />
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69. S<strong>and</strong>ers R, Fortin P, DiPasquale A, Walling A, Helfet<br />
D, Ross E (1993) The results <strong>of</strong> operative treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures using a CT<br />
scan classificati<strong>on</strong>. In: Tscherne H, Schatzker J eds)<br />
Major fractures <strong>of</strong> the pil<strong>on</strong>, the talus <strong>and</strong> the<br />
calcaneus. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New<br />
York, 175-189<br />
70. Sangeorzan BJ, Benirschke SK, Mosca VEA (1989)<br />
Displaced intraarticular fractures <strong>of</strong> the tarsal navicular.<br />
J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg (Am) 71: 1504-1510 [LoE 5]<br />
71. Sangeorzan BJ, Benirschke SK, Carr JB (1995)<br />
Surgical management <strong>of</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the os calcis. Instr<br />
Course Lect 44: 359-370 [LoE 5]<br />
72. Seiler H, Braun C, op den Winkel R, Zwank L (1986)<br />
Makro- und Mikroreplantati<strong>on</strong>en an Unterschenkel und<br />
Fuß. Langenbecks Arch Chir 369: 625-627 [LoE 4]<br />
73. Siebert CH, Hansen M, Wolter D (1998) Follow-up<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> open intra-articular fractures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
calcaneus. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 117: 442-447<br />
[LoE 4]<br />
74. Simps<strong>on</strong> AH, Deakin M, Latham JM (2001) Chr<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
osteomyelitis. The effect <strong>of</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> surgical<br />
resecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> infecti<strong>on</strong>-free survival. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg<br />
Br 83: 403-407 [LoE 3]<br />
75. Sirkin M, S<strong>and</strong>ers R, DiPasquale T, Herscovici D, Jr.<br />
(1999) A staged protocol for s<strong>of</strong>t tissue management in<br />
the treatment <strong>of</strong> complex pil<strong>on</strong> fractures. J Orthop<br />
Trauma 13: 78-84 [LoE 4]<br />
76. Stiegelmar R, McKee MD, Waddell JP, Schemitsch EH<br />
(2001) Outcome <strong>of</strong> foot injuries in multiply injured<br />
patients. Orthop Clin North Am 32: 193-204 [LoE 5]<br />
77. Swi<strong>on</strong>tkowski MF (1996) The multiply-injured patient<br />
<strong>with</strong> musculoskeletal injuries. In: Rockwood CA,<br />
Green DP, Bucholz RW eds) Fractures in adults. J B<br />
Lippincott, Philadelphia, 130-157 [LoE 5]<br />
78. Swi<strong>on</strong>tkowski et al. (2002) J Trauma [LoE 2]<br />
79. Szyszkowitz R, Reschauer R, Seggl W (1985) Eightyfive<br />
talus fractures treated by ORIF <strong>with</strong> five to eight<br />
years <strong>of</strong> follow-up study <strong>of</strong> 69 patients. Clin Orthop<br />
199: 97-107<br />
80. Tennent T, Calder P, Salisbury R et al. (2001) The<br />
operative management <strong>of</strong> displaced intra-articular<br />
fractures <strong>of</strong> the calcaneum: a two-centre study using a<br />
defined protocol. Injury 32: 491-496 [LoE 4]<br />
81. Tscherne H, Oestern HJ (1982) Die Klassifizierung des<br />
Weichteilschadens bei <strong>of</strong>fenen und geschlossenen<br />
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82. Tscherne H (1986) Management der Verletzungen am<br />
distalen Unterschenkel und Fuß. Langenbecks Arch<br />
Chir 369: 539-542<br />
83. Tscherne H, Regel G, Sturm JA, Friedl HP (1987)<br />
Schweregrad und Prioritäten bei<br />
Mehrfachverletzungen. Chirurg 58: 631-640 [LoE 3]<br />
84. Turchin DC, Schemitsch EH, McKee MD, Waddell JP<br />
(1999) Do foot injuries significantly affect the<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al outcome <strong>of</strong> multiply injured patients? J<br />
Orthop Trauma 13: 1-4 [LoE 2a]<br />
85. Vallier HA, Nork SE, Benirschke SK, Sangeorzan BJ<br />
(2003) Surgical treatment <strong>of</strong> talar body fractures. J<br />
B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Am 85-A:1716-1724<br />
86. Vallier HA, Nork SE, Barei DP, Benirschke SK,<br />
Sangeorzan BJ (2004) Talar neck fractures: results <strong>and</strong><br />
outcomes. J B<strong>on</strong>e Joint Surg Am 86-A:1616-1624 [LoE<br />
4]<br />
87. Whitesides TEJ, Haney TC, Morimoto K (1975) Tissue<br />
pressure measurements as a determinant for the need <strong>of</strong><br />
fasciotomy. Clin Orthop 113: 43-51 [LoE 3]<br />
88. Yuksel F (2000) Replantati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> an avulsive<br />
amputati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a foot after recovering the foot from the<br />
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89. Zeligowski AA, Ziv I (1987) How to harvest skin graft<br />
from the avulsed flap in degloving injuries. Ann Plast<br />
Surg 19: 89-90 [LoE 4]<br />
90. Zwipp H, Scola E, Schlein U, Riechers D (1991)<br />
Verrenkungen der Sprunggelenke und der Fußwurzel.<br />
Hefte Unfallheilkunde 220: 81-82 [LoE 5]<br />
91. Zwipp H, Tscherne H, Thermann H, Weber T (1993)<br />
Osteosynthesis <strong>of</strong> displaced intraarticular fractures <strong>of</strong><br />
the calcaneus. Results in 123 cases. Clin Orthop. 290:<br />
76-86 [LoE 4]<br />
92. Zwipp H (1994) Chirurgie des Fußes. Springer-Verlag,<br />
Wien - New York [LoE 5]<br />
93. Zwipp H, Dahlen C, R<strong>and</strong>t T, Gavlik JM (1997)<br />
Komplextrauma des Fußes. Orthopäde 26: 1046-1056<br />
[LoE 5]<br />
94. Zwipp H, Rammelt S (2002) Frakturen und Luxati<strong>on</strong>en.<br />
In: Wirth CJ, Zichner, L. (eds.): Orthopädie und<br />
Orthopädische Chirurgie. Vol. 8. Georg Thieme<br />
Verlag, Stuttgart, New York, 531-618 [LoE 5]<br />
95. Zwipp H, Rammelt S, Barthel S. Kalkaneusfraktur.<br />
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96. Zwipp H, Sabauri G, Amlang M (2008) Zur<br />
chirurgischen Beh<strong>and</strong>lung des Pes equino varus als<br />
Folge eines Kompartment- und /oder<br />
Postischämiesyndromes der tiefen Flexorenloge des<br />
Unterschenkels. Unfallchirurg [LoE 4]<br />
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3.12 M<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface<br />
Securing the airways; bleeding<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
In m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial injuries, primary securing <strong>of</strong> the airways <strong>and</strong><br />
hemostasis in the oral <strong>and</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial regi<strong>on</strong> must be carried out.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
The immediate securing <strong>of</strong> the airways <strong>and</strong> management <strong>of</strong> intense bleeding are vital to life [44].<br />
There is <strong>of</strong>ten a danger <strong>of</strong> suffocati<strong>on</strong> due to foreign bodies (e.g., dental prostheses, tooth <strong>and</strong><br />
b<strong>on</strong>e fragments, blood clots, mucus, vomit). This danger should be eliminated by manually<br />
cleaning the oral cavity <strong>and</strong> the throat <strong>and</strong> by sucti<strong>on</strong>ing the deeper airways [2]. If there is<br />
instability in the m<strong>and</strong>ible as a result <strong>of</strong> comminuti<strong>on</strong>s or erosi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the middle piece, this can<br />
cause the t<strong>on</strong>gue to fall back <strong>and</strong> displace the airways. The hazardous situati<strong>on</strong> can be remedied<br />
by reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> stabilizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>with</strong> wire ligatures attached to available teeth [2].<br />
If the airways in the craniocervical regi<strong>on</strong> are disabled by intense bleeding, t<strong>on</strong>gue swelling <strong>and</strong><br />
displacement, then intubati<strong>on</strong>, a tracheotomy or c<strong>on</strong>iotomy (cricothyroidotomy) is necessary<br />
depending <strong>on</strong> the urgency <strong>and</strong> feasibility [3, 28].<br />
If larger vessels are affected (generally the origins <strong>of</strong> the external carotid artery), surgical<br />
hemostasis will be necessary. Open surgical hemostasis <strong>with</strong> vascular ligati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> bipolar<br />
electrocoagulati<strong>on</strong> or embolizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> angiography is recommended [16, 18, 28]. The exact<br />
source <strong>of</strong> bleeding should be located for effective hemostasis [38]. Epistaxis is <strong>on</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>est types <strong>of</strong> bleeding. Most bleeding can be arrested by primary compressi<strong>on</strong> using<br />
tamp<strong>on</strong>ades [26, 40]. In the case <strong>of</strong> persistent bleeding in the nasopharyngeal space, it is<br />
necessary to insert Bellocq packing or a ballo<strong>on</strong> catheter [15]. In the case <strong>of</strong> bleeding from the<br />
maxill<strong>of</strong>acial regi<strong>on</strong>, particularly the maxillary artery, an attempt can be made to arrest the<br />
bleeding by compressing the maxilla dorsocranially against the base <strong>of</strong> the skull (e.g., spatula<br />
head b<strong>and</strong>age, dental impressi<strong>on</strong> tray <strong>with</strong> extraoral brace) [2]. In the case <strong>of</strong> sagittal maxillary<br />
fractures, compressi<strong>on</strong> can be necessary, e.g., by a transverse wire suture from the molars <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
side to the molars <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>tralateral side [2, 37]. Reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> fixing <strong>of</strong> crani<strong>of</strong>acial fractures<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten represent the best causal treatment even for severe hemorrhages [15].<br />
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S<strong>of</strong>t tissue facial injuries<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries should be managed during the emergency surgery phase. GoR B<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Injuries to the facial s<strong>of</strong>t tissues occur either isolated in the form <strong>of</strong> abrasi<strong>on</strong>, gash, cuts, crush,<br />
<strong>and</strong> defect wounds or in severe trauma in combinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong> crani<strong>of</strong>acial fractures. Gash <strong>and</strong><br />
crush wounds are the comm<strong>on</strong>est facial s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries [43]. S<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries, particularly<br />
those <strong>with</strong> exposed cartilage <strong>and</strong>/or b<strong>on</strong>e surfaces, for example, should be managed at the<br />
earliest opportunity. Ideally, this can take place in the emergency room [20]. Rapid management<br />
<strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries also c<strong>on</strong>tributes towards achievement <strong>of</strong> improved esthetic <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
outcomes [5, 17, 27, 31, 41, 45].<br />
Appropriate hemostasis <strong>and</strong> cerebral decompressi<strong>on</strong> if there is intracranial pressure are the most<br />
important principles in the first hours after the trauma [24]. Crani<strong>of</strong>acial <strong>and</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries<br />
are managed in the sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase [42]. In the case <strong>of</strong> combined s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries <strong>with</strong><br />
crani<strong>of</strong>acial fractures, definitive s<strong>of</strong>t tissue management should be carried out after<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the b<strong>on</strong>y structures if possible (“from inside to outside”) [22]. Functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
structures such as eyelids, lips, the facial nerve, <strong>and</strong> the parotid gl<strong>and</strong> should be rec<strong>on</strong>structed<br />
during primary wound management [39]. Gently cleansing the wound <strong>and</strong> removing foreign<br />
bodies should be carried out before rec<strong>on</strong>structive graft work so that good esthetic <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
results can be achieved later [21]. Bigger rec<strong>on</strong>structive measures or microvascular<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s are generally undertaken in two steps [32].<br />
Tooth injuries, alveolar process fractures<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
The goal should be immediate management, if necessary rapid management <strong>of</strong><br />
the tooth-alveolar process trauma.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR B<br />
The treatment goal for tooth injuries <strong>and</strong> alveolar process fractures c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> restoring shape<br />
<strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong> (esthetics, occlusi<strong>on</strong>, articulati<strong>on</strong>, ph<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>). This entails attempting to salvage<br />
both the tooth structure <strong>and</strong> the alveolar process.<br />
The treatment depends <strong>on</strong> the general salvage worth <strong>and</strong> vitality <strong>of</strong> the teeth [1].<br />
The prognosis for preserving a tooth l<strong>on</strong>g-term after avulsi<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> the length <strong>of</strong> time <strong>and</strong><br />
storage <strong>of</strong> the tooth (e.g., cell culture medium/Dentosafe, cold milk, physiologic saline soluti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
oral cavity) until successful replantati<strong>on</strong> [9, 10]. The most favorable replantati<strong>on</strong> results can be<br />
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achieved <strong>with</strong>in the first 30 minutes [46]. Avulsed teeth, which have been preserved dry for<br />
several hours, have the most unfavorable prognosis although successful replantati<strong>on</strong>s have also<br />
been reported in individual case reports. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, a replantati<strong>on</strong> attempt after a l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
interval can also be justified in individual cases [13].<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> alveolar process fractures should also be undertaken at the earliest opportunity<br />
[6, 46].<br />
Acute treatment should be carried out <strong>with</strong>in a few hours for extrusi<strong>on</strong>, lateral dislocati<strong>on</strong> or<br />
avulsi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a tooth, an alveolar process fracture or a root fracture [1, 6]. Careful h<strong>and</strong>ling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
period<strong>on</strong>tal ligament <strong>and</strong> swift fixati<strong>on</strong> via splints or splint b<strong>and</strong>aging protect from infecti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> permanent tooth loss [9, 10, 48].<br />
Managing complicated crown fractures after 3 hours <strong>and</strong> uncomplicated crown fractures <strong>with</strong><br />
exposed dentine after 48 hours worsen the prognosis <strong>of</strong> vital teeth [6].<br />
M<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Depending <strong>on</strong> the overall injury severity, maxill<strong>of</strong>acial <strong>and</strong> m<strong>and</strong>ible fractures<br />
can be managed in the emergency surgery phase or sec<strong>on</strong>dary phase.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR 0<br />
The treatment goal c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>of</strong> restoring shape <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>. Particular value is placed <strong>on</strong><br />
restoring occlusi<strong>on</strong>, articulati<strong>on</strong>, joint functi<strong>on</strong>, esthetics, <strong>and</strong> motor <strong>and</strong>/or sensory nerve<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>. <strong>Treatment</strong> strategies, surgery techniques, <strong>and</strong> procedure are comparable <strong>with</strong> those for<br />
isolated fractures or combinati<strong>on</strong> fractures <strong>of</strong> the m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong>/or midface.<br />
Ideally, maxill<strong>of</strong>acial <strong>and</strong> m<strong>and</strong>ible fractures receive <strong>on</strong>e-step early primary management [7, 36].<br />
In maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures, early management <strong>with</strong> anatomic reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> fixati<strong>on</strong> led to a<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in edema formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> better rec<strong>on</strong>touring <strong>of</strong> the facial s<strong>of</strong>t tissues [12, 23, 34].<br />
However, the timing was very imprecisely stated by the authors <strong>with</strong> “immediately” or “<strong>with</strong>in<br />
the first few days”. Bos et al. [4] require surgical management <strong>of</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures <strong>with</strong><br />
open reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> fixati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in 48-72 hours in order to achieve a good esthetic <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
outcome <strong>and</strong> to avoid sec<strong>on</strong>dary correcti<strong>on</strong>s. Better reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> b<strong>on</strong>e fragments <strong>and</strong> faster<br />
healing <strong>and</strong> thus also more favorable esthetic results were observed in children <strong>with</strong><br />
maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures who were operated <strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in a week after trauma [19].<br />
With reference to a c<strong>on</strong>comitant traumatic brain injury (TBI), the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)<br />
provides valuable informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the prognosis <strong>of</strong> the injured pers<strong>on</strong>. However, this does not<br />
mean that patients <strong>with</strong> a low GCS have to be automatically excluded from management <strong>of</strong><br />
crani<strong>of</strong>acial fractures. Mans<strong>on</strong> [23] reports that patients <strong>with</strong> head injuries can undergo surgery<br />
<strong>with</strong>out increased complicati<strong>on</strong> rates provided that the intracranial pressure is kept below a value<br />
<strong>of</strong> 25 mmHg during the interventi<strong>on</strong>. In a retrospective study <strong>on</strong> 49 patients <strong>with</strong> m<strong>and</strong>ible<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures <strong>with</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al traumatic brain injury, Derdyn et al. [8] observed<br />
Emergency surgery phase – M<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> midface 414
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that patients <strong>with</strong> intracranial pressure below 15 mmHg after early surgical management (0-<br />
3 days after the accident) had comparable survival rates to comparis<strong>on</strong> groups after medium-term<br />
(4-7 days) or later (> 7 days) surgical management. There were no significant differences in<br />
postoperative complicati<strong>on</strong>s between the comparative patient collectives receiving early,<br />
medium-term, <strong>and</strong> late surgery. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, crani<strong>of</strong>acially-injured patients <strong>with</strong> low GCS,<br />
intracranial bleeding, <strong>and</strong> shift in median brain structures after lateral <strong>and</strong> multisystem trauma<br />
had a significantly worse prognosis.<br />
Due to improvements in functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> esthetic outcomes through the use <strong>of</strong> mini- <strong>and</strong><br />
microplates <strong>and</strong> by less invasive surgical techniques [14], early management <strong>with</strong>in 24-72 hours<br />
is becoming increasingly c<strong>on</strong>troversial.<br />
If higher priority is given to the general c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> or other injuries, then the definitive<br />
management <strong>of</strong> crani<strong>of</strong>acial injuries can be postp<strong>on</strong>ed by 7-10 days after the trauma event after<br />
management <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t tissue injuries <strong>and</strong> temporary stabilizati<strong>on</strong> (e.g., <strong>with</strong> splint b<strong>and</strong>aging, wire<br />
ligatures, splints) <strong>of</strong> fractures [7]. Ideally, s<strong>of</strong>t tissue management <strong>and</strong> temporary stabilizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
can take place in the emergency room [20].<br />
In a retrospective study <strong>with</strong> comparable groups <strong>on</strong> a total <strong>of</strong> 82 multiply injured patients <strong>with</strong><br />
m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong>/or maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures, Weider et al. [47] showed that delayed management<br />
(≥ 48 hours) did not lead to any extensi<strong>on</strong> in treatment time in the intensive care unit <strong>and</strong> in<br />
hospitalizati<strong>on</strong>. The infecti<strong>on</strong> rate was negligible <strong>and</strong> the complicati<strong>on</strong> rate comparable <strong>with</strong> that<br />
<strong>of</strong> patients who had been operated <strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in 48 hours. Schettler [35] did not observe any<br />
disadvantages in definitive management <strong>of</strong> maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures <strong>with</strong>in 14 days. Neither<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>s nor residual disorders in eye motility were observed to a greater extent compared to<br />
immediate treatment. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, after the initial severe edema subsided, the complicated<br />
rejoining <strong>of</strong> even the smallest b<strong>on</strong>e fragments was much easier to carry out. He regards the most<br />
favorable timing for definitive management as between the 5th <strong>and</strong> 10th day after the trauma.<br />
Kühne et al. [20] retrospectively analyzed a total <strong>of</strong> 78 patients <strong>with</strong> m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
maxill<strong>of</strong>acial fractures who received surgery in the emergency room. There was a comparatively<br />
identical postoperative complicati<strong>on</strong> rate am<strong>on</strong>g the patients who received early primary (<strong>with</strong>in<br />
72 hours) or delayed (after 72 hours) surgery. The group <strong>of</strong> patients who received delayed<br />
surgery had a markedly higher overall injury severity than those who received early primary<br />
management.<br />
Excepti<strong>on</strong>s for delayed management are n<strong>on</strong>-arrestable bleeding from fractures which require<br />
immediate reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> osteosynthesis, <strong>and</strong> intraorbital or intracranial damage to the optic<br />
nerve, which necessitates therapeutic acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong>in a few hours [7]. Retrobulbar hematomas,<br />
elevated eye pressure or direct compressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the optic nerve sec<strong>on</strong>dary to visi<strong>on</strong> deteriorati<strong>on</strong><br />
can necessitate the immediate introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a megadose <strong>of</strong> cortis<strong>on</strong>e treatment over 48 hours<br />
(30 mg Urbas<strong>on</strong>/kg BW i. v. as bolus <strong>and</strong> 5.4 mg Urbas<strong>on</strong>/kg BW hourly over the following 47<br />
hours) <strong>and</strong>/or immediate surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the optic nerve [7, 11, 30, 46].<br />
In injuries covering several disciplines, the appropriate specialist disciplines must be involved in<br />
the treatment planning <strong>and</strong> treatment [25]. Depending <strong>on</strong> the injury severity, the sequence <strong>of</strong><br />
measures to be taken should be established <strong>on</strong> an interdisciplinary basis [20, 25, 47].<br />
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18. Kirichenko MN, Mosunov AI, Br<strong>on</strong>nikov NM,<br />
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multiply injured patient. Int J Oral Maxill<strong>of</strong>ac Surg<br />
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30. Perry M, Moutray T: Advanced Trauma Life Support<br />
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resp<strong>on</strong>sive/unresp<strong>on</strong>sive patient. Int J Oral Maxill<strong>of</strong>ac<br />
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31. Robotti E, Forcht Dagi T, Ravegnani M, Bocchiotti G:<br />
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32. Rodriguez ED, Martin M, Blueb<strong>on</strong>d-Langner R,<br />
Khalifeh M, Singh N, Mans<strong>on</strong> PN: Microsurgical<br />
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defects: establishing the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> early<br />
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33. Sackett DL, Richards<strong>on</strong> WS, Rosenberg W, Haynes<br />
RB: Evidence-based medicine: How to practice <strong>and</strong><br />
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34. Sargent LA, Rogers GF: Nasoethmoid orbital<br />
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37. Schubert J: Wundlehre. In Schwenzer N, Ehrenfeld<br />
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what´s noteworthy. Lippincotts. Prim Care Pract 4(5):<br />
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41. Stranc MF, Harris<strong>on</strong> DH: Primary treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
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3.13 Neck<br />
Key recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Provided no intubati<strong>on</strong> or tracheotomy has been carried out beforeh<strong>and</strong>, all<br />
findings related to the airways must be examined <strong>and</strong> assessed before<br />
inducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> intubati<strong>on</strong> anesthesia.<br />
Intubati<strong>on</strong> aids <strong>and</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>iotomy set must be kept immediately available.<br />
Difficult airway algorithms must be heeded here.<br />
A c<strong>on</strong>iotomy carried out previously must be surgically closed; if necessary, a<br />
tracheotomy must be carried out.<br />
Penetrating trauma to the esophagus should undergo primary rec<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
treatment <strong>with</strong>in 24 hours.<br />
Explanati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR A<br />
GoR B<br />
If the upper airways are involved in a polytrauma, intubati<strong>on</strong> difficulties from swelling,<br />
displacement <strong>and</strong>/or secreti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> blood are to be expected.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> tracheal tears or avulsi<strong>on</strong>s or open tracheal injuries, surgical explorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>with</strong><br />
inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a tracheostoma or direct rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> is recommended [1]. The same applies to<br />
trauma in the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the larynx.<br />
There is c<strong>on</strong>troversy surrounding c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment <strong>of</strong> tracheal tears. C<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
treatment can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered for n<strong>on</strong>-gaping, short-segment lesi<strong>on</strong>s that can be bridged by the<br />
tube [3]. The majority <strong>of</strong> studies argue in favor <strong>of</strong> surgical rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> at the earliest<br />
opportunity via transcervical approach, thoracotomy or, as an excepti<strong>on</strong>, a transcervicaltranstracheal<br />
approach. The single-layer suture <strong>with</strong> absorbable material <strong>and</strong> single knot sutures<br />
is recommended [1, 2, 4–7]. The decisi<strong>on</strong> must be made <strong>on</strong> a case-by-case basis as to whether a<br />
tracheotomy in the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al sense, in other words an epithelized tracheostoma, or a puncture<br />
tracheotomy is used. On the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>, the exclusi<strong>on</strong> criteria for a puncture tracheotomy must be<br />
heeded <strong>and</strong>, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, the risk <strong>of</strong> iatrogenic injury to adjacent structures [5]. The fact<br />
that cannula replacement is simpler is a particular advantage <strong>of</strong> the epithelized tracheostoma. In<br />
laryngeal trauma, attempts should be made to effectuate early rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. There are no<br />
literature sources to be found which focus <strong>on</strong> a purely c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment <strong>of</strong> laryngeal trauma<br />
[1, 2, 4–7], particularly against the background <strong>of</strong> preventing stenoses <strong>and</strong> voice disorders. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to removing stenoses <strong>and</strong> covering cartilage defects, the inserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> indwelling<br />
laryngeal stents for several weeks is recommended in order to prevent stenoses, strictures, <strong>and</strong><br />
webbing [2, 4, 5].<br />
An elective tracheotomy should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered if ventilati<strong>on</strong> treatment is expected to c<strong>on</strong>tinue<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger. Historical studies have shown that, even after 48 hours, orotracheal intubati<strong>on</strong> can lead to<br />
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irreversible damage to the larynx <strong>and</strong> tracheal cartilage <strong>with</strong> blood pressure, tube materials, <strong>and</strong><br />
the use <strong>of</strong> vasoactive substances being important determinants. The main critical place is the<br />
cricoid cartilage; using modern cuffs (low-pressure high-volume), the risk <strong>of</strong> a tracheal stenosis<br />
can be lowered <strong>with</strong> simultaneous m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>of</strong> the cuff pressure. Early tracheotomy thus serves<br />
primarily to prevent cricoid cartilage stenosis.<br />
Damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve or the vagus nerve can be most easily detected by<br />
evaluating vocal cord mobility using a laryngoscope (direct <strong>and</strong> indirect) or stroboscope. There<br />
is no evidence in the literature for emergency surgical treatment for a suspected recurrent paresis<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> polytrauma. Here, the focus is <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firming airway stenosis possibly caused by<br />
posttraumatic vocal cord paralysis. No studies have been found <strong>on</strong> traumatically induced<br />
laryngeal paralysis. The c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s are based <strong>on</strong> postoperative pareses after struma surgery.<br />
Here, c<strong>on</strong>tradictory successes in surgical decompressi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s are reported. A<br />
noticeable improvement in the situati<strong>on</strong> for the patient cannot be deduced from the literature.<br />
Following <strong>on</strong> from the endoscopic functi<strong>on</strong>al diagnostic study (laryngoscopy/stroboscopy),<br />
imaging procedures such as computed tomography can provide evidence <strong>on</strong> the locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
damage [9, 10].<br />
As an alternative to surgery, c<strong>on</strong>servative treatment using antibiotic protecti<strong>on</strong> can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
for localized perforati<strong>on</strong>s lying in the cervical secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the esophagus [11]. According to case<br />
series, a direct suture <strong>of</strong> all layers <strong>with</strong>in the first 24 hours <strong>of</strong>fers the best prognosis for the<br />
clinical course [12, 13]. According to the literature, intrathoracic esophageal injuries should<br />
always undergo surgical treatment; no studies have been found which support c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
treatment. For esophageal perforati<strong>on</strong>s not accessible by direct suture, partial resecti<strong>on</strong>s, if<br />
necessary <strong>with</strong> interpositi<strong>on</strong> grafts, are recommended [12-18]; alternatively, an endoluminal<br />
b<strong>on</strong>d <strong>with</strong> fibrin adhesive can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered. With all these recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, it should be noted<br />
that no clinical studies have been found, <strong>on</strong>ly case series <strong>and</strong> individual reports.<br />
This should be carried out as surgical rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, if necessary <strong>with</strong> interpositi<strong>on</strong> grafts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
arterial vessels. However, injuries not occluding the lumen can also be treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively<br />
(e.g., dissecti<strong>on</strong>s). A rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> venous vessels must not be carried out/is not indicated.<br />
Angiography, computed tomography <strong>and</strong> duplex or Doppler ultras<strong>on</strong>ography represent the first<br />
line choice <strong>of</strong> examinati<strong>on</strong> procedures for injuries to the neck vessels [21]; this applies <strong>with</strong>out<br />
restricti<strong>on</strong> in z<strong>on</strong>es I <strong>and</strong> III according to Ro<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Christensen [23]. Surgical explorati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>ally recommended for z<strong>on</strong>e II. Although this is hotly debated in the literature, it is not in<br />
dispute that 100% <strong>of</strong> defects can be detected by this method <strong>and</strong> if necessary treated [21, 23].<br />
The largest clinically c<strong>on</strong>trolled study is by Weaver et al. [24] <strong>and</strong> comes to the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>of</strong> arterial vessels <strong>of</strong>fer the best outcome for penetrating injuries. The restorati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> arterial vessels must be carried out <strong>with</strong>in a timeframe <strong>of</strong> 120 minutes [20]. However, injuries<br />
not occluding the lumen can be treated c<strong>on</strong>servatively <strong>with</strong> success by duplex ultras<strong>on</strong>ography<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itoring [24].<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to a surgical interventi<strong>on</strong>, there is also the possibility <strong>of</strong> neuroradiologic endovascular<br />
treatment for pseudoaneurysms or fistulas [19]. No studies have been found that support<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> injured venous vessels [22].<br />
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References<br />
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Emergency surgery phase – Neck 420
S3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Guideline</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Treatment</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Patients</strong> <strong>with</strong> <strong>Severe</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Multiple</strong> Injuries<br />
Date published: 2002<br />
Date revised: July 2011<br />
Next revisi<strong>on</strong> planned for: December 2014<br />
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