Self-Concept and Self-Esteem in Adolescents - National Association ...

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 

in Adolescents 

By Maureen A. Manning 

Deena had repeated 6th grade 

and was in danger of failing 

9th grade. She was tall for 

her age and often bullied her younger, 

smaller classmates. The school counselor 

placed Deena in a self-esteem group 

and taught lessons from a popular selfesteem 

curriculum. 

When the counselor noticed Deena’s 

behavior becoming progressively worse, 

she consulted with the school psychologist, 

who suggested that the school support 

team review Deena’s academic and 

social needs to determine what skill 

deficits might be contributing to her 

behavior, rather than assuming that her 

self-esteem was the primary problem. 

Although Deena did not have a 

learning disability, she did struggle 

with reading. The team determined 

that Deena’s self-esteem was adequate 

but that her reading difficulties contributed 

to a low academic self-concept. 

They recommended that the 

reading specialist provide corrective 

reading strategies. Two months later, 

Deena was passing two of her four 

core classes and her discipline referrals 

had decreased by 40%. 

Maureen A. Manning is a school psychologist in Anne Arundel County (MD) Public Schools. 

Student Services is produced in collaboration with the National Association of School 

Psychologists (NASP). Articles and related handouts can be downloaded from www.naspcenter 

.org/principals. 

Student Services 

Instead of purchasing programs to enhance self-esteem, principals should focus 

on helping students develop their strengths in a supportive environment. 

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 

Teachers, administrators, and parents 

commonly voice concerns about students’ 

self-esteem. Its significance is often 

exaggerated to the extent that low selfesteem 

is viewed as the cause of all evil 

and high self-esteem as the cause of all 

good (Manning, Bear, & Minke, 2006). 

Promoting high self-concept is important 

because it relates to academic and life 

success, but before investing significant 

time, money, and effort on packaged 

programs, principals should understand 

why such endeavors have failed and what 

schools can do to effectively foster students’ 

self-esteem and self-concept. 

Although the terms self-concept and 

self-esteem are often used interchangeably, 

they represent different but related 

constructs. Self-concept refers to a 

student’s perceptions of competence or 

adequacy in academic and nonacademic 

(e.g., social, behavioral, and athletic) 

domains and is best represented by a 

profile of self-perceptions across domains. 

Self-esteem is a student’s overall 

evaluation of him- or herself, including 

feelings of general happiness and satisfaction 

(Harter, 1999). Schools are most 

likely to support students’ positive selfesteem 

by implementing strategies that 

promote their self-concept. 

Development of Self-Concept 

Students frequently display a decline in 

self-concept during elementary school 

and the transition to middle level. This 

decrease represents an adaptive reaction 

to the overly positive self-perceptions 

that are characteristic of childhood. 

Young children tend to overestimate 

their competence because they lack the 

cognitive maturity to critically evaluate 

their abilities and to integrate information 

from multiple sources. As students 

develop, they better understand how others 

view their skills and better distinguish 

between their efforts and abilities. As a 

result, their self-perceptions become increasingly 

accurate (Harter, 1999). 

As students transition from middle 

level to high school, their self-concept 

gradually grows. Increasing freedom 

allows adolescents greater opportunities 

to participate in activities in which 

they are competent, and increased perspective-taking 

abilities enable them to 

garner more support from others by behaving 

in more socially acceptable ways 

(Harter, 1999). 

Myths and Misunderstandings 

Many myths and misunderstandings 

about self-concept and self-esteem 

PL February 2007 11

Student Services 

persist despite a wealth of empirical evidence 

that “self-esteem per se is not the 

social panacea that many people once 

hoped it was” (Baumeister, Campbell, 

Krueger, & Vohs, 2003, p. 38). 

Self-concept and academic achievement. 

Self-concept is frequently positively 

correlated with academic performance, 

but it appears to be a consequence 

rather than a cause of high achievement 

(Baumeister et al., 2003). This suggests 

that increasing students’ academic skills 

is a more effective means to boost their 

self-concept than vice versa. 

Self-concept and aggression. Another 

popular assumption is that aggressive 

students have low self-concept and 

use aggression as a means of raising it. 

Substantial research contradicts this assumption, 

showing that many aggressive 

students express adequate, if not inflated, 

self-concept (Baumeister et al., 2003). 

12 PL February 2007 

Advertisement 

Self-concept, depression, and use 

of illegal substances. Low self-concept 

is often considered a defining 

characteristic of depression, but the 

evidence for this is weak. Similarly, 

although some evidence suggests that 

low self-concept may be a weak risk 

factor for smoking in girls, the relationship 

between self-concept and the 

use of alcohol and illegal drugs has 

little support (Baumeister et al., 2003). 

Baumeister et al. (2003) suggest 

that self-concept is “not a major predictor 

or cause of almost anything” 

(p. 37). Principals are advised not to 

focus on self-concept in hopes of preventing 

or remediating children’s academic 

or interpersonal problems but 

rather to focus on building students’ 

competencies and self-perceptions, 

which in turn will promote their selfconcept 

and, ultimately, self-esteem. 

Preventing Low Self-Concept 

Effective prevention targets the primary 

antecedents of self-worth, namely perceived 

success in areas in which students 

desire success and approval from significant 

others. Although these two factors 

are highly related, excesses in one area 

cannot compensate for deficits in the other 

because the effects are additive rather 

than compensatory (Harter, 1999). 

Promoting competence in domains 

of importance. To view themselves positively, 

students must feel competent in 

domains that they deem important. Two 

domains that educators greatly influence 

are academics and behavior. For students 

who highly value these two domains— 

most adolescents—steady messages of 

academic and behavioral incompetence 

(e.g., poor grades, retention, public reprimands, 

and suspension) are likely to 

result in low self-concept. 

Self-perceived physical appearance 

has the strongest relationship to overall 

self-esteem, whereas self-perceived athletic 

competence has the weakest relationship. 

Given adolescents’ tendency to 

base their perceptions of attractiveness 

on media figures, schools should help 

students understand that it is unrealistic 

and unhealthy to adopt such standards 

and should reinforce healthier values 

(Harter, 1999). 

Perceptions of competence in domains 

that are valued by significant others 

also contribute to overall self-esteem. 

Parents often value scholastic competence 

and behavioral conduct, whereas 

peers often value physical appearance, 

social competence, and athletic competence. 

Students may feel incompetent in 

domains valued by others without necessarily 

feeling bad about themselves: selfesteem 

may be protected if students feel 

competent in areas that they value and 

discount the importance of the domains

others value (Harter, 1999). Principals 

should consider the extent to which nonacademic 

areas of competence—technical, 

artistic/creative, and practical—receive 

recognition in their schools. 

Enhancing support from significant 

others. Support from parents and 

peers is particularly important to students’ 

self-concept. When students are 

young, parental approval is more predictive 

of self-concept than approval from 

peers. The influence of peers increases 

over the course of development, but the 

influence of parents does not decline. 

Students’ perception of the support they 

receive is even more important to selfconcept 

than the actual support given. 

School staff members can help parents 

and peers be more effective “supporters” 

by providing suggestions and 

opportunities for appropriate positive reinforcement, 

and they can help students 

learn to be more aware of the support 

they receive (Harter, 1999). Although the 

direct effects of teacher support on student 

self-concept remain unstudied, close 

relationships with teachers increase students’ 

academic and social skills (Hamre 

& Pianta, 2006) and may therefore indirectly 

enhance self-concept. 

Interventions 

The interventions for a student who 

is considered to have low self-concept 

should be based on an accurate assessment 

of the student’s deficits and targeted 

to the student’s individual needs. 

Packaged programs. Avoid packaged 

programs that promise to boost 

self-concept. They do not work. 

Assumptions. Do not assume that 

students with deficits or difficulties in 

academics, behavior, or other domains 

have low self-esteem, even if they are 

bullying others, receiving low grades, or 

showing symptoms of depression. 

Advertisement 

PL February 2007 13

Figure 1 

Reducing the Availability of Social Comparison Cues 

Area of Practice Method to Reduce Social Comparisons 

Grading and 

evaluation 

Grouping 

Tasks 

Assessments. Assess students’ selfconcept 

using theoretically sound, 

empirically validated instruments before 

investing time, money, and effort 

trying to correct deficits that may not 

exist. Use the results of the assessment 

to determine whether intervention is 

warranted and, if so, whether it should 

be directed toward the classroom, the 

student, the home, or a combination 

thereof. Trained school mental health 

professionals should conduct and interpret 

these assessments and work with 

the student support team to implement 

and evaluate interventions. 

Placement decisions. Ensure that 

special education teams do not make 

placement decisions on the basis of the 

presumed effects of a particular setting 

on self-concept. Although inclusive settings 

are often assumed to protect selfconcept 

by reducing the stigmatization 

associated with placement in a separate 

special education classroom, two recent 

meta-analyses fail to support this, at 

least for students with learning disabilities 

(Bear, Minke, & Manning, 2002; 

Elbaum, 2002). 

The two reviews also failed to support 

the opposite assumption, that 

inclusive settings may be more damaging 

to students’ self-concept because 

14 PL February 2007 

Make grades private, not public (e.g., do not post grades or “best work”). 

Allow students to improve grades by redoing work. 

Avoid grading that allows only a few students to achieve high grades (e.g., use of normal curve). 

Avoid use of ability groups for instruction. 

Make group membership flexible; allow for movement from one group to another. 

Provide individualized tasks at which all students can be successful. 

Reduce emphasis on competition against other students; emphasize improvement over the 

student's prior performance. 

of negative comparisons with higherachieving 

peers (Bear et al., 2002; Elbaum, 

2002). Students are most likely to 

experience enhanced self-concept when 

they are placed in an academic setting 

where they find the greatest success. 

Interventions. Interventions should 

be individualized but generally should 

involve building students’ skills in areas 

in which they have deficits. For example, 

students who express low academic 

self-concept and experience reading difficulties 

may benefit from interventions 

designed to build their literacy skills. 

Students do not have to experience 

success in every possible domain to 

develop adequate or high self-concept 

(Harter, 1999). They simply must experience 

success in a few domains that 

they value. 

Students may benefit from learning 

skills that not only increase their 

competence in areas of importance but 

also help them gain more support from 

others. Interventions that promote academic 

competence and better behavior 

will not only further core education 

objectives and school success but also 

can engender higher levels of parent 

support and consequently student selfconcept. 

It is important that schools 

also address domains that are valued by 

peers. Students who lack attributes in 

these domains may benefit from interventions 

that address these areas (Harter, 

1999), such as social skills training 

or nutrition and exercise programs. In 

some cases, it may be most effective to 

help students reevaluate the importance 

they attach to particular sources of support. 

For example, students may need to 

discount the importance of the support 

they lack from the popular crowd and 

focus on the support they receive from 

others. 

Sometimes students lack accurate 

perceptions of the skills or support 

they have. In such cases, students may 

benefit from therapeutic techniques 

that help them see that they are more 

competent or more supported than they 

believe. Research supports the effectiveness 

of cognitive-behavioral techniques 

for modifying children’s self-perceptions 

when used by properly trained 

individuals (Hattie, 1992). Principals 

should consult school psychologists and 

counselors trained in cognitive-behavioral 

interventions regarding the use of 

such techniques. 

Classroom interventions. Classroom 

interventions, such as peer tutoring 

and cooperative learning, may 

promote self-concept by increasing stu-

dents’ academic skills and perceptions 

of social support (Elbaum & Vaughn, 

2001). Teachers can use appropriate 

positive feedback to maintain positive 

self-concept (Manning et al., 2006). 

Praise, recognition, and encouragement 

are strong determinants of positive selfperceptions. 

Teachers can prevent or reduce feelings 

of low self-concept by reducing social 

comparison cues in the classroom. 

Helping students change the point of 

reference they use when judging their 

abilities may help them change their 

self-perceptions. Encouraging students 

to focus on how much they have improved 

over time instead of focusing on 

how their peers are doing is a simple 

way of avoiding negative self-perceptions 

and low motivation. (See figure 1.) 

Teachers also can promote self-concept 

by fostering supportive relationships 

among students. Students’ perceptions of 

their classroom as a caring community 

are positively related to their academic, 

social, and global self-concepts (Battistich, 

Solomon, Kim, Watson, & Schaps, 

1995). The relationship between sense of 

community and academic self-concept is 

particularly pronounced in high-poverty 

schools (Battistich et al.). Schoolwide 

interventions that develop students’ 

sense of belonging, eliminate bullying, 

and promote prosocial values and selfdiscipline 

can be effective. 

Conclusion 

Self-concept and self-esteem are among 

the most widely discussed but misunderstood 

constructs in education. 

The good news is that principals do 

not need to invest already-stretched 

resources in another program. In fact, 

most schools already address positive 

self-concept and self-esteem through 

their efforts to build students’ academic 

and social competencies and create environments 

in which students feel supported. 

The challenge is to reframe the 

understanding of self-concept so that 

adults are focusing on the right strategies 

to foster students’ sense of competence 

and self-worth. PL 

References 

� Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Kim, D., 

Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1995). Schools 

as communities, poverty levels of student 

populations, and students’ attitudes, 

motives, and performance: A multilevel 

analysis. American Educational Research 

Journal, 32, 627–658. 

� Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., 

Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does 

high self-esteem cause better performance, 

interpersonal success, happiness, 

or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science 

in the Public Interest, 4, 1–44. 

� Bear, G. G., Minke, K. M., & Manning, 

M. A. (2002). The self-concepts 

of students with learning disabilities: A 

meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 

31, 405–427. 

� Elbaum, B. (2002). The self-concept 

of students with learning disabilities: A 

meta-analysis of comparisons across different 

placements. Learning Disabilities 

Research and Practice, 17, 216–226. 

� Elbaum, B., & Vaughn, S. (2001). 

School-based interventions to enhance 

the self-concept of students with learning 

disabilities: A meta-analysis. Elementary 

School Journal, 101, 303–329. 

� Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2006). 

Student-teacher relationships. In G. G. 

Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children’s 

needs III: Development, prevention, and 

intervention (pp. 59–72). Washington, 

DC: National Association of School 

Psychologists. 

� Harter, S. (1999). The construction of 

the self: A developmental perspective. New 

York: Guilford Press. 

� Hattie, J. (1992). Self-concept. Hillsdale, 

NJ: Erlbaum. 

� Manning, M. A., Bear, G. G., & Minke, 

K. M. (2006). Self-concept and selfesteem. 

In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke 

(Eds.), Children’s needs III: Development, 

prevention, and intervention (pp. 341– 

356). Washington, DC: National Association 

of School Psychologists. 

Advertisement 

PL February 2007 15

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem in Adolescents - National Association ...

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?